,0° 



3, * o » ^6 



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<0* 



V * 







*S U M M A R Y 

OF 

GEOGRAPHY And HISTORY, 

. Both ANCIENT and MODERN ; 

CONTAINING, 

An Account of the Political State, and Principal Revolutions 
of the most Illustrious Nations in Ancient and Modern Times; 
their Manners and Customs ; the Local Situation of Cities ; 
especially of such as have been distinguished by Memorable 
Events ; 

with 

An Abridgment of the Fabulous History or Mythology 
of the Greeks. 

to which is prefixed, 

An Historical Account of the Progress and Improvements of Astronomy and 
Geography, from the earliest Periods to the Time -of Sir Isaac Newtqn : 
Also a brief Account of the Principles of the NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, 
occasionally compared with the Opinions of the Ancier>ts, concerning the General 
and Particular Properties of Matter; the Air, Heat and Cold, Light, and 

. its Effects; the Laws of Motion; the Planetary System, &c.—- With a 
short Description of the Component Parts of the .Terraqueous Globe, 
according to the Notions of the Ancients, and the more accurate Discoveries 
of Modern Chemists. 

Designed chiefly to connect the Study of Classic Ki^S^^t^. 
with that of General Knowledge,' 



By ALEXANDER ADAM, LL.D. 

RECTOR OF THE HIGH SCHOOL OF EDINBURGH. 



The FIFTH EDITION, Corrected. 

1 to which is added, 
A GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, containing the LATIN NAMES of 
the Principal Countries, Cities, Rivers, and Mountains, 
mentioned in the Greek and Roman Classics; 
With the Modern Names subjoined. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS. 



LONDON: 
o 

PRINTED FOR T. CADELL AND W. DAVIES ; G. W1LKIE ; J.NUNN; LONGMAN, HURST, 
REES, ORME, AND BROWN; LAW AND WHITTAKER ; LACKINGTON AND CO. ; 
W. GINGER; J. MAWMANJ BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY J AND J. WALKER; 
AND FOR A. CONSTABLE AND CO.; MANNERS AND MILLER ; J. 'FA IRQ A IRK ; 
AND W. BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH. 

1816, 



I, J.vndun. 



PREFACE. 



nHHE usefulness of Classical Learni?ig is universally 
JL acknowledged ; but it has been alleged, that the 
time requisite for acquiring it, prevents a sufficient at- 
tention from being paid to General Knowledge. The 
most effectual method, however, of prosecuting the 
study of both, seems to be to join them together. The 
classic authors, particularly the poets, cannot be tho- 
roughly understood, without a considerable acquaint- 
ance with those branches of science to which they 
often allude ; geography, history, philosophy, astro- 
nomy, and above all mythology. To connect, there- 
fore, the study of classical learning with that of gene- 
ral knowledge, is the design of the following Work* 

On a subject so immense, it was impossible to be mi- 
nute. The compiler has endeavoured to select such 
particulars as appeared most important; and it is hoped, 
that few things of consequence, which are requisite to 
illustrate the classics, will be found omitted. Through- 
out the whole work, he has borrowed with freedom 
from every author from whom he could derive inform- 
ation ; and where books failed him, he has had recourse 
to such persons as were best able to give him assist- 
ance. He owes, on this account, obligations to several 
gentlemen, particularly to one, for valuable communi- 
cations concerning Mathematics and Natural His- 
tory. The historical account of astronomy is extracted 
chiefly from the elegant work of the unfortunate 

a 2 



IV 



PREFACE. 



M. Batik/} the observations on Modern Italy, from 
Dr. Moore, and particularly from Mr. Swinburne, to 
whom every classical scholar is obliged for his accurate 
account of the South of Italy and of Sicily. In the 
account of the manners of the Germans, which is al- 
most entirely taken from Tacitus, he has availed him- 
self of the e legant translation of that author by Mr. 
Murphy ; the description of Modern Syria and Egypt 
is mostly copied from the travels of M. Volney and 
Savory; the geography of India, from the excellent 
Memoir of Major Rennell; the account of the trade to 
India and to the New World, of the manners of 
the Hindoos, and of the Native Inhabitants of America, 
f rom the admired works of Dr. Robertson. The an- 
cient history, geography, and mythology, have been 
Carefully collected from the Classics, whose very ex- 
pressions have, as nearly as possible, been faithfully 
transcribed, and the passages referred to correctly 
quoted. When the fact is curious or important, the 
([notations are more numerous. The greatest care has 
been taken to omit nothing which might serve to illus- 
trate any passage in a classic author; and in this part 
of the work in particular, the compiler has frequently 
had his labour repaid, by accidentally meeting with ex- 
planations or illustrations of many passages, which he 
never before understood. Tor a more ample account 
of several particulars in ancient mythology, on which 
he has been very short, he refers the reader to Lem- 
prierefs Classical Dictionary, to Natalis Comes, and 
other larger works on that subject; for a fuller de- 
scription of the antiquities of Greece, to the Travels of 
Anacharsis, by the Abbi &art)ielemi % and to Potter's 
Greek Antiquities i concerning ancient geography in 
general, to Cluvcrius, CeHariii$ t and D'Anviik* 

Thai the work might be included in one volume, it 
has been judged proper to print a great deal of import- 

ant matter in the manner of notc^; which, it is hoped, 

will be found no less accurately compiled than if then 



PREFACE. 



had been to appear in a more splendid form. The 
great object has been, to condense as much useful 
information as possible within moderate bounds. The 
compiler imagines, that in another volume a pretty 
accurate, though brief account, might be given of the 
most important facts in ancient and modern history, 
and of whatever is most curious in every country of 
the globe. A small abridgment, containing merely 
what is requisite for the learner to commit to memory, 
may perhaps by some be deemed necessary : if so, 
that object may be easily accomplished ; and if any 
number of teachers signify their desire, the compiler 
will execute it to the best of his ability. But with 
regard to the additional volume, it must be a work of 
time. And he now means, if the public approve of 
his present attempt, to direct his attention to another 
undertaking, in which he has already made consider- 
able progress, the compiling of a short but compre- 
hensive Latin and English Dictionary, upon a new 
plan. He was led to think of this, by his having 
found cause, in composing both the present work 
and the Roman Antiquities, to depart in many words 
from the interpretation given of them by Ainsworth, 
and in all the other Latin and English Dictionaries 
he has met with. He has a further inducement to 
prosecute this undertaking, that the researches to 
which it must naturally lead him, will afford the best 
means of improving both this and his former works. 

He again begs leave to entreat the encouragers of 
learning, that, if they discover any mistake, or can 
suggest any improvement, they will have the goodness 
to communicate it to him. He hopes the industry 
he has bestowed, and the evident intention of his 
labours, will dispose every one who wishes to pro- 
mote the improvement of youth, to favour him with 
advice and assistance. The testimonies of approba- 
tion he has received from several of the first literary 
characters in the kingdom, and the favourable recep- 
tion which the Roman Antiquities have met with from 



vi 



PREFACE. 



the public in general, have encouraged him to enlarge 
the plan of the present work, and to exert his utmost 
diligence in improving it, that he might at least shew 
how highly he values the honour they have done him. 
He will consider himself happy, if his efforts shall be 
thought to merit the continuance of their esteem. 

The editions of the Classics, which have been con- 
sulted in this work, are mostly the same with those 
mentioned in the Roman Antiquities ; Ca'sar in usum 
Delphini ; Pliny, by Brotier ; Quinctilian, and the 
writers on husbandry, by Gesner ; Quinttts CurthlS, 
by Pi ti sens ; Dion ij si us of Halica?viassus, by Reiske ; 
Diodorus Siculus, by WesseUngius ; Plutarch's Mo- 
rals, by Xylander ; Dio Cassias, by Reimarus ; Apol- 
lodorus, by Heyne ; Pausanias, by Kuhnius ; Strabo, 
who has most of all been consulted,) by Walters, 
where the divisions referred to are marked on the 
margin of the page; JEUan, by Perizonius ; Scrip- 
tores Mythographi La tin i, by Avgustinus van Sta- 
wren, &c. It is needless to mention the editions 
of Mich authors as are always divided in the same 
manner. 

Edinburgh, 
157/; Mai/ 17<M. 



CONTENTS 



i 

Page 



Figure and Motion of the EARTH, - i 
PLANETS, - 3 

Description of the Terrestrial Globe, - 5 

Manner of finding the Latitude and Longitude, 9 



Historical Account of the Progress and Improvements 
of ASTRONOMY and GEOGRAPHY to the time of 
Sir ISAAC NEWTON, - - 11 

Principles of the NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, 
occasionally compared with the Opinions of the An- 



cients, - - - - 35 

I. General Properties of MATTER, - ib. 

II. Particular Properties of MATTER, - 41 
Magnetism and Electricity, - - ib. 
Properties of the AIR, 42 
Heat and its Effects, - - 48 
Evaporation, 49 
Clouds, Rain, Springs, &c. 50 
Earthquakes and Volcanos, - - 52 
COLD and its Effects, - - 53 
Congelation, 54 
Winds, 55 

LIGHT and its Effects, 59 

MOTION and its Laws, - - 68 

First Principles of GEOMETRY, - 71 

The HEAVENLY BODIES, . - 76 

I. The Planets and their Satellites, - ib. 

II. The Fixed Stars, - - 87 
The Celestial Globe, - - 92 



contents. 



Page 



The TERRAQUEOUS GLOBE and its Component 

Parts, - - - - - 98 
GENUAL Division of BODIES on the Terraqueous 

Globe, - - - - - 101 

Inorganic Inanimate Bodies, 105 

[. Salts, ib. 

II. Earths. - - - - 107 

III. Inflammable Substances, - - 109 

IV. Metals, - - - - 1 1 1 
Waters, - - - - 116 

Explanation of Terms; Solution, Fusion, Distil- 
lation, &c. - - - - 120. 

General Divisions of the Terraqueous Globe, 123 

Chief EMPIRES which have existedin the World, 126 

Chief COMMERCIAL STATES in Ancient Times, ib. 

Different Forms of GOVERNMENT, - 129 

Different RELIGIONS, - - - 130 

EUROPE. 131 

Its Boundaries, Chief Seas, Straits, and Rivers, - 132 

Ancient and Modern Divisions of Europe, - 133 

ITALY. ib. 

Anc ient DiMsioNS of Italy, - 135 

IYbi.k Wats through Ancient Italy, - 183 

Modern Divisions of Italy, - - 185 

Histori of ITALY in Ancient Times, - ib. 
Foundation of ROME, and its Government by 

Kim.s, - - - - - 191 

History of the Rom an Repcrlic, - - 207 

ofthr Roman Emperors, - - 243 

of Modern Italy, - - 251 

of the CbU8ADK8 and thoir CONSEQUENCES, 253 

— ot tin K 1 nodom of Naples, - 255 

MCILV. 256 

1 1 istory of Sicily, - - - 273 

LlPARl Is] VNDS, - 275 

M U.TA, " 277 

Sardinia and Corsica, - 278 



CONTENTS. 



Page 



TURKEY in Europe, 278 
% GREECE, - ~ ~ 279 

Peloponnesus, - - ib. 

Olympic Games, - - ib. 

GRiECIA PROPRIA, - - - 287 
Description of ATHENS, - - 288 

Harbours of Athens, - 292 
Principal Gymnasia near Athens, - 293 

Division of the Inhabitants of Athens, - 296 
Country of ATTICA, and other Divisions of 

Grcecia Propria, - - - 300 

Epirus, - - - - -314 

Th ess alia, - - - - 319 

Macedonia, - - - 324 

Islands of Greece, - - - 330 

II. THRACE, - - - - 344 

III. ILLYRICUM, - - - -352 

IV. 1VLESIA and DACIA, - - - 353 

V. SARMATIA or SCYTHIA, - - 354 

FABULOUS HISTORY of GREECE, - 355 

I. of CRETE, - ib. 

Saturn, - ib. 

Jupiter, - - - - 357 

Sisters of Jupiter, - 359 

Children of Jupiter, - - - 361 

Brothers of Jupiter, - - 386 

II. Fabulous History of ARGOS and MYCEN^, 391 

III. of LACED/EMON, - 410 

IV. <J of CORINTH, Elis, and 

Arcadia, - + - -416 

V. ~ of ATTICA, - 417 

VI. - of BCEOTIA and JETOLIA, 426 

VII. of THESSALY, - 435 

Jason and the Argonauts, - - 439 

Achilles, - 445 

A j ax and Teucer, - - - 450 

Ulysses, - - - - - 451 

Other Leaders in the TrojaN War, - - 458 

General History of GREECE, - - 460 

a 



History Of the ROMAN EMPIRE in the East, or of 

the Greek Empire, - 
History of the Greek Empire, and of the Tcrks, 

SPAIN, 

Historical Account of Sfain, - - 

PORTUGAL, 
Historical Ad JOUJrr of Portugal, 

BRITAIN. 

Ancifnt Divisions of Britain. - - 
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons, 
Modern Divisions of England, 
History of ENGLAND, - - * - 

SCOTLAND, 

IRELAND, 

FRANCE, 

Ancient Divisions of France, - - - 

Man ners of the Ancient Gauls, 

Modern Divisions of France, - - 

SWITZERLAND, 
NET! fER LANDS, or LOW C COUNTRIES, 
The United Provi ncls, or Holland, 
The Netherlands, - 

GERMANY, 
M miners and Customs of the Ancient Germans, 
Modi. rn DIVISIONS of Germany, 

BOHEMIA, 
HUNGARY, 
POLAND, 
RUSSIA, 
s\\ EDENj 

NORWAY and LAPLAND. 

Denmark; 



CONTENTS. 



Page 



ASIA, 585 

Ancient Divisions of Asia, - - 586 

History of Ancient ASIA, - 597 

of the PERSIAN EMPIRE, - 600 

Manners and Customs of the PERSIANS, - 621 

Description of Babylon, - - 624 

Modern Divisions of ASIA, - - 627 

Manners and Customs of the TURKS, - ib. 

of the ARABS, - 633 

Present State of SYRIA, - - 630 

INDIA, 632 

History of the Ancient Invasions and of the Trade 

of INDIA, - 634 

Modern Revolutions of INDIA or INDOSTAN, 638 

Manners and Customs of the INDIANS or Hindoos, 646 

Description of the River Ganges, - 658 

of the Burrampooter, - - 661 

ISLANDS of ASIA, - - - 662 



AFRICA, 663 

Ancient Divisions of AFRICA, - - 664 
Geographical and Historical Account of Ancient 

Egypt, - ib. 

Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 667 

Modern Revolutions of Egypt, - - 67 1 

Different kinds of Inhabitants in Egypt, - 673 

Natural Curiosities in Egypt, - - ib. 

The NILE, - ib. 

Monuments of Antiouity in Egypt, - 67 c 

The PYRAMIDS, - - - 677 

Dominions of CARTHAGE, - - 678 

Historical Account of Carthage, - ib. 

Government and Customs of the Carthaginians, 679 

Modern Divisions of AFRICA, - - 683 



ISLANDS of AFRICA, 



684 



xii 



CONTENTS. 



Page 



AMERICA, 684 

Manners awl Customs of the Native Americans, 

684 — 695 

Discovery of AMERICA by COLUMBUS, - 688 
Diffi rent Opinions about the Manner in which America 

Was fi»( J'EOPLED, - 695 

ANIMALS of America, - - 696 

NORTH AMERICA, 697 

British Settlements in North America, - ib. 

United States of North America, - 698 

Spanish Settlements in North America, - 701 

Conquest of MEXICO by CORTES, - 702 

Manners and Customs of the Mexicans, - ib. 

SOUTH AMERICA, 710 

Conquest of PERU by Pizarro and Almagro, 713 

Manners and Customs of the Peruvians, - 714 

ISLANDS of AMERICA, 7 1 7 



SUMMARY 

OF 

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, 

BOTH ANCIENT AND MODERN, 



Of the Figure and* Motion of the Earth. 

GEOGRAPHY is a description of the earth. 
The figure of the earth is round. 
This might have always been known, from the shadow of the 
Earth in an eclipse of the moon ; but it was first completely as- 
certained by Magellan, a native of Portugal, in the service of 
Spain, who sailed round it. Magellan left Seville with five ves<? 
sels, 10th August 15 19. He himself was killed by the savages 
in Luconia or Manila, one of the Philippine islands ; but Jhis 
ship returned to Spain after a voyage of 1 124 days, or three 
years and twenty-,nine days. The next who sailed round the 
v/orld was Sir Francis Drake, anno 1577? in 1056 days; and the 
third, Sir Thomas Cavendish, anno 1586, in 777 days. 

The round figure of the earth may be also inferred from the 
appearance of objects at a distance, as we approach or lose sight 
of them, especially at sea # % from the observation of the stars 9 
especially of the polar star, which rises as we go north, and 
sinks as we go south \, and from the level necessary to be ob^? 
served in making a long canal, for conveying water from ^one 
place to another, which slopes about 8 inches in a mile, 4 times 
8 or 32 inches in two miles, 9 times 8 or 72 inches in 3 miles 
16 times 8 or 128 inches in 4 miles, and so on, always increase 
ing as the square of the distance. 

The roundness of the earth is occasioned by every thing on it 
being attracted to its centre, which is called gravitation or attract 
tion. Mountains bear 110 sensible proportion to the bulk of the 

* Eadem est causa (sc. rotunditas aquarum.) propter quam e na-vibus terra ncn cerv.aiur % 
e r.avium waits conspicua : ac procui resedente na~jigio. t si quid, quod fulgeat) religetur in 
Piati cacuminz, paulaiim descenders videalur, e postremq occultetur* Plin. H. 65? 

£ earth P 



2 Figtm and Motion of the Earth. 

nrthj DO more than a particle of du<;t to an artificial globe, and 
therefore are to be considered as trifling inequalities on its sur- 
face, Sitae* Nat. Qtuut* iv. 11. the highest of them not much 
ex< ceding three mites in perpendicular height. Plin. ii. 65. 

The earth has two motions; the one round the sun in the 
space of a year, which occasions the diversity of seasons ; and 
the other round its own axis, from west to east, in the space of 
24 hours, which produces day and night. This last motion 
makes it to be flat at the ends of the axis, and to swell out in 
the middle in the shape of an orange. We may form some idea 
of these two motions of the earth, by observing the motion of a 
ball on a billiard-table or bowling-green. 

The diurnal motion of the earth makes us imagine that the 
sun and stars, which are fixed, move round it. Hence we 
speak as if this were the case. Thus the sun is said to rise, to 
sety and to culminate, that is, to be in the meridian or at his 
greatest height. 

The ancients in general, as the vulgar do still, conceived 
the earth to be an extended plain, remaining at rest, while the 
sun and stars moved round it. {Terram solam esse immobilem circum 
rum volubili umversitate % Plin. ii 5. s. 4!) In allusion to which 
opinion, the poets, and sometimes prose writers, speak of the 
sun as plunging in the ocean, when he sets, Virgil. G. i. 438. 
ii. 481. ; JEn. i. 745. •, Flcrusy ii. 17. 2.5 and emerging from 
the ocean when he rises. They represent the parts of the tor- 
rid zone as more elevated than the rest, and therefore nearer to 
the sun, Horat. oil. i. 22. 21. •, or to the heavens, Lucan. ix. 
351.; Plin. ii. 78. j - . 80. ; so that, scorched by the excessive heat, 
they were rendered uninhabitable, Sallt/st. Jug. 19.; Ovid. 
Met. i. 49. On the same principle, the Greeks supposed Del- 
phi, the capital of Phocis, to be the centre of the surface of 
arth, {medium crbis vel umbilicus terra,) Liv. xxxviii. 48. ; 
Ovid, Met. x. 168.; xv. 630. To determine this matter, Ju- 
piter is said to have let fly two eagles at the same time, the one 
From the east and the other from the west, which met at Del- 
phi, Strahot i\. p. 419. ; or on the top of Parnassus, Claudian. d.- 
consulatu Tbfdori, prd. The Jews had a similar notion con- 
cerning Jerusalem, from Ezek, v. 5. , Psal. lxxiv. 12. 

Tin- fathers oi the Christian church in particular maintained 
th.it the earth was a plain, extending an immense way down- 
wards, and established on foundations, Lactant. iii. 24. ; Au- 
gustus deCiv. Dei. xvi. p.; an opinion, as they thought, favoured 
by Scripture, /'../. *xiv. :.; exxxvi. 6. Lactantius there- 
to!* ip«ikiol tho e who entertained contrary sentiments, as tup* 

porting the gioaseol absurdities, (frrtenta, mendada, &C.) ibid. 

13 But 



The Planets. 



But most of the learned believed the earth to be round, as its 
verv name (orjbis terra vel terrarum, globus vel sphara) indi- 
cates, Plin. ii. 64. & 65- Ovid describes it as a globe suspended 
in the air, and poised by its own weight, (ponderibus libratU 
suis,) Met. i. 12. and 35. Fast. yi. 26(j. the parts of which, as 
Cicero says, are kept together by being all drawn to the centre, 
(omnibus ejus partibus in medium vergentibus ; id autem medium 
infimum in sphara est,) de Nat. D. ii. 45.* ORBIS, however, 
is sometimes put for a part of the earth, thus, Europa atque Asia 
orbis, Virg. JEn. vii. 224.; Lucan. 3. 276.; ORBIS cret^:, Ovid. 
Met. viii. 100.; particularly for the Roman empire, or, as 
we say, the Roman world, Nep. xxv. 20. Ah orbe nostro, from 
our part of the world, Tacit. Germ. 2. I. f Toto divisos orbe Bri- 
tannos, i. e. from the continent, or from the Roman empire, 
Virg. Eel. i. 67. Hence Britain was called alter orbis, another 
world, Serv. in Virg. ibid. % as we call America the new world, 
artd the other three quarters, the old world. But the various 
opinions both of the ancients and moderns concerning the 
figure and motion of the earth shall be hereafter enumerated. 

Of the Planets. 

There are other bodies which move round the sun in the 
same manner with the earth. These are Mercury, Venus, 
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; and are called planets^ or wan- 
derers, from the apparent irregularity of their motion, which 
the ancients could not explain, Horat. Ep. i. 12. 17. There is 
another planet lately discovered, called the Georgium Sidus, 
the Georgian Star, or Planet. § 

The path which a planet describes in moving round the sun, 
is called its orbit, which is not exactly circular, but in the 
|brm of what is termed an ellipse, an oval figure, longer than it 
is broad. The earth and the other planets are retained in their 
orbits, by being always attracted towards the sun as their centre, 
arid having a constant inclination to fly off from him. These 
two powers are called the centripetal and centrifugal force. Mer- 
cury and Venus move nearer the sun than the earth and are , 

* So Lucati A'ere libratum •vacuo qua sustinet orbtm 

Totius pars magna "Jovis. V. 94. 
f So, In alium orbem, i. e. in aliam partem orbis, sc. in Epirum et Macedonia™, 
Lucan. v. 338. 

$ Paruit et nostra diducta Britannia mundo> Claudian. de Consul. Fl. Mall. Theodor. 5 1 . 

§ This planet was first discovered by Dr. Hersche! in the year 1781.— —Another 
planet was discovered on the 1st of January 1801, by M. Piazzi, an astronomer at Pa- 
lermo in Sicily, who called it Femandea in honour of Ferdinand the King of that island. 

It fcalso called Ceres or Ceres Ferdinandea. -Another planet has been discovered by 

Dr. Olbers of Hamburgh, and named Pallas. The orbits of both these planets are 
between those of Mars and Jupiter. 

B 2 there- 



i 



i 



J > Plancls % and Cornels. 



therefore called inferior, interior^ or inner planets : the other 
planets are called superior, exterior, ox outer planets, because they 
move at a greater distance from the sun j or, as it is expressed, 
without the orbit of the earth. 

Jupiter and Saturn have other bodies, which move round 
them as the moon does round the earth, which are therefore 
called their Satellites, moons, or secondary planets to the pri- 
mary. Jupiter has four, and Saturn seven. Saturn is also sur- 
rounded by a thin, broad, opaque circle, called his ring. The 
Gurgium Sidus has six satellites. * 

All these bodies are warmed and enlightened by the sun ; and 
therefore, in conjunction with him, are called the solar system. 
Their magnitude, their distance from one another, and the ve- 
locity of their motion, are almost beyond our conception, af 
may be seen from the following table. 



Planets, 


Diametf 
Knglish 


Distance 
from the 
sun. 


Annual pe 
riods round 
the sun. 


Diurnal 
rotation 
on ks 


Hourly r 
in its 


Hoi'ily 1 
ul its ccji 




3. 8 


axis. 


-< 3 
cr 


g § 




5" 3* 








lion 


~. 

9 s 








y. d. h. 


d. b. m. 






Sun 


90,000 






25 14 O 




3.318 


Mercury 


3.245 


36,841,468 


87 23 


unknown 


109,699 


unknown 


Venus 


7,743 


68,891,486 
95,173,000 


O 224 17 


23 22 


80,295 


1,043 


Earth 


7,94a 


I O O 


23 16 


68,243 


1,042 
9i 


Moon 


a, 162 


ditto 


IOO 


29 12 4-j 


22.290 


Mars 


4,220 


145,014.148 


I 321 17 


1 40 


55,^7 




Jupiter 


89,800 


494.990.976 


II 315 *4 


9 56 


29,083 


25,920 


Saturn 


78,000 


907,956,130,29 174 2 


10 16 


22.IOI 


22.4CO 



The proportional bulk of the sun compared with the earth, 
is 877,650 i of Jupiter 1,049 ; of Satutn 586, &c. 

There are likewise other bodies which move round the sun, 
in very long elliptic curves. These are called Comets, or po- 
pularly blazing stars, suddenly appearing and again disappear- 
ing ; distinguished from other stars by a long train or trail of 
light, always opposite to the sun. When the sun and the co- 
ir,. t arc diametrically opposite, the earth being between them, 
this train is hid behind the body of the comet, excepting a 
little that appears around it in the form of a border of hair; 

• Dr. 1 kr.thclat first observed only two satellites; but has vince discovered four other 
uteUiies nf the Ccorfian Planet. He has likewise remained, from the flattening of 
1 • '. 1, that It tun^ round on its axis hke the other planets with a considerable degree 
1 ity ; and tiut u heanoring like that of Saturn as he had suspected. See 
rbiloffbital Tun^ntunt of lie Royal Sotitty for the y tar IJ^Z, Part I. 

1 o when IX* 



The Terrestrial Globe. 



« 
.3 



whence the Romans called comets crjnitje, sc. stella, Plm. 
ii. 25. s. 22. or ciNCiNNATiE, Cic. de Nat. D. ii. 5. Aristotle 
imagined comets to be only meteors, generated in the upper 
regions of the atmosphere ; but others, particularly Seneca, 
thought them to be real stars, Nat. Quast. vii. 2. & 22. They 
were supposed to portend some signal calamity to nations, Cic. 
tb. * Lucan. 1. 529.; TibullT^^.^fTT^^rtne corusco regnorum 
tversor rubuit leihale cometes, Sil. 8. 638. ; hence called diri, 
Virg. G. I. 488.; SANGUINEI, JEn. X. 272. 

The fixed stars are so called, because they always keep the 
same place with. regard to one another. They have a twinkling 
appearance, and thus are distinguished from the planets, which 
shine with a steady light. 

The fixed stars, being at too great a distance from the sun 
to be affected by his rays, are supposed to shine by their own 
brightness ; and each of them to enlighten other systems ; an 
opinion entertained by some of the ancients; Plutarch, de Qrac* 
defeciu, 42.; de placii. Phil. 1. 5.; ii. 13. Lucrei. ii. 1069—* 
1080. v. 529. 1348. f which gives the grandest idea of the per- 
fections and works of the Supreme Being. 

Of the Terrestrial Globe. 

The earth is represented by an artificial globe, supported by 
a frame, on which are marked various lines and circles. The 
circumference of the globe, as of every other circle, is divided 
into 360 parts, called degrees, each of which is supposed 
equal to 60 miles. A straight line passing through the centre 
of the globe to any two points of its surface, is called its 
diameter. The wire on which the globe turns, is called its 
axis. The ends of the axis are called the poles ; the one 
called the north or arctic pole, because it always points to a star 
in the constellation Arctos, or the Bear; and the other, the south 
or antarctic pole. 

Equator.] The line which goes round the globe at an 
equal distance from the poles, is called the equator, and divides 
it into two parts or hemispheres, the northern and southern 
hemisphere. It is likewise called the equinoctial line, or, by way 
of eminence, the Line,, because when the sun appears to move 
over it, the days and nights all over the earth are of an equal 
length. This happens twice a-year, about the 21st March, 

* Cometes, terrificum sidus, ac non lemiter piatuxt, ut ciuili motu Octavio consule^ 
iierumque Pompeii et C<esaris hello, &c. Plin. ii. 25. s„ 23. Stella crinita, qua summis 
potestatibus exitium pot tender e vulgo putatur y Suet. Ner. 36. 
_ f (Qui innumerakiles tradidere mundos,) who taught a plurality or innumerable mul- 
titude of worlds, Plin. ii. 1. and that this earth is only a point in the universe, 
{Mundi punctusi neque enitn est aliud terra in universe, ib. 68.) 

B 3 which 



6 



The Ecliptic, Tropics^ and Climates. 



•which is therefore called the vernal equinox; and about the 
23d September, called the autumnal equinox. 

The lines which are marked round the globe in the same di- 
rection with the equator, are called parallels of latitude. 
The chief of these are the two tropics and the two polar circles. 

Meridian.] The brass ring which cuts the equator straight 
over, is called the meridian, and divides the globe into the east- 
ern and western hemispheres. This circle measures the height 
of the sun at mid-day. The circles marked in the same direction 
with the meridian are called meridional lines. Of these circles 
there are commonly marked 1 2, or 24 semicircles, at 15 degrees 
distance from each other; because the sun is supposed to go 15 
degrees in an hour, or because a place at the distance of 15 
degrees eastward of us has the sun, or mid-day, an hour sooner; 
a place at the distance of 30 degrees, two hours sooner, &c. ; 
and so on the contrary, Man, I. i 639, &c. 

Ecliptic] The line which crosses the equator obliquely, is 
called the ecliptic, and marksthe path of the sun. It passes through 
the middle of a broad circle or belt in the heavens, which is 
called the Zodiac, because the constellations, or clusters of stars, 
through which the sun passes at the different seasons of the year, 
were supposed by the ancients to resemble certain animals. 
r l he names of these constellations, with their marks, are, 1. 
Aries <v ; 2. Taurus « ; 3. Gemini u ; 4. Cancer z? ; 5. Leo 
Si ; 6. Virgo 1%; 7. Libra ~ ; 8. Scorpio rrj ; 9. Sagittarius/; 
10. Capricorn Vj ; 11. Aquarius ~; 12. Pisces x. 

The sun enters Aries about the 21st of March, and so on 
through the rest. 

The ecliptic has its name, because it declines so far north and 
south of the equator, namely 23} degrees. This obliquity of 
the ecliptic, and the axis of the earth being always directed the 
same way, or as it is expressed, continuing always parallel to 
itself, occasions the diversity of seasons, and the difterent length 
of the days and nights in the different parts of the earth. 

Tropics.] The parallels which mark how far the sun goes 
north or south of the equator, are called Tropics, because when 
the sun arrives at either of them, he turns h ick to the other. 
That on the north is called the tropic of Cancer, and that on the 
south the tropic of Capricorn. The sun arrives at the tropic of 
Cancer on the 21st June, which is called by us the summer 
tolsticti when those who live north of this tropic have the long- 
est day and shortest night, and those south of the equator, the 
contrary. The sun arrives at the tropic of Capricorn on the 
21st December, which is our -winter solstice. 

The length of the dayat the equator is always 1 2hours. From 
thence the length of the longest day gradually increases to 24 

hours. 



The Horizon, Latitude, and Longitude, 7 

hours. The lines which mark the places where the sun is 
visible for 24 hours, are called polar circles ; the one the north or 
arctic polar circle, the other the south or antarctic circle ; each of 
them 23 1 degrees from the poles. 

Climates.] That space comprehended between two supposed 
parallels, where the length of the longest day in the one exceeds 
that in the other half an hour, is called a climate. There are 
24 climates between the equator and the polar circles; and only 
6 between the polar circles and the poles, the climates there be- 
ing computed by months. — Exactly at the poles the sun is 

visible for one half year together, and not visible the other. He 
becomes visible at the north pole about the 21st of March, at 
mid-day, and continues so till about the 23d of September. The 
south pole in like manner enjoys the sight of him for the other 
six months. 

Horizon.] The wooden circle which surrounds the globe is 
called the horizon, because it represents that line which termi- 
nates our view. It divides the globe into the upper and lower 
hemispheres. The upper is supposed to be enlightened by the 
sun, the other not. The point in the heavens directly over our 
heads is called by an Arabic word, the zenith •, and that dia- 
metrically opposite below, the nadir. 

The horizon is commonly distinguished into sensible and ra- 
tional or real. The sensible is the circular line which limits our 
view ; the rational or real, is that which would bound it, if we 
could see at once the one half of the globe ; but when both 
these a*re supposed to be extended to the heavens the difference 
between them is trifling, and therefore this distinction is justly 
neglected by astronomers, who always understand by the hori- 
zon, (finiens, Cic. divin. ii. 44. vel finitor, Senec. Nat. Q. 
v. 17. finitor ciRCULUS, Lucan. ix. 496.) that circle which 
separates the visible hemisphere of the heavens from that which 
is not visible, and which to us is continually changing. It is 
the rational horizon which is represented by the broad wooden 
circle on the terrestrial globe. 

On the horizon are marked the si(5Ns, as they are called, or 
the constellations of the zodiac ; and opposite to them the 
months and days of the year which answer to them. On the 
ecliptic are correspondent marks, by which the sun's place at 
any time of the year, and the length of the day and night in 

any part of the earth, may be found. But this, with the 

use of the horary circle, quadrant of altitude, £sV. and other geo- 
graphical problems, as they are called, can best be shewn on 
the globe itself. 

Latitude.] The distance of any place, north or south from 
the equator to either of the poles, is called latitude. It never 

B 4 exceeds 



The Zautfs. 



exceeds 90 degrees; and these are marked on the brazen meri- 
dian. Al! places under the same parallel are in the 3ame decree 
of latitude, and have the same seasons and the t>anie bngth of 
days and nights. 

Longitude.] The distance of any place from another east 
or west, is called longitude, and is marked on the equator. It 
never exceeds 180 degrees, which is half the circumference of 
the globe ; because if a place be more than that east of us, we 
compute westwards. — Those under the same meridian have 
the same longitude, and mid-day at the same time. The extent 
of a degree of longitude gradually diminishes as we advance from 
the equator to the poles. 

In computing longitude, geographers formerly used to be;:::i 
at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, which they called the first 
iiieridian> but now they commonly begin at the capital of their 
own country. 

Several commercial states have proposed considerable rewards 
for the discovery of a certain method of computing the longitude 
at sea, which has not yet been discovered. 

Zones.] The earth is divided into five zones cr belts, V:.-g. 
(J.i. 233- JEn. vii. 226. ; Ovid. Met. i. 45. The space round 
the globe between the two tropics is called the torrid zone, 47° 
broad, which, on account of its heat, was, by most of the an- 
cients, thought to be uninhabitable, Ovid, 10. 49. ; Lucan. ix. 
605. j between the tropics and the polar circles, the two tem- 
perate zones, each 43° broad ; and between the polar circles and 
the poles, the tyt o frigid zcnes t each 23 k° broad. 

Those who inhabit the torrid zone, are called by a Greek 
word x\mphiscii, because at mid-day their shadow points either 
north or south, according to the place of the sun. When the 
sun at mid-day is vertical to them, they are called Ascn, because 
they have no shadow at all ; (loca ASCI A, Plin. ii. 73. s. 75.) 

Those who inhabit the other pans of the earth are called I [e» 
¥£RQ8CHj because at mid-day their shadow always points one 
way north or south. Those within the polar circles, to whom, 
at a certain season of the year, the sun never sets, are called 
Peiiisch, because their shadow points every way round. 

Those who live under the same meridian, but in opposite pa- 
rallels, are called AnTjECI j those who live in the same parallel 
but under opposite meridians, are called PERLBCli and those who 
live under opposite parallels and opposite meridians, are called 
. \ i i PODES, Cir. Sown. ISctp. 6. ; Acad- 4. 39. ; Sernw Ep. 122. 
Ail those distinctions between the inhabitants of the earth with 
respect to their shadow, (<rxi«, umbra) and habitation, ^otxo^ 
USi vcl gixijo-j;, habitation) were known to the ancient geo- 
graphers. Tliny mines, only the As6i l but mentions one place 



The Zones, 



■j 



in India, where the shadows at noon in summer pointed to the 
south, and in winter to the north * 3 and another place, where 
the sun appeared to rise on their right hand, and the shadows 
fell towards the south, PUnAi. 73. s. 75, Thus Lucan speaks 
of Arabians in the army of Pompey, who wondered that their 
shadows never moved to the left, [umbras miraii neiaorum non 
ire sinistra* ; ) hi. 248. and of a nation in Lybia, (Cui in Notofi 
umbra cadit, qua nobis exit in Arcton,) ix. 542. So Pliny, vi. 22. 
Strabo recounts from Posidonius and others, the Amphiscii, 
Heteroscii, and Periscii ; but the last, he thought, did not per- 
tain to geography, as the places within the polar circles were 
uninhabitable on account of the cold; ii. sub. fin. Achilles 
Tatius, a mathematician of Alexandria, in his introduction to 
Aratus, having enumerated all these, adds the Ascii, i. e. those 
who have no shadow. Brachyscii, i. e. those who have short 
shadows, Macroscii, having long shadows, and Antiscii, having 
their shadows opposite to one another, as those in the north 
and south of the tropics, £.31. To the Antteci, Periaci, and 
Antipodes, he adds the Synaci, who live in the neighbourhood 
of one another ; c. 30. So Cleomed. i. The Periaci are called 
by Cicero Obliqui s the Anted, Aver si ; and the Antipodes > 
Adversi ; Somn. Scip. 6. 

When the poles coincide with the horizon, it is called a 
right sphere ; when they are in the zenith, and nadir, a 
parallel sphere ; when the globe is in any other position, 

an OBLIQUE SPHERE. 

The Manner of finding the Latitude and Longitude of Places* 
The latitude of a place is found by bringing it to the brazen 
meridian, and observing what degree is marked over it. All 
places which pass under the same point of the meridian, in 
turning round the globe, have the same latitude, the same 
length of day, and the same seasons. The longitude will be 
found marked on the equator, where the meridian of the place 
crosses it and ail the places which come under the same me- 
ridian, will have noon and midnight, and all the other hours 
of the day and night, at the same time. When any place is 
brought under the brazen meridian, and it is supposed to be 
noon at that place, all places 15 degrees east of it will have 
1 o'clock afternoon, and 15 degrees west 11 o'clock forenoon : 
30 east 2 o'clock afternoon, 30 west 10 o'clock forenoon, and 
so on round the globe. Thus the hour is easily found in any 
part of the earth. 

If a person sail round the earth eastward, he will gain a day y 
that is, when he returns to the place he has left, he will reckon 
the second day of any month, when the people of the place 
reckon the first. On the contrary, if he sail west he will lose 

a day. 



10 



The Latitude and Longitude. 



a day. Thus some of our navigators found Europeans keeping 
Sunday in certain islands, to which the first inhabitants of those 
islands had sailed eastwards, while the inhabitants of other 
islands at no great distance, to which they had sailed west- 
wards, reckoned the same day Saturday. Dampier*s Voyages. 

The longitude is commonly marked eastward from the first 
meridian, round the whole globe; but it is usually reckoned one 
half eastward and the other half westward ; hence on most globes 
it is marked both ways, the one number above the other. 

The bearing or situation of places with respect to one another, 
is determined by a kind of spiral lines, called rhomb or rhumbYmes, 
marked on the globe, and passing from one place to another, so 
as to make equal angles with all the meridians they cut. 

The terrestrial globe is said to be rectified, when it is placed 
in the same position in which our earth stands with respect to 
the sun. This is always varying according to the different de- 
clination of the sun, or his distance north or south from the 
equator, which on some globes is so marked on the brazen me- 
ridian, on each side of the north pole, that by bringing that 
part of the graduated side of the meridian, on which the day 
is marked, to coincide with the broad paper circle, which re- 
presents the horizon, the globe will be rectified, or in the posi- 
tion required. If there are no such marks, find the day of the 
month on which the position of the globe is required on the 
broad paper circle; then find the same day, or, in other words, 
the sun's place in the ecliptic, and bring it to the graduated side 
of the meridian ; and raise the north or south pole according 
to the latitude of the sun's place for that day, so that the point 
of the meridian which coincides with the sun's place may be in 
the zenith, then the globe is rectified^ or in the position required. 
Thus we may see at one view what places of the earth see the 
sun, and how long ; the places which, in turning round the 
globe, do not rise above the broad p.iper circle, or the horizon, 
never see the sun, and those which do not sink under it never 
los? sight of the sun : the height of the sun to each place at 
mid-day is exactly according to the height or" that point of th e 
meridian, under which it passes in turning round the globe. 
If we bring the place at which we are to the graduated side of 
the meridian, and suppose it mid-day at that place, the part ex- 
actly under that point of the meridian over which the sun passes 
for that day, will then have the sun vertical to it, ami all the 
other parts under the meridian will then have noon, and the 
sun will appear either north or south, higher or lower, accord- 
in- to their respective latitudes; .ill the places on the west side 
of the broad paper circle or horizon will have the sun rising, 
and on the east, setting ; places 18 degrees below the western 

semicircle 



The Latitude and Longitude. 



ii 



semicircle of the horizon will have the twilight and the morning 
just beginning, and 18 degrees under the eastern semicircle the 
twilight just ending, and total darkness beginning. 

The length of the day at any place is found by bringing that 
place to the west side of the horizon, and then turning the globe 
till it reach the east side, and marking the hours on the hour 
index or horary circle, or by counting the meridional lines 
between one side of the horizon to the other. 

The terrestrial globe is used for solving various other pro- 
blems, as they are called, the most useful of which may be un~ 
t derstood from what has been said, and for the rest the learner 
is referred to larger works on the subject. 

Historical Account of the Progress and Improvements 
of Astronomy and Geography, 

THE motion of the heavenlybodies has in all ages and nations 
attracted the attention of mankind. Astronomy is said to 
have been first cultivated by the Chaldseans, the Phenicians, and 
Egyptians. From them the Greeks derived their first know- 
ledge of this science, as of various other things. Herodot. Eu- 
terp. 32. To astronomy is ascribed the origin of several fables 
in their mythology, as of Prometheus, Phaeton, Sec. 

The first of the Greeks who laid the foundations of astro- 
nomy was THALES, born at Miletus in Asia Minor, b. C. 641, 
who explained the cause of eclipses and predicted one, Herodot, 
1. 7. ; Plin. ii. 12. s. 9. ; Plutarch, de placit. phil. ii. 24. He 
taught that the earth was round, and divided it into five zones ; 
he discovered the solstices and equinoxes, and divided the year 
into 365 days. Having travelled into Egypt in quest of know- 
ledge he measured the height of the pyramids from their sha- 
dow, D. Laert. i. 27. He looked upon water as the principle 
of all things, Cic. Acad. iv. 37.; Nat. D. i. 10. From him that 
sect of philosophers called the Ionic, derived its origin. 

The opinions of Thales were maintained and propagated by 
his scholar Anaximander, born b. C. 610, who is said to have 
invented maps and dials, and also to have constructed a sphere; 
D. Laert. ii. 1.; Plin. vii. 56. He taught, that the sun was 
a circle of fire, like a wheel, 28 times bigger than the earth. 
Plutarch, pi. phil. ii. 20. 

Anaximines was the scholar of Anaximander, born b. C 
554. He taught that air is the origin of all things, Cic. Acad* 
& 57. > Nat. D. i. 10. He supposed the earth to be a plain, 

and 



12 



History of Astronomy. 



and the heavens a solid concave sphere, with the stars fixed to 
it like nails, Plutarch, plant, phil. ii. 14. This seems to have 
been the vulgar opinion at that time ; whence the Greek pro- 
verb, Ti e< dgoivog e[X7TE<roi ; What if the heavens should fall ? Quid 
si ccelum ruat ? Ter. Hcaut. iv. 3. 41. to which Horace alludes, 
Od. iii. 3. 7. * 

Anaxagoras of Clazomene was the scholar and successor of 
Anaximenes, born b. C. 500. In his doctrines we find import- 
ant truths, mixed with absurdities. He taught that the world 
was made by a being of infinite power, Cic. Nat.D. i. 11.; that 
mind was the origin of motion ; that the upper regions, which 
he called ather, were filled with fire that the rapid revolution 
ttf this cether had raised large masses of stones from the earth, 
which being inflamed had formed the stars; that the stars were 
kept in their place and prevented from falling by the velocity 
of their motion, Plutarch, plac. phil. ii. 13. Pliny relates that 
a stone was shewn in his time which had fallen from the sun in 
the days of Anaxagorus, ii. 58. 

This philosopher said, that the sun was a mass of fire, larger 
than Peloponnesus of red hot iron, according to Diogenes 
Laertius, ii. 8. ; of stone, according to Plutarch, ibid. ii. 20. ; 
that comets were composed of an assemblage of planets ; that 
winds were produced by the air being rarefied by the sun; thun- 
der and lightning from a collision of the clouds ; earthquakes, 
by subterraneous air forcing its passage upwards; that the moon 
was inhabited, &c. Anaxagorus transported his school from 
Miletus to Athens, which thenceforth became the seat of phi- 
losophy. 

After teaching there for thirty years, he was prosecuted for 
his philosophic?! opinions, particularly for teaching the exist- 
ence of one God. When sentence of death was pronounced 
on him, he said, // is long since nature has condemned me to 
thdt. Pericles, his scholar, defended him, and saved his life. 
He was only banished. When in prison, he is said to have 
been the first who attempted to square the circle, i. e. to deter- 
mine exactly the proportion of its diameter to its circumference ; 
(rrjv to xux\n TSTgciyouKrfJLOv syga'^/Ey Plutarch.) He died at 
Lampsacus, Cic. Tusc. i. 43. Archelaus, his scholar, was the 
master of Socrates, Id. v. 4. 

PYTHAGORAS was another of the scholars of Thalcs, or 
rather ul Phekecydes ; Cic, Tusc. i. 16. and the place of his 
birth is uncertain ; but having settled in the island Samos, he 
is commonly reckoned a native of that place. He travelled in 
quest of knowledge through Phoenicia, Chaldcva, India, and 

■ Anaximenes is said to have fust shewn .1 sun-dial (h"iologium sciotbericon) at Lace* 

dxmon, Ptin. ii. 76. %. 78. 

Egypt. 



History of Astronomy. 



13 



Egypt. Meeting with small encouragement on his return 
to Samos, he passed over into Italy, about the time of Tarquin 
the Proud, and opened a school at Croto or Croton, a city on 
the gulph of Tarentum, where he had a number of students, and 
gained great reputation. His scholars were obliged to listen in 
silence at least for two years, and if talkative, longer, some- 
times for five years, before they were allowed to ask him any 
questions ; during which time they were named pa§r}(x.ocTixQi, 
because tl>ey were set to study geometry, dialling, (gnomonica,) 
music, and the other higher sciences, (discipline aitiores,) called 
by the ancient Greeks p^jw^ta. Geix. i. 9. But the name 
of mathematici was commonly applied to those who predicted 
the fortunes of men by observing the stars under which they 
were born, (genethliaci vel Ghaldai ;) Ibid. 

Pythagoras first assumed the name of philosopher or lover or 
wisdom ; those before him who applied to the study of know- 
ledge, were called sophists (sophoi, sages, or wise men). He 
was the founder of that sect of philosophers called the Italic. 
His memory was held in such veneration by the Romans, that 
tiiey ascribed to him the learning of Numa, although many 
years prior to him, Liv. i. 18. xl. 29. ; and about the year or 
the city 411, being ordered by the oracle of Delphi to erect a 
statue to the bravest and wisest of the Greeks, they conferred 
that honour on Alcibiades and Pythagoras, Plin. xxxiv. 6, 

Pythagoras taught publicly the vulgar doctrine, that the 
earth was the centre of the universe ; but to his scholars, he 
communicated his real opinions, which were similar to those 
afterwards adopted by Copernicus *, that the earth and all the 
planets move round the sun as their centre ; which doctrine he 
is supposed to have derived from the Indians. He thought 
that the earth is round, and every where inhabited \ hence he 
admitted, that there might be people whose feet were opposite 
to one another, whom Plato is said first to have called Anti- 
podes ; Diog. Laert. iii. 24. 

Pythagoras was distinguished for his skill in music, which he 
first reduced to certain principles 5 and for his discoveries in geo- 
metry. He first proved, that in aright-angled triangle, the square 
of the hypothenuse, or side subtending the right angle, is equal 
to the squares of the two other sides *, also, that of all plain figures 
having equal circumferences, the circle is the largest, and of all 
solids having equal surfaces, the sphere is the largest. Upon 
making any of these discoveries, he is said to have sacrificed an 
ox to the muses, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 36. Vitruv. ix. 2. Diogenes 
Laertius says, that Pythagoras was so overjoyed at discovering 
the proportions between the sides of the right-angled triangle, 



History of Astronomy. 



r^iat he offered a hecatomb, or 100 oxen, viii. 12. But this 
can hardly be reconciled to the principles of Pythagoras, who 
taught the metempsychosis > or transmigration of souls, which he 
borrowed from the Indians ; and therefore forbade the slaying 
of animals, and the eating of flesh, Ovid. Met. xv. 72. 116. 
127, &c. * The same Diogenes, with more probability, as- 
cribes this expression of joy to Thales, on having, as he says, 
described a rectangled triangle in a semicircle, i. 25. or rather 
upon having proved that the angles in a semicircle are all right 
angles. 

Pythagoras likewise taught, that all things were made of fire, 
Plutarch, placit. phil. ii. 6. ; that the Deity animates the uni- 
verse, as a soul does the body, Cic. Nat. D. which doctrine, 
together with that concerning the transmigration of souls, was 
adopted by Plato, and is beautifully expressed by Virgil, JEr.. 
vi. 724, &c. G. iv. 221.— -that the sun and moon, the planets, 
and fixed stars, being all actuated by some divinity, move each 
in a transparent solid sphere, in the following order ; next to 
the Earth the moon, then Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, 
Jupiter, Saturn, and last of all the sphere of the fixed stars > 
Censorin. Nat. D. xiii. ; Macrob. in Somn. Scip. ii. 4. with a 
harmony of sound inconceivably beautiful, which our ears can- 
not comprehend ; these eight spheres forming, by their differ- 
ent distances, the seven notes of music, Mercury and Venus 
making only one note, Cic. Somn. Scip. 5. et Macrob. in loc. 

Empedocles, the chief scholar of Pythagoras, entertained 
the same sentiments with his master concerning astronomy. He 
is said to have thrown himself into the mouth of mount ^Etna, 
either because he could not explain the nature of that volcano, 
or to make himself pass for a god ; Horat. art. poet. 464. ; De 
Laert. viii. 69. One of his iron sandals being thrown up by 
the volcano, discovered the manner in which he had perished. 
Strab. vi. 274. 

Philolaus, the scholar of Pythagoras, and Archytas of Ta- 
rentum, Cic. Or. hi. 34. first taught publicly the diurnal mo- 
tion of the earth round its axis, and its annual motion round 
the sun. This opinion Cicero ascribes to Nicetas of Syracuse, 
and to Plato, Acad. iv. 39. ; which passage is said to have sug- 
gested to Copernicus the first idea of that system which he 
established. 

METON, born at Leucona:, a village near Athens, is said 
to have invented the Lunar Cycle, consisting of mneteen solar 



* Hi also DW hihiteH the eating of betlll, jfuienal. xv. 174. iil 229. 
i. 30. ii. 58. for whit reason ii uncertain, GclL i\ . 11. 



Cli. D.vir.. 

year*, 



History of Astronomy, 



25 



years, or nineteen lunar years, and seven intercalary months ; 
and to have published it at the Olympic games. It was re- 
ceived with so great applause, that it was universally adopted 
through the Grecian states and their colonies, and got the name 
of the cycle of the golden number^ to mark its excellence ; a 
name which it still retains. 

It was also called the great year, [magnus annus vel orbis,) 
JE/ian, x. 7. which name was applied to different spaces of 
time by different authors •, by Virgil to the solar year, to dis- 
tinguish it from the monthly revolution of the moon, Serv. in 
Virg. JEn. i. 273. hi. 284. •, by Cicero and others, to the re- 
volution of several ages, when all the stars shall come to be in 
the same position, with respect to one another as they were at 
a certain time before called also annus mundanus or Ver- 
tens, Macrob. in Sonn. Scip. ii. 11. Censorin, 18. which was 
supposed to contain 12,954 years, Serv. ibid, or 15,000 years, 
Macrob. ib. The beginning of this or of any other period was 
called an Epoch. 

The lunar cycle began 432 years before the commencement 
of our 3era, JElian. xiii. 2. *, and according to it the Greek ca- 
lendars which determined the celebration of their annual 
feasts, &c. were adjusted. Meton is thought to have derived 
his knowledge on this subject from Egypt and Chaldsea. 

Xenophanes, the founder of what is called the Eleatic sect 
of philosophers, who lived 630 years b. C. entertained strange 
notions concerning astronomy j that the stars were extinguished 
every morning, and illuminated in the evening, Plut. ib. ii. 
13. ; that the sun is an inflamed cloud, ib. c. 20. ; that eclipses 
happen by the extinction of the sun, who is afterwards lighted 
up, c. 24. j that the moon is inhabited, and 1 8 times bigger 
than the earth *, that there are several suns, and several moons, 
to enlighten the different climates of the earth, &c. Plutarch, 
ibid. ; Lactan. Divin. Insiit. iii. 23. 

The Eleatic school was chiefly distinguished for the study of 
logic ; (logica, v. dialectical) or the art of reasoning, first in- 
troduced by Zeno of Elea, Cic. Orat. 32. The philosophers of 
this sect paid hut little attention to the sciences, or the study of 
nature. Philosophy by the ancients was usually divided into 
three parts, natural, moral, and the. art of reasoning, (Dialec- 
tic a, v. Logica.) Plutarch, plac. phil. proam. 

Parmenides, the scholar of Xenophanes, was the author of 
the opinion, that the earth was habitable only in the two tem- 
perate zones, {Plutarch de placit. philosoph. iii. 11.) He taught, 
however, that it was suspended in the middle of the universe, 
in a fluid lighter than air, so that all bodies left to themselves 

. fall 



1G 



History <>J Ashumuiy. 



fall on its surface, Ibid. 15. This had some resemblance to 
the doctrine of Newtc 1 concerning attraction. 

DEMOCRITUS of Abdera, the scholar of Leucippus, who 
flourished 456 years b. C. was the author of the doctrine of 
atoms, or at least the publisher of it, for it is said to have been 
invented by his master Leucippus. Cic. Nat. D. i. 24. Both of 
them admitted a pleurality of worlds. Democritus was the first 
who taught that the milky way is occasioned by the confused 
light ox an infinity of stars, Plutarch in placit. Phi!, iii. j. ; 
Manil. i. 9. 753. which is the doctrine still maintained by the 
befit philosophers. He extended that idea to comets, which he 
conceived to be produced by the concurrence of two or more 
planets, Plntarch. ib. ii. the number of which, Seneca says, 
the Greek philosophers did not know, Settee. O. Nat, vii. 2. and. 
that Democritus suspected there were more planets than we csulJ. 
see, ibid. 3.; which was also the opinion of others, (7. .7. xiv. 1. 

Democritus may be considered as the parent of experimental 
philosophy; the greatest part of his time was devoted to it, («rA/.v^: 
inter experimenta cotisumsit, et qiu? esset expert::;-, ar.nuh signabat, 
Petron. Arbiter^ 88. & Vitruv. ix. 3.) ; and he is said to have 
made many important discoveries, Senec. Ep. 90. He maintained 
the existence of a vacuum, which Thales had denied : and tha" 
the sea was constantly diminishing, Diog. Laert. He declared 
that he would prefer the discovery of one cause in the works cf 
nature, to the possession of the Persian monarchy, Etiseb. xiv. 
27. Often laughing at the fellies of mankind, Juvenal, x. 3^. 
he was thought by the vulgar to be disordered in his mind; but 
Hippocrates being sent to cure him, soon found him to be the 
wisest man of the age, Diog, Laert. ; and Seneca reckons hi . 
the most acute and ingenious of the ancients on account cf hie. 
many useful inventions: of making artificial emeralds, and 
tinging them with any colour; of softening ivory, dissolving 
stones, &c. Ep. 41. 

Plato and Artstotte, the chief of the Greek philosophers, 
although their principal attention was directed to oilier object*) 
yet contributed much to the improvement of astronomy. But 
the most famous in this respect was EUDOXUS, the scholar 
of Plato, who was also remarkable for his skill in asirologv, or 
foretelling future events by the knowledge of the stars, Cic. 
Svirn* ii. 42. an art which prevailed for many *ges, but is now 
justly exploded. Astrology was of two kinds, natural and arti- 
iicial ; the one foretold the changes ol the seasons, vain, wind, 
cold, heat, famine, diseases, &c. from a knowledge of the 
causes which were supposed to act on the earth and its atmo- 
sphere : the other foretold the characters and fortunes of men, 

g from 



History of Astronomy. 



n 



from the particular star or planet under which each individual 
was born. 

Eudoxus is said to have spent a great part of his time on the 
top of a high mountain to observe the motion of the stars, P<r~ 
tron. 88. He regulated the year among the Greeks, as Caesar 
afterwards did among the Romans, Lucan. x. 187. 

Aratus, born at Soli, a city of Cilicia, about 276 years b. C. 
at the desire of Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia, as it 
is said, put into Greek verse the astronomical sentiments of Eu- 
doxus; which poem was much admired by the ancients, Quin- 
tilian. x. 1. and is still extant. Cicero, when a young man, 
translated it into Latin verse, Cic. Nat. D. ii. 41. as did after- 
wards Germanicus, the grand-nephew of Augustus 

The ancient Greek philosophers formed their opinions con- 
cerning astronomy rather from conjecture than from the obser- 
vation of facts. Hence Strabo and Polybius treated as fabulous 
the assertion of one Pytheas, a famous navigator to the north, 
who had sailed to a country supposed to be Iceland % where, 
he said, that in the middle of summer the sun never sets, 
Strab. ii. p. 104. 114. & 115. 

But the greatest improvements in astronomy were made by s 
the" school of Alexandria, which was first founded by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, and subsisted near ten ages, till the invasion of 
the-Saracens. Those who flourished here were chiefly of Greek 
extraction, the most learned men being invited to Alexandria 
by the liberality of the Ptolemies. The first who distinguished 
themselves were Timocharis and Aristillus, about 300 
years b. C. who tried to determine the place of the different 
stars in the heavens, and thus to trace the course of the planets. 
The next was ARISTARCHUS, about 264 years b. C. who 
taught that the sun was about 19 times farther distant from the 
earth than the moon (which, however, was not the 20th part 
of its real distance) ; but Pythagoras and his followers made it 
only three times, or one time and a half farther distant. Ari- 
starchus also taught that the moon was 56 semi-diameters of 
our globe from the earth, and little more than one third of its 
size (which is nearly the truth) ; but he was not so exact in 
making the diameter of the sun only 6 or 7 times more than 
that of the earth. 

Aristarchus, according to the doctrine of Pythagoras and 
Philolaus, supposed the sun to be in the centre, and the earth 
to move round it *, on which account he is said to have been 

* Pliny calls this island Thule, and says that it was six days' sail north from Britain, 
kaving constant day for six« months in summer, and as long night in winter, ii. 75« s. 77 «■ 

C . accused 



18 



History of Astronomy. 



accused of impiety, as having disturbed the repose of Vesta 
and of the Lares, Plutarch, de Luna. This opinion, however, 
was not retained by his successors in the school of Alexandria. 
Contrary to the doctrine of the Greek philosophers, he taught 
that the stars were at different distances, and that the orbit of 
the earth round the sun is but an insensible point in comparison 
of the immense distance of the stars. The only work of 
Aristarchus, which remains, is on the magnitude and distance 
of the sun and moon. 

Nearly contemporary with Aristarchus was Euclid of 
Alexandria, the geometrician ; Manetho, an astrologer and 
historian \ Aratus> and Cleanthes the disciple of Zeno the 
stoic philosopher. 

The successor of Aristarchus was ERATOSTHENES, \ orn 
at Cyrene 276 years b. C. invited to Alexandria by Ptokmy 
Evergetes, said to have been the author of the arm'tllary sphere, 
an instrument or machine composed of several moveable circles 
representing the equator, the two coiures, and the meridian ; 
all of which turned round on an axis directed to the two poles 
of the world ; each of these circles was anciently called armilla, 
and the whole machine astrolabes. But this appears to have 
been long known before Eratosthenes, D. Laert. i. 1 19. ; he 
probably perfected it. Every instrument which could be con- 
trived to facilitate the study of astronomy was furnished at the 
public expence, and placed in the observatory of Alexandria. 
With these instruments Eratosthenes first undertook to measure 
the obliquity of the ecliptic, or rather the double of that obli- 
quity, that is, the distance of the tropics, which he made to be 
about 47 degrees •, the obliquity, or the half of this distance, 
23 1 °. But his greatest attempt was that of measuring a degree 
of the meridian, and thus determining the circumference of 
the earth, which he did with wonderful exactness for the time, 
and by the same method which the moderns have followed. 
He is also said to have discovered the true distance of the sun 
and moon from the earth, Plutarch, placit. phil. ii. 31. 

Contemporary with Eratosthenes were ARCHIMEDES, 
the celebrated geometrician of Syracuse, whose engines were 
so terrible to the Romans while besieging that city; Conon of 
Samos, who composed an account of alJ the eclipses observed by 
the Egyptians, Settee. Q- Nut. vii. 3. ; and Apoi.lonius of Per- 
ga, who wrote a treatise on conic sections, or the properties of 
curve lines arising from the section of a cone by a plane, and is 
said first to have tried to explain the causes ot the apparent stop- 
ping and retrogradation of the planets by cycles and epicyles, 
as they were called, that is, circles within circles, PtoJmm Al- 
magest, 



History of Astronomy* 



19 



mag est. xii. I. ; which opinion took its rise from the absurd idea 
of Eudoxus ascribing to each planet as many solid spheres as it 
appeared to have different motions. Afterwards lesser circles 
were supposed to attend each of the planets and to direct their 
motion. 

The most illustrious astronomer of the school of Alexandria, 
and indeed of all antiquity, was HIPPARCHUS, who flou- 
rished between 160 and 125 years b. C. He first reduced the 
science of astronomy to a system. He discovered that the inter- 
val between the vernal and the autumnal equinox is 1 86 days, 
about 7 days longer than that between the autumnal and vernal 
equinox, which proceeds from what is called the eccentricity of 
the earth's orbit. By observing the inequality of the sun's mo- 
tion he framed tables for calculating what we call the equation 
of time^ or the difference between time marked by the sun on a 
sun-dial, and that marked by a well-regulated clock. He made 
considerable progress in explaining the motion and phases of the 
moon, but was not so successful with respect to the planets. 
His greatest work was counting the stars, marking their dis- 
tances, and ascertaining their places in the heavens ; having 
attempted a thing, says Pliny, difficult even to a divinity {ausus 
rem etiam Deo improbam^ Plin. ii. 26.). He was not, however, 
the first who did so \ for Pliny says that the ancients had 
marked 1600 stars in the 72 signs, into which they divided the 
heavens, ii. 41. 

Hipparchus is said to have been induced, by the appearance 
of a new star, to compose his catalogue of stars, for the in- 
struction of future observers. 

It is remarkable that Hipparchus says nothing of comets \ 
whether he never saw any, or confounded them with meteors, 
which are not an object of astronomy, is uncertain. He di- 
vided the heavens into 49 constellations, 12 in the ecliptic, 21 
in the north, and 16 in the south. To one of these he gave the 
name of Berenice's hair, in honour of the wife of Ptolemy Soter, 
who, having consecrated her hair, which was very beautiful, 
to Venus, if her husband should return victorious from a war 
in Asia, in which he was engaged, hung it up in the temple of 
that goddess. As it soon after disappeared, it was said to have 
been carried off by the gods ; but Catullus, Ep. 64. makes 
Conon the author of this name. 

Hipparchus constructed a sphere or celestial globe on which 
all the stars visible at Alexandria were marked, which was 
doubtless deposited in the musceum of Alexandria, and probably 
similar to the Farnese celestial globe, which is still extant at 
Rome. 

C 2 Hippar* 



20 History of Astronomy. 

Hippavchus, in observing the stars, found them to appear 
always at an equal distance from one another, but perceived 
the distance of the moon to be different in different parts of the 
heavens ; for instance, in the horizon and zenith. This he 
conceived to be owing to the extent of the globe of the earth, 
and he contrived a method of reducing appearances of this kind 
to what they would be, if viewed from the centre of the earth. 
This distance between the apparent place of a planet in the hea- 
vens, and its real place, or what it would be if viewed from 
the centre of the earth, is called parallax ; and the discovery of 
it was of the greatest importance in astronomy. He took this 
idea from observing that a tree in the middle of a plainappeared 
in different parts of the horizon when viewed from different 
places. So a star answers to different points of the heaven, 
when viewed by observers placed on different parts of the 
globe. 

Hipparchus connected geography with astronomy, and thus 
fixed that science on certain principles. He determined the 
longitude and latitude of places by observing the stars. He 
fixed the first degree of longitude at one of the Canaries, from 
which, till lately, longitude has ever since been generally com- 
puted. 

The distance from east to west was called longitude^ and from 
north to south latitude, because the ancients were acquainted 
with the globe of the earth to a greater extent in the former 
direction, than in the latter. 

The knowledge of geography was in ancient times very li- 
mited. It was indeed greatly extended by the conquests of 
Alexander, who carried with him two geographers, Diognetus 
and Beton, to measure and delineate his journies, Plin. vi. 17. 
s. 21. ; and afterwards still more by the conquests of the Ro- 
mans, who were always careful to procure the best inform- 
ation concerning the countries in which they carried on war ; 
and when they subdued any country, they used to exhibit in 
their triumphs, a geographical description of it delineated on a 
table, and flourished round with pictures. The Roman /////«•- 
rariesy still extant, particularly the book called Notitia Imptrii, 
abundantly shew how attentively that people surveyed the differ- 
ent provinces of their empire ; but still the ir knowledge of geo- 
graphy was very confined. It is only in modern times that 
the most distant seas and regions have been explored ; in many 
places, however, that has been the case only along the sea- 
coast : for concerning the internal state of various countries, 
we are as ignorant as the ancients were, and of several coun- 
tries, more so. 

Hippar- 



History of Astronomy* 



Hipparchus, by the numerous calculations in which he was 
engaged, laid the foundations of Trigonometry, both rectili- 
neal and spherical, or the science of measuring and calculating 
triangles. A triangle consists of three angles, and of three 
sides in general, if three of these things be known, one may. 
calculate the other three, with this exception, that if the sides 
are right lines, among these three things requisite to be known, 
there must be at least one side. But if the sides are arcs of a 
circle, as those which form the mutual distances of the stars 
in the vault of heaven, it is not necessary that one of the sides 
be known, the three angles are sufficient for calculating any 
of the sides one chooses, or all the three. The rules of these 
calculations are comprehended in what is called trigonometry, a 
science highly essential to astronomy. 

None of the works of Hipparchus remain but his comment- 
ary or criticism x>n Aratus and Eudoxus. 

No astronomer of reputation appeared at Alexandria during 
the interval between Hipparchus and Ptolemy. 

Most authors place Geminus in this period, who wrote a 
commentarv on Aratus, and was the first who treated astro- 
nomy in a methodical or elementary manner. 

At Rome, towards the end of the republic, astronomy was 
taught by several philosophers particularly by Posidonius, 
the stoic, a native of Apamea in Syria, the scholar of Panetius, 
and friend of Cicero and Pompey ; who commonly resided at 
Rhodes, Cic. Att. ii, i. Tusc. ii. 25. where he attempted, next 
after Eratosthenes, to measure the circumference of the earth. 
He constructed a very ingenious moveable sphere, Cic, Tusc, 
v. 37. Nat.D. ii. 34. He thought that the stars were formed 
of etherial fire, and were animated bodies, always moving in 
circles. He attributed the extraordinary bulk of the sun and 
moon, when near the horizon, to the vapours of the atmosphere, 
which breaking the rays, and turning them from their direct 
line, amplified the images of objects, which we call refraction^ 
Strab. iii. 138. He explained the tides from the motion of the 
moon, ib. 173. ; and estimated the height of the atmosphere at 
400 stadia, or furlongs, each stadium consisting of 125 paces 
or 625 feet, nearly the same with what it is reckoned by the 
moderns; Plin. ii. 21. /. 23. He thought that from the region 
of the clouds to the moon, was two millions of stadia, and from 
the moon to the sun, five hundred millions, Ibid, and Cleomed. 
ii. 4.; Strabo, ibid. Posidonius was a stoic in practice, as well 
as principle, Cic, Tusc. ii. 25. "We are indebted for the know- 
ledge of his opinions to Cleomedes, who lived soon after him. 
In his book on the theory of celestial bodies, he affirms^ that 

C 3 the 



22 



Histoiy of Astronomy, 



the earth seen from the sun, would appear only like a point ; 
but from tlie stars, it would not be visible, even when enlight- 
ened by the sun ; whence he concludes, that the stars are much 
bigger than the earth. 

The science of astronomy seems to have been studied at 
Rome at a more early period. For Sulpicius Gallus foretold 
an eclipse which happened the night before the battle in which 
Perseus, King of Macedonia, was conquered by Paulus j£mi- 
lius ; and by warning the soldiers that ^uch an appearance was 
to happen, prevented their being frightened, and thus contri- 
buted to the victory, Liv. xliv. 37. ; Plin. ii. 12.; Qtt'wct.'u 
10. 47. 

But the person among the Romans who contributed most to 
the advancement of astronomy, was Julius Cesar, not only 
by the reformation of the Roman calendar, but also by his 
knowledge of the principles of that science. Plin. xviii. 25, 26. 
Hence he is extolled by Liccan. x. 184. 

Varro was the first who made use of eclipses to regulate 
chronology. Cemorin. de die Nat. 2. He is said in his book 
de astrologiciy to have likened the figure of the earth to an egg, 
Cassiodcr. Others, according to Pliny, resembled it to a 
pine-nut, ii. 55. Seneca compared it to a ball, Nat. Q. 
iv. 11. 

Under Augustus flourished HygTnus, who wrote a descrip- 
tion of the constellations ; Manilius, who composed a poem 
called Astrono)mco7i y containing an account of ancient astronomy 
and astrology; Germanicus Cesar, who translated Aratus ; 
and Vitruvius, who has preserved to us much valuable in- 
formation concerning astronomy. Seneca, in his natural 
questions, has many curious and useful observations on this 
subject, particularly concerning comets. But the Romans in 
general paid but little attention to astronomy, and the sciences 
connected with it. Astrology, although ridiculed by philo- 
sophers, Cic. diviti. ii. 42. Geminus in Uranologion. 14. had 
more credit among the people. * 

The last illustrious astronomer and geographer of the Alex- 
andrian school was PTOLEMY, born at Ptolemais, in Egppt. 
He flourished under Adrian and the Antonincs. His works, 
particularly that called the great Syntaxh, by the Arabs Al- 
MAGESTUMi or the grand composition, served for many ages as a 
directory to such as applied to astronomical studies. He sup- 
posed the earth to be in the centre, ami the heavenly bodies to 
move round it. The diversity of their motions lie ingeniously 



Paritcique d irudhum valgus, rt ru.ic in MM iursu ■;•<;:/..', IMin. ii. 7. 

14 explained 



History of Astronomy* 2$ 

explained by cycles and epicycles, but in a manner not easily 
understood. 

The school of Alexandria subsisted for about 500 years after 
Ptolemy, till that city was taken by the Arabs, and its famous 
library destroyed, anno 642. Amrou, general of the Arabs be- 
ing conjured by the philosopher Philop6nus to preserve it, con- 
sulted the Calirf Omar, who returned for answer, If these books 
are conformable to the Koran, they are useless ; if they are contrary 
to it, they are detestable. That precious collection served as fuel 
for six months to heat the baths of Alexandria. The sciences 
and learning perished along with it. 

But the Arabs, in less than a century after they had burnt 
the library, and dispersed the learned men of Alexandria, be- 
gan to have a taste for literature, and lamented the loss of what 
their fathers had destroyed. They collected with care the manu- 
scripts which had escaped the flames and their barbarity. Dur- 
ing the reigns of Almanzor, Haroun al Raschid, (or al Reshid, 
i. e. the Just,) and of his son Almamon, Bagdad, their capital 
city, became the seat of learning, as Alexandria had been under 
the Ptolemies. It is recorded to the honour of Almamon, that 
in granting peace to Michael III. Emperor of Constantinople, he 
made it an express condition, that he should have liberty to col- 
lect all the books on philosophy which could be found in Greece, 
that he might cause them to be translated into Arabic. 

Haroun al Raschid is said to have sent, as a present to 
Charles the Great, a clock of curious wormanship, which was 
put in motion by a Clepsydra, an instrument used by the an- 
cients to measure time by water running out of a vessel. The 
invention of clocks, such as we have, is. ascribed to Pacificus, 
archdeacon of Verona, who died 846 ; first known in England 
an. 1368 ; improved by the application of Pendulums by Huy- 
gens, a Dutch mathematician and astronomer, a. 1657. 

But the Arabs merit praise rather for having preserved the 
light of knowledge, than for having improved it. They trans- 
mitted the sciences nearly as they received them, without mak- 
ing almost any memorable discovery. That kind of arithmetic 
called Algebra, in which numbers, lines, and quantities are 
represented by signs and symbols, commonly by letters, was 
derived from the Arabs, who are supposed to have borrowed it 
from the Persians, and they from the Indians ; also the nu- 
merical characters or figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o ; the 
first nine called significant figures, and the last a cypher, or zeros 
any number below ten is called a digit, from counting on the 
fingers (digiti). The Arabs were exceedingly addicted to ju- 
dicial astrology." 

C 4 Astro- 



24 



History of Astronomy. 



Astronomy, and particularly astrology, have long been, and 
still are in great estimation among the Persians. They were in 
former times cultivated also by the Tartars. The descendants 
both of Zengiskan and Tamerlane invited to their courts such 
as were distinguished for this kind of knowledge, furnished 
them with instruments, and supported them with royal muni- 
ficence. 

But the Indians and Chinese were most remarkable for their 
knowledge in astronomy. They appear to have been long ac- 
quainted with the most celebrated discoveries of the Europeans; 
the motion of the earth round the sun, the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, the calculation of eclipses, the equation of time, the 
lunar period of nineteen years, which we call the lunar cycle or 
golden number , &c. 

Even the savages of America were found to have paid atten- 
tion to astronomy ; and, what is surprising, are said to have 
given the same names to several of the stars that we do. 

Among the barbarous nations of Europe astronomy was 
studied, particularly by the Druids in Britain, Cas. B. G. vi. 13. 

After the overthrow of the Roman empire, the first encou- 
rager of learning was Charles the Great. But little could be 
done in his time ; and after his death the former ignorance and 
barbarism returned. 

Beda or Beck, called Venaribilis from his modesty and the 
sanctity of his life, and his scholar Alcuinus, the preceptor 
of Charles the Great, both natives of England, to their other 
immense learning, joined the knowledge of astronomy, such at 
least as could be procured in that age. To Alcuinus is ascribed 
the institution of academies or universities. He suggested the 
plan of them to Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, who esta- 
blished two, one at Paris, and another at Pavia. 

The first step towards the revival of knowledge was the trans- 
lation of the astronomical elements of ALFEEOAM the Arab, by 
order of Frederic II. chosen Emperor of Germany in 1212; 
who established and endowed several universities about the 
year 1230. Much about the same time ALPHONSO X. King of 
Castile, assembled from all parts the most able astronomers, who, 
at his desire, composed what were called the Alphottsine tables, 
founded on the same hypothesis with those of Ptolemy. 

About the same time also John DE SACROB06CO, or Hcl\ivooil y 
a native of Halifax, in Yorkshire, and educated at Oxtord, who 
taught philosophy and mathematics at Pans, made an abridg- 
ment of the Almagest of Ptolemy, and of the commentaries of 
the Arabs, which was Ion.; i amous as an elementary book 
under the title of De Sphuru ntundi. Htf died at Paris, a. 1235. 

12 In 



History of Astronomy. 



25 



In the same age Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan friar, 
ma4e astonishing discoveries in science, for the time in which 
he lived. He perceived the error in the calendar of Julius 
Caesar, and proposed a plan for the correction of it to Pope 
Clement IV. a. 1267. He is supposed, from his writings, to 
have known the use of optical glasses, and the composition 
and effects of gun-powder. He believed, however, in as- 
trology, and the transmutation of metals, or the philosopher's 
stone, which, by its touch, was supposed to convert base metals 
into gold, On account of his vast knowledge in astronomy^ 
mathematics, and chemistry, he was called Doctor Mirabilis • 
but for the same reason he was suspected of magic, or of 
holding communication with invisible spirits, and performing 
his operations by their assistance. Under this pretext, while 
at Paris, he was put in prison by order of the Pope's Legate. 
After a long and severe confinement, he was at last, by the 
interest of several noble persons, set at liberty, returned to 
England, and died at Oxford, a. 1292, aged 78. 

In the 15th century two events happened which changed 
the face of the sciences ; the invention of printing, about the 
year 1440, and the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in 
1453. ^he l earne d men of that city, having escaped from the 
cruelty of the victors, fled into Italy, and introduced into that 
country a taste for classical literature, which was greatly pro- 
moted by the munificence of the Emperor Frederic III., Pope 
Nicholas V., and particularly of COSMO de Medicis, who 
justly merited the name of Father of his country and Patron of 
the muses. 

The most distinguished Greeks who fled from Constantinople 
into Italy, were George of Trebizond, Demetrius Calcondylus, 
Theodore Gaza, John Argyrophilus, John and Constantine Las- 
caris, and the famous Cardinal Bessarion. 

The restoration of Astronomy began in Germany. The 
first who distinguished himself was George PURBACH, born 
at Purbach, a small village on the confines of Austria and 
Bavaria, a. 1423, who was cut ofT in the flower of his age, 
only thirty-eight years old. He was succeeded by a scholar 
more skilful than himself ; John Muller, born at Konings- 
berg, in 1436, called from the Latin name of that place, 
Regiomontanus, who taught mathematics and astronomy with 
great reputation at Vienna. In February 1471, appeared a 
comet, on which he published his observations. Being called 
to Rome by Pope Sextus IV. to assist in correcting the calen- 
dar, he was cut off by the plague, a. 1476. Bernard Wal- 
therus, a rich citizen of Nuremberg, his friend and associate, 

succeeded 

t m. - 



History of Astronomy. 



succeeded him, who is said first to have made use of clocks m 
his astronomical observations, a. 1484, and to have been the 
first of the moderns, who perceived the effects of the refraction 
of light. 

Fracastorius, born at Verona in 1483, was a celebrated 
poet, and eminent philosopher. He made considerable dis- 
coveries in astronomy ; and with all his absurdities may be 
considered as the forerunner of Copernicus. 

NICOLAS COPERNICUS, the restorer of the Pythagorean 
doctrine, and the author of the rational or true system of astro- 
nomy now universally received, under the title of the Coper- 
nican System, was born at Thorn, a city of Royal Prussia, 
19th February 1473. Having learned the Latin and Greek 
languages in his father's house, he was sent to Cracow to be in- 
structed in philosophy and physic, where he was honoured with 
the degree of Doctor. But he always shewed a greater fond- 
ness for mathematical studies than for medicine. His uncle by 
the mother's side was a bishop, who gave him a canonry, upon 
his return from Italy, whither he had gone to study astronomy 
under Dominic Maria at Bologna, and had afterwards taught 
mathematics with success at Rome. In the repose and soli- 
tude of an ecclesiastical life, he bent his chief attention to the 
study of astronomy. Dissatisfied with the system of Ptolemy, 
which had prevailed for fourteen centuries, he laboured to form 
a juster one. What chiefly led him to discover the mistakes 
of Ptolemy, was his observations on the motion of Venus. He 
is said to have derived his first notions on this subject from 
certain passages of the classics, which mention the opinion of 
Pythagoras and his followers, particularly Cic. Acad. iv. 39. 
Senec. Nat. Quast. vii. 2. Plutarch, vit. Numa, et Placit. philos.\ 
as indeed he himself acknowledges in his address to Pope 
Paul III. Vid. Opera Copernict. He established the rotation of 
the earth round its axis, and its motion round the sun; but to 
explain certain irregularities in the motion of the planets, he 
retained the epicycles and eccentrics of Ptolemy. His work 
was first printed at Nuremberg in 1543, a short time before 
his death. 

The doctrine of Copernicus was not at first generally adopt- 
ed. The most eminent professors in Europe adhered to the 

old opinions. 

Among the astronomers of this period, the Langrave of 
Hesse deserves particular praise, who erected a magnificent 
observatory on the top of the castle of Cassel, and made many 
observations himself, in conjunction with Christopher Roth- 
man ami Justus Byrgc, concerning the place of the sun, of the 
planets and stars. 



History of Astronomy, 



27 



But the person who enriched astronomy with the greatest 
number of facts of any modern who had yet appeared was 
TYCHO BRAHE, a Dane of noble extraction, born in 1546, 
designed by his parents for the study of the law, but attracted 
to the study of astronomy upon seeing an eclipse of the sun in 
1560, at Copenhagen, whither he had been sent to learn 
philosophy. He was struck with astonishment in remarking 
that the phenomenon happened at the very moment it had been 
predicted. He admired this art of predicting eclipses, and 
wished to acquire it. At first for want of proper instruments 
he fell into several mistakes, which, however, he afterwards 
corrected. Having early perceived that his future improvements 
depended on instruments, he caused some to be constructed 
larger than usual, and thus rendered them more exact. On the 
nth November 1572, before supper, he perceived a new star in 
Cassiopeia, which continued without changing its place till spring 
1 5 74, equal in splendor to Jupiter or Venus. At last it changed 
colours, and entirely disappeared. Nothing similar to this had 
been observed from the time of Hipparchus. 

Tycho, in imitation of that illustrious ancient astronomer^ 
conceived the design of forming a new catalogue of the stars. 
To second his views, the King of Denmark ordered a castle to 
be built in Huan, an island between Scania and Zeland, which 
Tycho called Uranibourg, the city of heaven, and where he 
placed the finest collection Of instruments that had ever yet 
existed; most of which had either been invented or improved by 
himself. He composed a catalogue of 777 stars with greater 
exactness than had ever been done before, and constructed 
tables for finding the place of the most remarkable stars at any 
given time. He was the first who determined the effect of 
refraction, particularly of horizontal refraction, whereby we see 
the sun or any star above the horizon, before it is so in reality; 
as we see the bottom of a vessel when filled with water, which 
in the same position, we do not see when empty. He made 
several other important discoveries, which he published in a 
work entitled Progymnasmata. The labours of Tycho attracted 
the attention of Europe. The learned went to consult him, 
and the noble to see him. James VI. King of Scotland, when 
he went to espouse the sister of Frederick King of Denmark, 
paid Tycho a visit with all his retinue, and wrote Lacin verses 
in his praise. 

But these honours were of short continuance. After the 
death of King Frederick, his protector, the pension assigned 
him was retrenched, and he was obliged to banish himself 
from his native country. Having hired a ship, he transported 

his 



28 History of Astronomy. 

his furniture, books, and instruments to a small place tfeaf 
Hamburgh, a. 1597. The Emperor Rhodolphus invited him 
into his dominions, settled a large pension on him, gave him a 
castle near Prague, to prosecute his discoveries, and appointed 
Longomontanus, a native of Jutland, and the celebrated Keller 
to assist him. But Tycho was not happy in this situation. He 
died 14th October 1601, repeating several times, / have not 
lived in vain. 

Tycho adopted neither the system of Ptolemy nor of Coper- 
nicus. He supposed the earth to remain at rest, and the tun 
and moon to move round it j but the other planets to 
move round the sun. This opinion, however, had but few 
followers. 

Tycho is said to have been influenced in forming his system 
by this consideration, that it might not contradict the Scriptures, 
for he was very religious. He was a firm believer in astrology, 
which prevailed greatly in tha£ and the following age, when 
the predictions of astrologers, from natural appearances, often 
produced the most serious alarms. Kings and great men used 
to keep astrologers in pay. By an act of parliament of the 23d 
of Elizabeth, it was made felony to cast the nativity of the 
Queen, or by calculation to seek to know how long she should 
live. It is only in the present century that the light of know- 
ledge has banished this credulity, together with the belief of 
apparitions, witches, &c. 

KEPLER, who was one of the greatest philosophers that 
ever lived, ought justly to be regarded as the discoverer of the 
true system of the world. He was born in Germany at Wiel 
near Wirtembcrg, 27th December 1571. Pie early imbibed 
the principles of Copernicus from his master, Mxstlin. After 
the death of Tycho, he was employed to finish the tables which 
Tycho had begun to compose from his observations. Kepler 
took twenty years to finish them. He dedicated them to the 
Emperor, under the name of the Rhodclphinc tables. 

Kepler united optics with astronomy, and thus made the 
most important discoveries. He was the first who discovered 
that the planets move not in a circle, but in an ellipse •, and 
that, although they move sometimes faster and sometimes 
slower, yet they describe equal areas in equal times; that is, 
that the spaces through which they move in different parts of 
their orbit in equal times, although of unequal length, yet 
when two straight lines ire drawn from the extremity of each 
space to the centre of the sun, they form triangle;, which 
include equal ureas. I le likewise demonstrated, that the squares 
of the periodical times of the revolution of the planets round 

the 



History of Astronomy » 29 

the sun, are in proportion to the cubes of their distances from 
him — a theorem of the greatest use in astronomical calculations; 
for if we have the periodical times of two planets and know 
the distance of one of them from its centre, we can, by the rule 
of proportion, find the distance of the other. 

Contemporary with Kepler was GALILEO, born at Pisa in 
Italy in 1564, illustrious for his improvements in mechanics, for 
his explanation of the effects of gravity, and for the invention, 
or at least the improvement of telescopes. 

The use of spectacles or reading glasses, (convex for long- 
sighted, and concave for short-sighted persons,) had been in- 
vented by one Spina, a monk of Pisa, in 1290; or, as others' 
say, by Roger Bacon. The use of telescopes, or of glasses for 
viewing objects at a distance, was first invented by Zachary 
Janssen, a spectacle-maker at Middleburgh, as it is said, from 
the accidental discovery of a child. The honour of this inven- 
tion is ascribed also to others. It is certain Galileo first im- 
proved them so as to answer astronomical purposes. He also 
first made use of the simple pendulum for measuring time in 
making his observations ; to which he was led by considering 
one day the vibrations of a lamp, suspended from the vaulted 
roof of a church. He likewise discovered the gravity of the 
atmosphere, from the rising of water in a pump, by the action 
of a piston ; which led the way to the invention of the baro- 
meter by his scholar Toricelli. 

The use of Telescopes opened, in a manner, a new world to 
Galileo. He observed with astonishment the increased magni- 
tude and splendour of the planets, and their satellites formerly 
invisible ; which afforded additional proofs of the veracity of 
the Copernican system, particularly the satellites of Jupiter, and 
the phases of Venus. He discovered an innumerable multitude 
of fixed stars which the naked eye could not discern, and what 
greatly excited his wonder, without the least increase in their 
size or brightness. 

About this time, John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, in Scot- 
land, invented what are called the Logarithms, first published 
at Edinburgh in 16 14, afterwards improved by Mr. Briggs, 
professor of geometry at Oxford ; in which, by a very ingenious 
contrivance, addition is made to answer for multiplication, and 
subtraction for division ; an invention of the greatest utility in 
astronomical calculations. 

Kepler made much use of logarithms in framing the Rhodol- 
phine tables. This great man died in poverty 15th November 
1631, at Ratisbon, whither he had gone to solicit the arrears 

of 



30 



History of Astronomy. 



of his pension, which had been very ill paid. He left nothing 
to his wife and children but the remembrance of his virtues. 

Galileo was afflicted not with poverty, but with persecu- 
tion. At seventy years of age, he was called before the inqui. 
sition for supporting opinions contrary to Scripture, and was 
obliged formally to abjure them, ntn June 1633, to avoid 
being burnt as a heretic. The system ot Copernicus had yet 
gained but few converts ; and the bulk of professors and 
learned men in Europe, attached to the philosophy of Aristotle, 
supported the old doctrine. Galileo was condemned to prison, 
and confined to the small city ot Arcetri or Arcern with its terri- 
tory, where he consoled himself by the study of Astronomy. 
He contrived a method of discovering the longitude by the 
satellites of Jupiter, which, however, has not been productive 
of all the advantages he expected. He died happy in his 
prison, or rather in exile, a. 1642. 

There were a number of astronomers contemporary with 
Kepler and Galileo, but none of them made any considerable 
discoveries. John Bayer of Ausbourg, introduced the custom 
of marking the stars in each constellation, by the letters of the 
Greek and Latin alphabets. This he borrowed from the Jews, 
who, to avoid the figures of animals, forbidden by their law, 
had used the letters of their alphabet. 

In the year 1631, astronomers were very attentive to observe 
the transit of Mercury and Venus over the disc of the Sun, 
which Kepler had predicted, as a confirmation of the system 
of Copernicus. Mercury was observed by Gassendi in France, 
and some others ; but the transit of Venus did not then take 
place. 

The transit of Venus was first seen by Jeremiah Horrox, 
at Hool, an obscure village fifteen miles north of Liverpool, on 
the 24th November 1639, and at the same time, according to 
his directions, by his friend William Crabtree, at Manchester. 
Horrox was born 161 9, and died 1641, in the twenty-third 
year of his age. He wrote an account of his observations, 
which was published several years after his death, under the 
title of Venus in sole visa, by Hevclius ; and his other writings, 
by Flamstead and Wallis, in the Philosophical Transaction, 

The Copernican system was first publicly defended in Eng- 
land, by Dr. Wilkins, 1660; in France by Gassendi, the son 
of a peasant in Provence, who published many valuable works 
on philosophy. He was born 1592, and died 1655. He 
was violently opposed by Morin, a famous astrologer. 

DFS 



History of Astronomy. 



Si 



DESCARTES, descended from a noble family, the son of a 
counsellor of Britanny in France, born at Haye in Touraine^ 
31st March 1596, early distinguished himself by his knowledge 
in algebra and geometry. He attacked and overturned the 
philosophy of Aristotle in his own country. He established 
certain principles which he took for granted, and by which he 
accounted for all appearances. He imagined all space to be 
filled with corpuscles, or atoms, in continual agitation, accord- 
ing to the opinion of Democritus, D. Laert. ix. 44. and denied 
the possibility of a vacuum; He explained every thing by 
supposing vorticesy or motions round a centre, according to the 
opinion of Democritus, Diog. Laert. ix. 31. & 44. and thus 
discovered the centrifugal force in the circular motion of the 
planets. But the system of Descartes, not being founded on 
facts or experiments* did not subsist long, although at first it 
had many followers. His notions of astronomy were much the 
same with those of Copernicus. 

Although the lively imagination of Descartes led him into 
error, yet his exalted views contributed to the improvement of 
science. Men were led to observation and experiments, in 
order to overturn his system, and astronomy was cultivated by 
persons of ability in various places ; by Bouillaud at Paris, from 
the year 1633 » Ward at Oxford, 1653 ; and by Hevelius at 
Dantzic, from 1 64 1, who constructed a fine observatory, made 
several improvements in glasses, and collected a great number 
of facts, by his long and assiduous observation for fifty years* 
during which time he made many discoveries concerning the 
planets, the fixed stars, and particularly concerning comets. 
Colbert, in name of Louis XIV. sent him a sum of moneys and 
settled on him a pension. 

Hevelius published a catalogue of the fixed stars, intitled^ 
Firmamcntum Sobeskianum, dedicated to John Sobieski, King of 
Poland, at that time justly famous for having raised the siege 
of Vienna, when attacked by the Turks, a. 1683. In honour 
of whom Hevelius formed a new constellation between Anti- 
nous and Serpentarius, which he named Sobieski s shield. 

But the most distinguished astronomer at this time was 
CHRISTIAN HUYGENS, Lord of Zuilichem, son to the 
secretary of the Prince of Orange, born at the Hague 14th April 
1629, an ^ educated at Leyden under Schoofen, the com- 
mentator of Descartes — famous for the application of pendulums 
to clocks, and of springs to watches, for the improvement of 
telescopes and microscopes, and for the great discoveries 
which, in consequence of these improvements, he made in 
astronomy. 

The 



32 



History of Astronomy. 



The establishment of academies or societies at this time 
contributed greatly to the advancement of science. 

The Royal Society at London was first begun in 1659, but 
did not assume a regular form till 1662. Its transactions were 
first published 1665. 

The Academy of Sciences at Paris was founded in 1666, by- 
Lewis XIV., who invited to it Roemer from Denmark, Huy- 
gens from Holland, and Cassini from Italy. 

CASSINI was born at Perinaldo, in the county of Nice, 
8th June, 1625 ; came into France in 1669, and was appointed 
first professor in the Royal Observatory at Paris, where he pro- 
secuted his discoveries till his death 171 2 ; and was succeeded 
by his son. He was assisted by Picard, Auzout, and la Hire. 

By the direction of the academy of sciences at Paris, a voyage 
was undertaken by Richer and Meurisse, at the King's expence, 
to the island Caienne, in South America, almost under the 
equator, a. 1672, to ascertain several philosophical facts; the 
refraction of light, the parallax of Mars and of the sun, the 
distance of the tropics, the variation of the motion of pendu- 
lums, &c. 

The parallax of the sun is the angle under which an observer 
at the sun would see the semidiameter of the earth. This Cas- 
sini fixed at nine seconds and a half; and the angle under which 
we see the sun, at sixteen minutes and six seconds or 966 se- 
conds ; hence he concluded that these semidiameters are as 
9! to 966, or as 19 to 1932. So that, according to Cassini, 
the semidiameter of the earth is 100 times less than that of the 
sun j and consequently the sun is a million of times bigger than 
the earth. 

The parallax of the sun has since, from the transit of Ve- 
nus 6th June 1761, and 3d June 1769, been discovered to be 
but about eight seconds ; and consequently his comparative 
bulk to that of the earth, and his distance from it to be pro- 
portionally greater. This method of finding the distance of 
the earth from the sun, and consequently of the other planets, 
was first proposed by Dr. Halley ; who had never seen, and 
was morally certain he should never see this appearance. 

Meurisse died in the voyage, Richer returned in 1673. His 
answer on the parallax of Mars was not satisfactory. Cassini 
calculated it at fifteen seconds. 

The distance of the tropics was found to be 46 57' 4' . 

But the chief advantage of this voyage was ascertaining the 
variation of the pendulum. In 1669, Placard remarked that 
clocks with a pendulum went slower in summer, and taster in 
winter owing, as it was afterwards discovered, to this, that 

heat 



History of Astronomy, S3 

heat dilates bodies, and consequently lengthens the pendulum ^ 
but cold contracts them, and therefore shortens the pendulum. 
Richer found that the pendulum of a clock made 148 vibra- 
tions less at Caienne than at Paris; that is, went 2 minutes 28 
seconds a day slower. Hence to adjust it, he was obliged to 
shorten the pendulum. 

The same thing was confirmed by Halley while at St. Helena, 
in 1676. But the motion of the pendulum was then supposed, 
and has since been ascertained, to be also retarded near the equa- 
tor, by its gravity being diminished on account of its greater 
distance from the centre of the earth than near the poles. 

About this time the French Jesuit missionaries having got 
admission into China, contributed to the improvement of astro- 
nomy. Father Schaal, one of their number, on account of his 
merit, and particularly of his skill in this science, was so highly 
honoured at the court of China, that the emperor, upon his 
death-bed, named him preceptor to his son and successor Canhi. 
Schaal reformed the Chinese calendar, a matter of great 
importance in that country. It was still farther improved by 
Verbiest, who succeeded Schaal about the year 1670. 

The most eminent astronomers in England, during this pe- 
riod, were Flamstead, Halley, and Hook. 

FLAMSTEAD was born at Derby, 19th August 1646. He 
composed a new catalogue of the fixed stars, containing abou£ 
3000. He made his observations first in private, and after- 
wards in the Royal Observatory of Greenwich, founded in 
1675. He died in 1719. 

HALLEY was born at London, 8th November 1656. He 
co-operated with Flamstead, in composing the catalogue of 
stars. In 1676, he was sent to St. Helena to take a catalogue 
of the fixed stars which do not rise above our horizon. These 
he formed into constellations, and to one of them gave the name 
of the Royal Oak> in memory , of that tree in which Charles II. 
saved himself from his pursuers. Halley was the first who made 
an accurate observation of the transit of Mercury over the disk 
of the sun, which had been obscurely seen by Gassendi in 163 1, 
by Huygens and Hevelius in 166 1. In trying to calculate from 
this observation the parallax of the sun, he perceived that it 
would be more exactly ascertained by the transit of Venus, 
which he knew would not happen before 1761. He, however, 
pointed out a method for this purpose, wl^ich astronomers have 
found of the greatest advantage, tinder King William, Halley 
was sent on several voyages, to observe the variations of the 
compass, and for other scientifical purposes. He succeeded 
Flamstead in the Royal Observatory in 17 19, and died 1742* 

D HOOK 



3* History of Astronomy. 

HOOK invented several astronomical instruments. He was 
of great service to Mr. Boyle in completing the invention of 
the air-pump. Being appointed one of the surveyors for re- 
building London, he acquired a large fortune. He published 
several curious experiments which he had made to explain the 
motion of the earth and planets, on the principles afterwards 
adopted by Newton. He died in 1702. 

Sir ISAAC NEWTON was born at Woolstrope, in the 
county of Lincoln, 25th December 1642, and studied at 
Cambridge. The rapidity of his progress in mathematical 
knowledge was astonishing. He perceived the theorems and 
problems of Euclid, as it were by intuition. At the age of 
twenty-four, he had laid the foundation of his most important 
discoveries. He was the first who gave a rational and complete 
account of the laws which regulate the motion of the planets, 
on the principles of the attraction of gravitation, now almost 
universally adopted. He is said to have been first led into 
his speculations on gravitation, as he sat alone in a garden, by 
observing some apples fall to the ground. Newton was as re- 
markable for his modesty, as for the superiority of his genius. 
It was with difficulty he was prevailed on by the solicita- 
tions of Halley to publish his Principia, or Mathematical 
Principles cf Natural Philosophy, in 1686, a work which was 
considered as the production of a superior intelligence. In 
1704, he published his Optics ; in 171 1, his Fluxions, a new 
mode of arithmetical calculation of great use in the higher 
parts of mathematics, the invention of which is disputed with 
him by Leibnitz, a German; and in 1728, his Chronology, 
which he endeavoured to adjust by calculating the periods of 
eclipses. He received in his lifetime the honour due to his 
singular merit. In 1703, he was elected president of the 
Royal Society ; in 1705, he was knighted by Oueen Anne. 
He was twice member of parliament. In 1669, he was made 
master of the mint, which place, together with the presidency 
of the Royal Society, he held till his death in 1726. His 
funeral was celebrated with great magnificence the Chan- 
cellor and five other peers supported the pall. He was buried 
in Westminster Abbey, where a monument is erected to his 
memory. 

The principles of Newton were illustrated and confirmed in 
France, by Giraldi, Cassini, Hire, Deliale, Louvtll^, M. de la 
Lande, IWaupertuia, Fontenelle, Mairan, M. de la Caille, &c. 

In Britain, by Flamsu-ad, Halley, Whibton, Gregory, 

Des.-.guillii rs, Molyneux, Bradley, Keil, Mcrcator, Mitchell, 

Loni r , Mftclauiitii &c. 

PRIN- 



General Properties of Matter, 



SB 



PRINCIPLES of the NEWTONIAN PHILOSO- 
PHY, occasionally compared with the Opinions of 
the Ancients. 

AS Sir Isaac Newton made all his discoveries for explaining 
the motions of the planets, by reasoning from experiments 
or known facts, it will be requisite that the learner know the 
general principles on which he proceeded. These chiefly re- 
spect the properties of matter, and the laws of motion. 

I. GENERAL PROPERTIES of MATTER. 

The inherent properties of matter, or of body in general, 
are solidity^ inactivity^ mobility^ and divisibility* 

1. Solidity and Extension. — All matter has length, 
breadth, and thickness 5 hence every body is comprehended 
under some shape or figure, and hinders all other bodies from 
occupying the same part of space that it possesses, which is 

called impenetrability. If a piece of wood be placed between 

two plates of metal, it never can be squeezed so hard, as to 
allow the plates to come into contact ; and a small quantity 
even of water or air, if fixed between two bodies, can by no 
force be so compressed, as to permit the bodies to meet one 
another, till the water or air be removed. Thus, if a globe o£ 
the hardest metal, with a hollow in the middle full of water, be 
strongly compressed, the water will ooze through its pores, and 
appear on the surface. 

Space void of matter is called a vacuum^ the existence of 
which, in opposition to Descartes, Newton maintained. 

2. Inactivity, passiveness, or the vis inertia^ i. e. the want 
of power in body to move itself. — Every body endeavours to 
continue in the state it is in, whether of rest or motion. Bodies 
on this earth, when set in motion, soon stop from the action of 
gravitation, from the resistance of the air, or of friction. But 
if a body were carried to a certain distance from toe earth, and 
there projected in a particular direction, and with a certain 
velocity, it would continue for ever to move round the earth, 
without falling to it ; as is the case with the moon. 

3. Mobility, or the property in body, that it maybe moved 
from one place to another. 

4. Divisibility ad infinitum^ or without end, that is, no 
part of matter can be conceived so small but piere may still be 

D 2 a smaller* 



36 



General Properties of Matter. 



a smaller. — Certain bodies may be divided into very minute 
parts. A grain of gold may be beaten into a leaf 50 inches 
square, which may be divided into 500,000 parts visible to the 
naked eye : if viewed with a microscope, that magnifies the 
object only ten times, the fifty millioneth part of a grain may 
be supposed visible. Mr. Reaumur computes, that a grain of 
gold may be extended on a silver wire upwards of half a mile in 
length; and cover a surface of 1400 square inches; so that the 
thickness of the gold will be no more than the fourteenth mil- 
lioneth part of an inch, that is, about 1200 times the thinness 
of ordinary gold leaf, which gold leaf is about 39 times thinner 
than thin post paper. * 

But this is nothing to the subtilty of parts in odoriferous 
bodies, and to the minuteness of certain microscopic animals, 
and their parts. 

Similar notions concerning the infinite divisibility of matter 
were entertained by some of the ancients ; Cic. Acad. i. 7. ; 
Plutarch, de placit. phil. i. 16. This property, however, exists 
only in idea; for infinity in minuteness, as well as magnitude, 
is altogether beyond our conception. 

A body not easily pierced or broken, or whose parts cannot 
be easily divided, is said to be hard ; the contrary soft. 

A solid body, easy to be broken in pieces, is said to be 
brittle; that which maybe bent, pulled, or twisted, without 
breaking, is said to be tough. 

A body whose parts yield to any impression, and are easily 
moved in respect to each other, is called a fluid ; as, water, 
melted metals, Sec. 

There is a fifth property of matter, called ATTRACTION ; 
of which there are several kinds, cohesion, gravitation, magnetism, 
electricity, Sec. 

1. The attraction of Cohesion is that by which the small 
particles of matter, are made to stick and cohere together. Of 

this kind of attraction these are some of the effects. If a 

small glass tube, open at both ends, be dipped in water, the 
water will rise up in the tube to a considerable height above its 
level in the bason, owing to the attraction of the tube. Hence 
water may be emptied from a vessel to a small depth, by means 
of capillary tubes of about one tenth of an inch bore, or by 

* Mr. Boyle demonstrated the practicability of dividing a grain of gold into 
18,000,000 visible parts; nnd that a grain of copper, being dittolvW in spirit of sal 
ammoniac, and mixed with a certain quantity of water, might be divided into 
11,788,000,000 small visible parts. 

putting 



General Properties of Matter. 37 



pitting one end of a list of cloth into the vessel, and letting the 
other end hang over the side. So liquids will ascend between 
contiguous planes, or in a tube filled with ashes. Thus, a 
piece of loaf-sugar will draw up a fluid, and a spunge will suck 
in water. On the same principle, sap, according to the opinion 
of some naturalists, ascends in trees. 

We see in all liquors that the parts attract one another, 
from the round figure which the drops always assume *. — If 
two drops of quicksilver are placed near each other, they will 
run together, and become one large drop. — Two polished 
plates of marble or brass, when their surfaces are brought into 
contact, will stick so closely together, that it will not be easy 
to disjoin them. — If two pieces of cork, equal in weight, be 
placed near each other in a bason of water, they will move 
equally fast toward each other, with accelerated motion, till 
they meet ; and then if either is moved it will draw the other 
after it. If the corks are of unequal weight, their motion will 
be proportionally different. But this kind of attraction does 
not extend far. 

When the sphere of attraction ends, a repulsive force begins. 
Thus water repels most bodies till they are wet. Hence a 
small needle, if dry, will swim on water \ and flies walk on it 
without wetting their feet. — The repulsive force between water 
and oil is so great, that it is almost impossible to mix them so 
as not to separate again; thus water will rise considerably above 
the edges of a cup, if they are dry, before it overflow ; which 
is owing both to the cohesion of the water, and the repulsion 
of the cup. 

The power of attraction and repulsion in vegetables is so 
strong, that in some instances it seems to resemble sensation, 
the distinguishing property of animals. 

Thus the sensitive plant, on the slightest touch, shrinks back, 
and folds up its leaves, as a snail retires within its shell. One 
of these plants, called Dionaa, if a fly perch upon any of its 
leaves, closes instantly, and crushes the insect to death. Many- 
plants expand their flowers and leaves in good weather, or 
while the sun shines, and close them in dark or cloudy wea- 
ther, Some plants follow the sun, others turn from it *, which 

* Namque et dependentes ubique guttse paivis globantur orbibus; et pulveri illats, 
frondiumque lanugini impositse, absoluta rotunditate cernuntur ; et in poculis repletis 
media maxime tument. — Idque etiam magis mirum, in poculis repletis, addito humore 
tninimo, circumfluere quod supersit ; contra evenire ponderibus additis ad vicenos 
saepe denarios : scilicet quia intus recepta liquorem in vertkem attollant, ac cumulo 
eminente infusa delabantur, Plin. ii. 65. 

D 3 things 



38 



General Properties of Matter. 



things were observed by the ancients-, Plin. ii. 41. Plants of- 
ten direct their roots to procure food •, and when forced from 
their natural direction, are endowed with a power to restore 
themselves. A hop-plant twisting round a pole directs its 
course from south to west, as the sun does ; untwist it, and tie 
it in the opposite direction, it dies. Leave it loose in the wrong 
direction, it recovers its natural direction in a single night. 
Thus trees, if at freedom, grow upwards; Sallust. 93. 
Lay a wet spunge near a root laid open to the air, the root 
will direct its course to the spunge ; change the place of the 
spunge, the root varies its direction. Thrust a pole into the 
ground at a moderate distance from a scandent plant, the plant 
directs its growth to the pole, lays hold of it, and rises on it, 
to its natural height. Of the Planta contorts, or such as twist 
round other plants, some in climbing follow the direction of 
the sun ; as the scarlet kidney bean, &c. others in climbing 
follow a contrary direction, as the black bryony. The former 
kind are wholesome and nutritive, the latter noxious, and gene- 
nerally poisonous. 

2. GRAVITY, or the attraction of gravitation, is that 
property or power by which distant bodies tend towards one 
another. Thus stones fall, and bodies are kept upon the sur- 
face of the earth. All bodies, on whatever side of the earth, 
are attracted in lines perpendicular to its surface ; so that on 
opposite sides they fall towards its centre in opposite direc- 
tions. Hence its rotundity, about w r hich the opinions of 
the ancients were various ; but the very name orbis or globus 
terra, shews the general belief ; Plin. ii. 64, 65. The at- 
traction of mountains has lately been proved, by their draw- 
ing the plummet line of philosophical instruments from the 
perpendicular. 

All bodies that we know have gravity or weight. This is 
demonstrated by experiments made with the air-pump, even in 
smoke, vapours, and fumes. The smoke of a candle, which 
ascends to the top of a tall receiver when full of air, upon the 
air's being exhausted, falls to the bottom. In an exhausted 
receiver a feather and a guinea will fall from the top to the 
bottom in the same time. So a piece of wood, when immersed 
in a jar of water, rises to the top, because it has a less degree 
of weight than its bulk of water has ; but if the jar is emptied 
of water, the wood falls to the bottom. 

Gravity in all bodies is in proportion to the quantity of 
matter they contain, that is, to their weight. 

All bodies are full of pores; tfven gold itself, the heaviest of 

all 



General Properties of Matter, 



39 



ail known bodies *, is supposed to contain a greater quantity of 
open space than of matter. 

A body is said to have double, triple, &c. the density of an- 
other body, when, supposing their bulks equal, it contains a 
double or triple quantity of matter. 

A body every where of the same density is said to be homo- 
geneous, or homogeneal ; a body of unequal density in different 
parts, or of an opposite or dissimilar nature, is called hetero- 
geneous. 

The gravity of a body considered with relation to its bulk, 
is called its specific gravity. The comparative specific gravity of 
bodies is most exactly ascertained by weighing them in water. 

A solid body of the same specific gravity with water, when 
immersed in it, will neither rise nor sink. A body lighter than 
water will rise to the top, and take up such a space below the 
surface, that the weight of water which that space would con- 
tain, will be equal to the weight of the body. Thus a ship 
displaces a bulk of water equal to the weight of the vessel and 
lading. Fishes have within them a bladder of air, by compress- 
ing or dilating which, and thus diminishing or enlarging their 
bulk, they are enabled to sink or rise in the water at pleasure. 
Fishes which want this bladder, remain at the bottom , as 
flounders, eels, & c. 

A solid body heavier than water, when immersed in it, dis- 
places a quantity of water equal to its own bulk, and loses as 
much of its weight as is equal to the weight of that bulk of 
water. 

By weighing metals in water, we can discover their adulte- 
rations or mixtures with tolerable exactness without injuring 
them. Thus a real guinea and a counterfeit one or a brass 
counter, if weighed in air, will appear both of the same weight 
But if weighed in water, the real guinea <will lose only the 19th 
part of its weight, and the brass counter the 8th part. 

The instrument used for weighing metals in water is called 
the Hydrostatic Balance ; said to have been invented by Archi- 
medes, from an observation which he made while bathing, 
that the water rose in proportion to the part of his body im- 
mersed*, whereupon he is said to have been so transported with 
joy, that he ran out crying, (lu£>jxa, sv^xa,) " I have found 
it, I have found it." 

The cause of this exultation is said to have been owing to the 
following circumstance : 

Hiero, the tyrant of Syracuse, had employed an artist to 

* It has since been ascertained that Platina is heavier than gold, its specific gravity 
being 21. 3, while that of gold is only 19. 3. 

D 4 make 



40 



Grnrral J'roperties of Matter, 



make him a crown of gold, which, although of the weight re- 
quired, he suspected to be mixed with alloy, and applied to 
Archimedes to ascertain the fact. From the impossibility of 
doing this any other way, without injuring the crown, than by 
the hydrostatic balance, and from the anxiety of Archimedes 
to solve so curious and useful a point, we may conceive his joy 
on the discovery. He first found how much the crown lost of 
its weight when weighed in water ; next how much a piece of 
gold equal in weight to the crown lost of its weight ; and so 
detected the fallacy, Vitruv.c). 3. 

As we can thus discover the specific gravity of different so- 
lids, by plunging them into the same fluid, so we can discover 
the specific gravity of different fluids by plunging the same so- 
lid bodies in them. For in proportion as the fluid is heavy, 
so much will it diminish the weight of the bodies immersed in 
it. Thus a solid that swims in water, will sink in spirit of 
wine *, and a solid will sink in water, which swims upon spirit 
of nitre. 

The instrument for measuring the lightness or weight of dif- 
ferent fluids is called an Hydrometer. Liquids of different gra- 
vity may be contained in the same vessel without mixing. 

That science which teaches the art of conveying water in 
pipes is called Hydraulics ; and any machine made for this pur- 
pose, an Hydraulic, or hydraulical engine. 

By the gravity or force of water various kinds of mills and 
wheel engines are moved. Fluids may be conveyed in bended 
pipes, over hills and vallies, to any height not greater than the 
level of the spring whence they flow : of which the ancients 
were not altogether ignorant, as is commonly supposed, (Subit 
altitudineni exortus sui y sc. aqua in tubis plumbeis,) Plin. xxxi. 
6. s. 31. So jets of water, or jets d'eau y would rise to the 
height of the reservoirs from which the water comes, were it 
not for the effects of friction on the sides of the machine, and 
the resistance of the air. Making allowance for these, water 
from a reservoir 5 feet 1 inch high will rise 5 feet, Irom 10 
feet 4 inches to 10 feet, from 33 feet to 30 feet, from 72 feet 
to 60 feet, from 1 17 feet to 90 feet, from 133 feet 4 inches to 
100 feet, &c. 



ft PARTICULAR PROPERTIES of MATTER. 

Certain bodies have properties peculiar to themselves. Thus 
the Loadstone attracts iron and steel only, which force (from 
its Latin name, mognes y ctis) is called MAGNETISM; 

l 1 and, 



\ 



Particular Properties of Matter. 41 

and, what is remarkable, communicates its properties to a 
piece of steel, when rubbed on it, without losing any of its 
own force. When suspended by a thread, it constantly turns 
one of its sides to the north and another to the south ; whence 
the invention of the magnetic needle, of so much use in navi- 
gation. This property of the magnet is found to vary a little in 
different places, which was first observed by Columbus, in his 
voyage to discover America, and greatly perplexed him ; nor 
has it yet been properly accounted for. The cause of mag- 
netism, and the laws by which it acts, are equally invoived in 
obscurity. 

Amber ; glass, jet, sealing wax, and some precious stones, have 
a peculiar property of attracting and repelling light bodies, when 
rubbed ; which is called electrical attraction, 

ELECTRICITY was hardly known to the ancients, al- 
though they appear to have been acquainted with the electri- 
cal properties of amber, {Adtritu digitorum acceptd caloris 
animd (sc. succina vel electra) trahunt in se paleas ac folia arida, 
qua levia sunt ; ut magnes lapis, ferrum, Plin. xxxvii. 3. j-. J2.) 
as early as the days of Thales, who ascribed the attractive 
power of the magnet, and of amber, to their being animated 
by a living principle, D. Laert. i. 24. ; and the word electricity 
seems to be derived from the Latin name of amber, electrum. 
They also knew the electric shock of the torpedo, Plin. ix, 42. 
s. 67. xxxii. 1. s. 2. ; Cic. de Nat. D.\\. 50. ; although ignorant 
of the cause of it, which indeed seems hardly yet sufficient^ j 
ascertained, although it is proved to be of the same nature 
with electricity. Some suppose that the ancients even under- 
stood the method of drawing down the electric fire from the 
clouds; whence, as they suppose, the mme of Jupiter Elicius $ 
and that, in attempting to do this, Tullus Hostilius lost his life, 
Liv. i. 20. Plin. ii. 53. But these opinions seem to be founded 
merely on conjecture. 

The first who made any discoveries of importance concerning 
-electricity was Dr. W. Gilbert, which he gave an account of in 
a book intitled De Magnete, published at London in the year 
1600$ after him Mr. Boyle and others. 

But this curious science has been chiefly cultivated in the 
present century, by Mr. Hauksbee, Gray, Muschenbroek, Dr. 
Franklin, and Dr. Priestley. Mr. Richman, a professor at 
Petersburgh, lost his life in making experiments on it, 6th 
August 1753. 

Electricity and magnetism are thought to have a strong re- 
semblance to one another. On the principles of electricity, 

thunder 



42 



Particular Properties of Matter, 



thunder and lightning are rationally accounted for, which by 
the ancients were thought to be darted by the immediate hand 
of Jupiter ; ascribed by Cicero to the collision of the clouds, 
Div. ii. 19.; so Pliny, though he attributes them also to 
other causes, ii. 43. and also Seneca ; Nat. Q. ii. 54. The 
cause of electricity, however, as of magnetism, still remains 
unknown. 

Another property in certain bodies is ELASTICITY, where- 
by they return to their former figure or state, after it has been 
altered by any force. Thus animal fibres, musical cords, and all 
springy substances. 

This, among others, is one remarkable property of air, that 
it dilates itself upon the removal of any force by which it was 
before compressed. 

AIR. 

Air is that invisible fluid with which this globe is everywhere 
surrounded, Cic. de Nat. D. ii. 36. ; on which depends the life 
of all animals, and the growth of vegetables, which gravitates 
to the earth, revolves with it in its diurnal motions, and goes 
round the sun with it every year. 

That science which treats of air is called Pneumatics. 

The ancient Stoics believed that air pervaded every tiling, 
earth, stones, &c. Senec v. 16. ; and that the sun, moon, and 
stars were nourished by the air exhaled from the earth. Ibid. 

The elasticity of the air was first ascertained by Galileo, and 
its weight by Bacon. But these things were also known to the 
ancients, although less perfectly. Aristotle mentions this proof 
of its gravity, that a bottle or bladder inflated weighs more 
than one quite empty, de Calo, iv. 1. Seneca describes both 
its weight and elasticity. Qiutst, Nat. v. 5 & 6. 

The whole body of air is called the Atmosphere, the height 
of which used to be computed at 45 miles; but it is now found 
that the height of the atmosphere cannot be exactly ascertained, 
from various causes, chiefly from the force ol the electric fluid, 
which is thought to increase in proportion to the distance from 
the earth. 

Beyond the atmosphere there i-> supposed to be a rare fluid, 
or species of matter, called ETHER, infinitely more pure and 
.subtile than the air we breathe, ol an immense extent \ accord- 
ing to Locke and Newton, filling all the spaces where the ce- 

lestu 1 



Air. 



43 



lestial bodies roll, yet making no sensible resistance to their 
motions; supposed by the Stoics to be the origin of all things; 
(Quatttor sunt genera corporum, vicissitudine quorum mundi con- 
iinuata naiura est. Nam ex terra aqua / ex aqua oritur aer $ 
ex a'ere ather : de'inde retrorsum vicissim, ex athere aer - 3 ex aere 
aqua ; ex aqua terra infirm*, Cic. de Nat. D. ii. 33. So Ovid, 
Met. xv. 239* Sec.) 1 particularly of the sun, moon, and stars. 
Cic. ibid. 36 & 40. 

The air next the earth is more dense than at a distance from 
it, because it is pressed down by the whole weight of the air 
above. 

The air near the surface of our earth possesses a space about 
1200 times greater than water of the same weight ; and there- 
fore a column of air 1 200 feet high is of equal weight with a 
column of water of the same breadth, and but one foot high. 
But a column of air reaching to the top of the atmosphere is 
of equal weight with a column of water about 33 feet high ; 
for that is the greatest height that a pump, which acts by the 
weight of the atmosphere, can draw up water. The sucker of 
a pump has no force on water at more than that distance, and 
seldom at much above 32 feet. 

The weight of the atmosphere at the earth's surface is found, 
by experiments made with the Air-pump, (a machine invented 
by Gueric, a Prussian, about 1672, and greatly improved by 
Boyle,) also by the quantity of mercury which the atmosphere 
balances in the barometer, (invented by Toricelli, the disciple 
of Galileo, and professor of mathematics at Florence, a. 1643,) 
in which at a mean state, the mercury stands 29^ inches high. 
Hence it appears that the pressure of the atmosphere upon every 
square inch of the earth's surface is equivalent to about 15 
pounds ; and as the air, like other fluids, presses equally up 
and down, and on all sides, it is computed that a middle-sized 
man, whose body contains about 15 square feet of surface, is 
pressed by 32,400 pounds weight of air ail round *. But be- 
cause this enormous weight is equal on all sides, and counter- 
balanced by the spring of the air diffused through all parts of 
our body, it is not in the least degree felt by us. 

The air becomes gradually more thin as we rise above the 
surface of the earth, in such exact proportion, that the height 
of mountains may be measured with great precision, from the 
sinking of the barometer as we ascend, especially at small 

* Or 2% } Z24 pounds, if the surface is 14 feet square. Herschel. 

heights* 



44 



Air. 



heights, as the mercury sinks at the rate of an inch for 8co 
feet of height to which it is carried ; but in great heights, this 
method of calculation was found liable to great uncertainty 
from various causes, chiefly the different temperature of the 
atmosphere. These uncertainties M. de Luc of Geneva has, 
with much labour, endeavoured to account for, and to remove; 
and Mr. Playfair, professor of natural philosophy in the univer- 
sity of Edinburgh, has ingeniously reduced them to mathema- 
tical calculation. 

The air is commonly said to be heavy when it appears thick 
and foggy; but then it is evidently lighter than usual, from 
the mercury's sinking in the barometer, and the clouds and va- 
pours which compose them, descending. 

The operation of several Hydraulic machines depends on the 
pressure or gravity of the air, as -the common pump invented 
by Ctesibius, a mathematician of Alexandria, about 120 years 
b. C; Plin. vii. 37.; Vitruv. ix. 9.; and greatly improved since 
the real cause of its action, namely, the gravity of the air, was 
discovered by Galileo. Before that, its action was ascribed to 
nature's abhorrence of a 'vacuum. 

Ctesibius also invented a musical instrument, which went by 
the force of water, (Hydrau/os, v. -es> v. hydraulicum organum,) 
Ibid. & Athena, iv. somewhat similar to that which goes by the 
force of air, called JEolus's harp. 

For decanting liquors, a siphon or bended pipe is used, with 
two unequal legs. The shorter leg being immersed in a vessel, 
and the air being sucked out of the other, the liquor will flow 
till the vessel is emptied as far down as the siphon is immersed. 
On this principle, intermitting, or reciprocating springs may be 
accounted for. 

As various substances swell in moist weather, and shrink in 
dry, hence instruments have been contrived for measuring 
the degree of dryness or moisture of the atmosphere, called 
Hygrometers; i. from the lengthening or shortening, or 
from the twisting or untwisting of strings ; 2. from the swell- 
ing and contraction of certain solid substances, especially those 
which are most regularly swelled by moisture and contracted 
by dryness ; 3. by the increase or decrease of the weight of 
such substances as absorb the humidity of the atmosphere, as 
spongesy certain kinds of paper. Sec. But few machines have 
been attempted of this sort with any degree of success ; nor 
indeed has any hygrometer yet been contrived, which exactly 
answers the purpose. 

The 



Air. 



45 



The elastic force of the air is proved in a striking manner 
from the air-gun, a machine contrived to discharge bullets with 
great violence. 

The elasticity of the air is increased by heat, which dilates 
or expands it, and diminished by cold, which condenses it. 
On this quality of the air is founded the construction of the 
air-pump, whereby air may be drawn out of any vessel ; which 
shows that animals cannot live without air, and are killed by 
noxious air. 

Birds have innumerable -air-cells in their bones, and other 
parts of their body, which render them lighter by being inflated, 
and heavier by being compressed. Fishes also have an air-bag, 
the expansion or contraction of which alters their bulk, and 
consequently their relative weight to water. 

By filling a bag with inflammable air, greatly lighter than 
common air, is formed, what is called an Air Balloon ; the 
invention of two brothers named Montgo/fiers, proprietors of a 
paper manufactory at Annonay in the Vivarais, about 36 miles 
south of Lyons in France. The first experiment was exhibited 
at Annonay, 5th June 1783. The first who ascended with a 
balloon was M. Rozier, at Paris, 15th October 1783. After 
which it was attempted by various persons, who got the name 
of Aeronauts. 

Every impression made upon air makes it vibrate every way 
circularly like waves on a plain surface of water, when a stone 
or any such thing is thrown into it. 

This undulatory motion of the air agitating the tympanum or 
drum of the ear, excites in our mind the sensation of sound 5 
and its celerity, like that of the vibrations of a pendulum, is 
increased or diminished in proportion to the force impressed \ 
hence the diversity of sounds, and their intensity when heard 
at different distances. 

There is also a difference of sound, from the number of 
vibrations in the body, which produces the sound 5 as the mind 
receives a different sensation, according to the different per- 
cussions made upon the ear. Hence all the pleasing varieties 
of music. 

A musical tone depends upon the number of vibrations, 
which is said to be the more acute y according as the returns in 
the air are the more frequent, and the more grave, the less the 
number of the waves is. 

Concords arise from the agreement between the different 
motions of the air, which affect the auditory nerves at the 
same time. 

If 



46 



Air. 



If two tremulous bodies perform their vibrations in equal 
times, there will bo no difference between their tones; and this 
agreement, which is the most perfect of all, is called Unison. 
If the vibrations are as i to 2, the consonance or agreement is 
called an Octave ; as 2 to 3, a Fifth, or Diapente ; as 3 to 4, a 
Fourth or Diatessaron ; as 4 to 5, Ditonus. 

Pythagoras was the first who ascertained the proportions 
between musical sounds ; to which he is said to have been 
accidentally led, by observing the different sounds produced by 
the hammers of some smiths who were beating out a bar of 
iron ; this diversity of sound he found to be owing to the dif- 
ferent weight of the hammers. Then having adjusted hammers 
to express the different notes of music, he next tried to produce 
the same proportions between the tones of musical strings, by 
applying different weights to stretch them, Macrob. in Sown. 
Scip. ii. 1. 

Air k the proper vehicle of sound ; in an exhausted glass 
receiver, a bell will emit no sound. Sounds are conveyed 
through water nearly with the same facility as through air : 
Hence a bell sounds in water as well as in air, but with a 
deeper or duller sound. Some say that fishes have a strong 
perception of sound ; while others assert that they are totally 
deaf : But Dr. Monro has lately settled the dispute, by de- 
scribing the auditory organs of fishes, and the manner in which 
they are affected by sound. 

All sounds loud or soft, move equally fast, at the rate of a 
mile in 4! seconds, about 13 miles in a minute. 

The velocity of sound is to that of a brisk wind, as fifty to 
one. Some idea may be formed of the celerity of sound, at 
least in comparison with that of light, by observing the discharge 
of a cannon at a distance, and the difference of time when we 
see the flash and hear the sound. 

Smooth and clear sounds proceed from bodies that are 
homogeneous, and of an uniform figure ; harsh and obtuse 
sounds, from such as arc of a mixed matter, and of an irregular 
form. 

The strength of sound is greatest in cold and dense air, and 
least in that which is warm and rarified. There are instances 
of sounds being heard at the distance of near 200 miles in 
northern regions, and above 100 miles in southern. 

Sound striking against some objects is reflected, as an image 
from a glass ; hence different echoes. When reflected from 
several places, like light, it may be collected into one point, 
28 illtO a iocu^, and thereby increased ; hence the wHipHtHg 
1 5 gallery. 



Air, 



41 



gallery, the speaking trumpet, and auricular tube, to assist the 
hearing of those whose organ is enfeebled- On these prin- 
ciples, various entertaining experiments are exhibited. 

Air was anciently thought a simple fluid, and convertible 
into water. Its common operations were ascribed to its heat 
or *cold, its moisture or dryness ; any other effects of it were 
thought supernatural. 

Van Helmont, a Dutchman, first explained the nature of air 
extracted from different bodies by means of fire, fermentation, 
&c. which he called Gas, from the Dutch Ghest or Geest, spirit. 
Dr. Hales tried to determine the qualities of air in different 
bodies, whence he suspected that the briskness, and sparkling of 
certain waters, as those of Seltzer and Pyrmont, was owing to 
the air they contain ; which was confirmed by M. Venel of 
Mountpelier, in France, in 1750. Dr. Black discovered in 
certain substances a kind of fluid called fixed air, which has led 
the way to many discoveries. The component parts of the air 
we breathe were but lately ascertained, and are as follow : 

Suppose the atmosphere divided into 100 parts, 26 of these 
are vital air, 73 bad or azotic air, and 1 fixed air. This was 
first discovered by Scheele, a German, settled as an apothecary 
at Upsal in Sweden 3 and further confirmed by Lavoisier, 
in France. 

It has been found that nitrous or bad air diminishes the 
bulk of common atmospheric air, in proportion to its salubrity 5 
hence an instrument has been contrived for trying the salubrity 
of the air, called an Eudiometer. 

Air impregnated with the fumes of certain vegetable and 
mineral substances proves fatal to all animals, sometimes almost 
instantaneously •, as the fumes of liquors in the act of fer- 
mentation ; of iron, copper, or any other heated metal. Hence 
the unwholesomeness of hot climates. But air proceeding from 
animal putrefaction, occasioned either by disease or death, is 
particularly noxious. Hence that most dreadful of human 
calamities, the plague. 

A child at birth has no air in its lungs ; but after respiration 
has commenced, the lungs are never after wholly emptied of 
air. It has been computed that in an adult of middling sta- 
ture, 109 cubic inches of air remain in the lungs after the 
fullest expiration, and 179 after an ordinary expiration ; and 
at each ordinary respiration, such an adult draws in 40 cubic 
inches of air. Thus the proportion of the dilatation of the 
lungs before and after an ordinary inspiration, is as 179 to 

219 cu- 



48 



Air. 



219 cubic inches. In a minute the same adult ordinarily 
breathes 14 or 15 times, whilst the pulsations of the heart and 
arteries rmount to 60 or 70 in the same time. 

Of air breathed at once, a 20th part of the pure portion is 
found to be wanting, and its place supplied by an equal quan- 
tity of fixed air. When an animal is obliged to breathe the 
same air a second time, more of the pure disappears, and more 
fixed air is found in its place. Hence an animal confined in a 
small space soon perishes ; and the air in which the animal has 
died being examined, is found to have lost very nearly the 
whole of its pure portion, and in its place to contain as much 
fixed air ; that is, one-fourth part of the whole air breathed 
consists now of fixed air, instead of pure air •, the other three- 
fourth parts remain unaltered, being azotic or bad air. 

Two inseparable qualities of the air are heat and cold. 

HEAT, and its Effects. 

Heat is that by which all bodies are expanded or enlarged 
in their dimens.ons ; fluid substances are carried off in vapour ; 
solid bodies become luminous, and are likewise dissipated in 
vapour, or if incapable of being evaporated, become fluid, and 
at last are converted into glass. On heat animal and vegetable 
life are thought to depend, and by it the most important 
operations of nature to be performed. Different metals are 
differently expanded by heat. A machine for measuring this 
expansion is called a Pyrometer. An iron rod 3 feet long is about 
one 70th part of an inch longer in summer than in winter. 

It is the opinion of Newton and his followers, that FIRE is 
nothing else but an agitation or undulatory motion in the parts, 
whereby the body is heated, and emits flame ; hence that the 
sun and stars are only great earths vehemently heated. 

But others consider fire as an original element, or a particular 
kind of fluid, which exists in all bodies. 

Some have supposed fire to be the separation of what is called 
Phlogiston, or the principle of inflammability from inflammable 
bodies. But the existence of phlogiston, which was thought to 
be an essential component part of all inflammable bodies, is 
now denied ; and fire, in the opinion of most philosophers at 
present, is the effect of the union of pure air with a body when 
sufficiently heated. For no substance will burn without pure 
air, and pure air is always diminished by a burning body. 

There 



Heat, and its Effects. 



49 



There was a certain composition invented by Callinicus, an 
architect, supposed to consist of sulphur, pitch, gum, bitumen, 
&c. which burnt even under water, and that with greater vio- 
lence than out of it, called Wild-fire, marine-fire, or Greek-fire, 
(in French, Feu Gregeois,) because first used by the Greeks, 
about the year 660, under Constantine Pagonatus, against the 
Saracens, near Cyzicus in the Hellespont, with such effect, 
that they burnt the whole Saracen fleet, in which were 30,000 
men. 

But concerning the true nature of this composition the mo- 
derns are altogether unacquainted. The Greeks kept the man- 
ner of preparing it as an impenetrable secret, and thus the 
knowledge of it has been lost ; which is the case with many 
other arts of the ancients *, as the art of dying purple, of pre- 
serving dead bodies, or of making mummies, of making paper 
from the papyrus, of rendering glass malleable, said to have 
been known only by one individual, whom Tiberius ordered to 
be put to death, Plin. 36. 26.5 Petron. 5 1. 5 Dio, lvii. 21.; 
Isidor. xvi. 15. 

EVAPORATION. 

When the parts of any substance, either solid or fluid, are 
dissipated into air in the form of smoke or otherwise, in an in- 
visible manner, it is called EVAPORATION; if naturally, 
Spontaneous evaporation. 

Evaporation is greatly promoted by heat. When fluids are 
heated to a certain degree, their evaporation is attended with a 
great internal motion, called Boiling. 

The boiling points, as well as the freezing points, of differ- 
ent fluids are very different. 

Both fluidity and evaporation are thought to depend on heat % 
and all fluids are supposed to contain, besides their sensible heat f 
or that which we perceive, also a degree of latent heat, which 
escapes our notice. This latent heat is thought to operate in 
the act of freezing; and by means of it water, whether hotter 
or colder than air, is evaporated. 

Evaporation by means of heat, is one of the chief operations 
©f chemistry. 

These parts of bodies rarified by heat, and thus made speci- 
fically lighter than the atmosphere, in which they rise to a 
considerable height, are called Vapours, 
^ Many kinds of vapours are unfriendly to animal life ; espe- 
cially such as arise from metallic solutions. In some places 

E the 



59 Evaporation. 

the earth exhales vapours which prove instantly fatal to such 
animals as breathe them ; thus the Grotto del Carii, near Na- 
ples, so called because the experiment is commonly made with 
dogs (canes) ; sec page 154. 

CLOUDS. 

From the aqueous vapours raised by the heat of the sun, 
from the sea and surface of the earth, are formed the clouds, 
which being condensed by cold, descend in rajn3, fogs, and 
dews; rain in drops of a considerable size, which are found to 
increase as they approach the earth ; fogs in small sphericles, 
very little heavier than air; and dews so small as to be invisible. 
Fogs are supposed to be produced by vapours, which being 
condensed by cold are brought down to the earth before they 
have ascended far in the atmosphere. So that fogs are only 
clouds in the lowest region of the air, as clouds are nothing but 
fogs raised on high. Dews are formed either by the descent of 
such vapours as have been raised during the day-time, or from 
the vapours ascending from the earth during the night. 

The ancients supposed the clouds to be formed not merely 
from evaporation, (liquore egresso m sublime^ but also by the 
conversion of air into water, (ex acre coacto in liquorem,) Plitt. 
ii. 42. 

When the aqueous particles are frozen in the atmosphere, 
they descend in snow, hail, and hoar frost, Plin. ii. 60. 

To the rain and melting of the snows which fall on the 
tops of mountains, some ascribe the origin of SPRINGS. But 
this is not sufficient to account for them, as the depth of rain 
which falls one year with another in different parts of Europe 
amounts only from between 19 or 20 inches, to between 40 
and 50 inches perpendicular, not nearly equal to the quantity 
raised by evaporation. Dr. Halley therefore more justly sup- 
poses the rise of springs to be chiefly owing to the dews that 
fall on the tops of mountains, by which they are attracted. 

By experiment he found, that in a certain degree of heat, 
the 60th part of an inch of water is exhaled every 2 hours, 
and consequently one 10th of an inch in 12 hours. Hence 
allowing the Mediterranean sea to be 40 degrees long, and 4 
degrees bro;id, at a medium, and its whole surface to be 160 
square degrees, it will in 1 2 hours, or a day's time, yield 
5,280,000,000 tuns of water ; which descending in rains and 
dews, &c. is more than sufficient to supply all the springs, 
rivulets, and rivers winch run into that sea. 

Some 



Clouds. 



Some have thought the origin of springs owing to waters 
brought from the sea by absorption, or by subterraneous ducts 
or canals, which lose their saltness by percolation or filtration, 
as they pass through the earth. This was the opinion of Se- 
neca, Q. Nat. in. 5. & 15. ; Lucretius, v. 269. ; and, as it is 
thought, of Solomon, Ecclesiast. i. 7. It is supposed to be con- 
firmed by the quantity of water issuing from springs always 
remaining the same; being neither diminished by drought, nor 
increased by rain. Besides, it is certain that in most parts of 
the earth, water is found at a small depth from the surface, 
which may be supposed to be derived from the sea below 
ground, as well as from the rains and dews which fall from the 
atmosphere. Aristotle imputed the origin of springs to the air 
contained in the caverns of the earth, condensed by cold near 
its surface, and thereby changed into water, which issued forth 
where it could find a passage. Vid. Plin. ii. 65. 66. 

In Egypt, Sindy, and Peru, it seldom or never rains j and in 
some places under the equator it is said to rain for one half of 
the year, and to be fair the other. Varen. i. vi. 19. prop. 42. 

Sometimes clouds are highly electrified, and in southern 
regions produce the most fatal effects. A cloud of this kind 
in the island of Java in the East Indies, on the nth of August 
1772, descended on a mountain in the night-time, and de- 
stroyed every thing near the top of it ; about 2140 people, and 
a vast number of cattle were killed. Another cloud of the same 
kind at Malta, 29th October 1757, destroyed many houses and 
ships, and about 200 people. # 

The height of clouds is commonly not very great. The sum- 
mits of very high mountains are usually free from them ; as 
jffitna, the Alps, &c. and hence, from the top of these, a per- 
son may, in perfect security, hear the thunder roll, and see the 
lightning flash from the clouds far below him, which is one of 
the most sublime and awful scenes in nature. 

But the most dreadful effects of fire and heat are exhibited 
in earthquakes and volcanos or burning mountains. 

* The torrid zone is the chief theatre of thunder-storms. They are unknown in 
regions near the poles. It never thunders in Greenland, nor in Hudson's Bay. In 
the temperate zones, thunder-storms are more frequent and violent, in proportion as 
we approach the tropics. 



Earth* 



5S 



Earthquakes and Volcanos. 



EARTHQUAKES and VOLCANOS. 

Earthquakes were supposed by the ancients to be produced 
by immense quantities of inflammable air contained in the ca- 
verns of the earth, which being greatly rarified by internal fires, 
and finding no outlet, forces a passage through whatever op- 
poses it-, Senec. Quasi. N. vi. II, 12.; Plin. ii. 79, 80, 81, 
&c. Hence they are most frequent in the neighbourhood of 
volcanos. 

But although earthquakes produce the most dreadful effects 
of any thing in nature, the history of them is very incomplete. 
The destruction they occasion engrosses the attention of people 
too much to permit them to examine accurately the appear- 
ances which occur. 

Earthquakes are usually preceded by a general stillness in the 
air ; the sea swells and makes a great noise, the fountains are 
troubled and send forth muddy water ; the birds seem fright- 
ened, as if sensible of the approaching calamity, &c. 

The shock comes on with a rumbling noise, like that of car- 
riages or of thunder •, sometimes the ground heaves perpendi- 
cularly upwards, and sometimes rolls from side to side. A 
single shock is but of very short duration, seldom lasting a 
minute; but the shocks frequently succeed each other at short 
intervals, for a considerable length of time. During the shocks, 
chasms are made in the ground, from which flames, but 
oftener great quantities of water, are discharged. The chasms 
are sometimes so wide, as to overwhelm whole cities at once. 
Often the earth opens and closes again, swallowing up some 
people entirely, and squeezing others to death caught by the 
middle. Sometimes persons have been swallowed up in one 
chasm and thrown out alive by another. Sometimes houses 
are shuffled from their places, and yet continue standing ; and 
farms have been moved half a mile from their places, with- 
out any considerable alteration. Sometimes whole islands are 
sunk, and new ones raised ; the course of rivers is changed ; 
seas break into the land, forming gulfs, bays, and straits, 
tearing islands from the land, or joining them to the con- 
tinent, &C. 

These and various other circumstances are enumerated in the 
descriptions we have of earthquakes in ancient times, Plin. ii. 
^9. s. 81 — 94. j'. 96.; Si/ia: Nii/. Q* vi. [, &C. ; Marcrilin. 

xvii. 



EurthquaJces ctnd Volcanos* 



^vii. 7.; and in modern times, of that which happened in Ja- 
maica a. 1692, when Port Royal was destroyed; in Cala- 
bria, a, 1638, when the town Euphemia was totally sunk, and 
nothing but a dismal and putrid lake to be seen where it stood ; 
in Sicily, a. 1693, when the city Catania was destroyed, 
and of 18,900 inhabitants scarcely 900 survived 5 at Lisbon, 
1st November 1755, when almost the whole city was laid 
in ruins; which earthquake was felt also in various other 
places, and in some of them with equal destruction. Its effects 
are supposed to have extended over a considerable part of the 
globe. 

Earthquakes have been accounted for from the power of 
electric matter contained in the bowels of the earth ; which 
is also supposed to be the cause of volcanos. Pliny ascribes 
earthquakes to the same cause which produces thunder ; Ne- 
que aliud est in terra tremor ', quam in uube tonitruym ; nec hia- 
tus aliud, quam cum fulmen erumpit ; incluso spiritu luctante, et 
ad libertatem exire nitente>\\. 79. s. 81. and concludes his de- 
scription of subterraneous effusions with this beautiful remark ; 
Quibus in rebus quid possit aliud causa afferre mortalium quisquam y 
quam diffusa per omne naturae subinde aliter atque alitur numen erum~ 

pens P Plin. ii. 93. 95. The force of volcanos is supposed 

to be the greatest of any thing yet known in nature. In the great 
eruption of Vesuvius in 1779, a stream of lava, of an immense 
magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height of at 
least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain. 

COLD. 

The cause of ccld is as uncertain as the nature of fire. Sonr$ 
maintain that it is only the absence of heat ; but others, that 
it is a real substance. At a certain distance below ground, 
where there is a free circulation of air, there is an uniform 
temperature ; whence it is thought that the atmosphere is the 
source of cold as the sun is of heat. For the rays of the sun 
heat the atmosphere only by reflection ; and where that cannot 
reach, an intense degree of cold is always found to take place. 
When the cold is most intense, it is found only to affect the 
surface of the ground. 

Some suppose cold to consist in certain saline or nitrous par- 
ticles ; because a mixture of water with saline substances is 
considerably colder than either the water or the salt unmixed. 
Others attribute cold to the action of the electric fluid, because 

E 3 the 



Cold. 



the readiest conductors of it most easily transmit heat and coldj 
thus, metals: whereas wool, hair, silk, &c. which will not 
conduct this fluid, are found to be the best preservatives against 
both heat and cold •, but glass, which is the best non-conductor, 
very readily transmits heat. 



CONGELATION. 

When fluids are changed by cold into a solid state, it is 
called congelation, or freezing. 

The instrument made use of for measuring the different de- 
grees of heat and cold in the atmosphere by means of the elas- 
tic and expansive power of fluids, is called a Thermometer ; 
the invention of which is attributed to different persons. Air 
was the fluid at first made use of for this purpose. Spirit of 
wine was first used by Ferdinand II. Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
or by the members of the academy Del Cimento, under his pro- 
tection. Boyle first introduced the thermometer into England. 

The fluid now universally preferred is quicksilver or mercury, 
as being more uniformly heated or cooled than any other with 
which we are acquainted, and which, till lately, it was thought 
could not be congealed. 

Thermometers are adjusted to the boiling and freezing points, 
according to the method proposed by Fahrenheit, a celebrated 
artist of Amsterdam. But those points were not ascertained 
without great difficulty, and after much labour bestowed by 
the most eminent philosophers. 

Thermometers are not uniformly marked in the same man- 
ner in the different countries of Europe. Some persons and so- 
cieties mark them in one way, and some in another. 

Different degrees of cold are requisite for the congelation of 
different fluids. Water congeals when Fahrenheit's thermo- 
meter is at 32 degrees above o; vinegar at 28", wine at 20*, 
brandy at 7 below o, light spirit of wine not till it has sunk 
to 34 below o, and mercury, as is thought, at 48* below o, 
a degree of cold, of which, 111 this country, we have no con- 
ception. 

The action of congelation is always instantaneous. Although 
all known substances, and water among the rest, are consider- 
ably diminished in bulk by cold ; yet after water is arrived at 
the freezing point, the congelation which then instantly takes 
place makes it suddenly expand itself about ^ of its bulk, which 
has been lately found to be owing to an innumerable quantity 



Congelation, 



5$ 



of small bubbles, with which the ice is filled. Hence ice is 
lighter than its bulk of water, being as 8 to 9, and therefore 
floats on the surface. 

Water is most easily frozen when it has been boiled ; and 
more so when it is a little moved, than when quite at rest. 
What is strange, water in the act of freezing becomes a little 
warmer ; the thermometer when immersed in it sinks below 32, 
but immediately returns to its former state. 

Water mixed with salts, and melted snow and ice, will not 
freeze till the thermometer is considerably below 3 2° *, but if a 
glass of pure water be immersed in this mixture; it will imme- 
diately freeze. 

Various causes for frost have been assigned, but all of them 
liable to some objections. 

The force with which water expands itself in the act of con- 
gelation is prodigious ; it will burst the strongest cannon. 
Hence the reason why the stones of a pavement or of a building 
are loosened after a frost. 

The ice in northern countries is harder than in more south- 
ern climates. In 1 740, a palace was built of ice at Petersburgh, 
52 feet long, and 20 feet high. Even cannons were made of 
it, from one of which a ball went through an oak plank 2 
inches thick, at the distance of 60 paces 5 and the piece did not 
burst with the explosion. 

Frost proceeds from the upper part of bodies downwards \ 
but how deep it will reach in earth or water is uncertain ; sel- 
dom above 2 feet in the ground, and 6 in water. 

Artificial ice may be made by pounded ice or snow mixed 
with any salt, particularly with sal-ammoniac. In the East- 
Indies ice is produced without the assistance of snow or ice of 
any kind, between 25 \ and 23I degrees of north latitude, where 
natural ice is seldom or never seen, simply by the effect of the 
air on water placed in pits sunk a little below the surface of the 
ground in a particular position ; and by means of a solution of 
nitre in water. 

Among the various effects of heat and cold on the atmos- 
phere, one of the most important is wind. 



WINDS. 

Winds are produced by an agitation of the air, occasioned 
chiefly by the variations of heat and cold, by which it is either 
rarified or condensed. Thus Pliny, Ventus nihil aliui quam 

E 4 fuxus 



Winds. 



flttxus a'Sris, Sec. ii. 44. So Seneca, Ventus est aer fiuens ; Nat, 
Q. v. i. and Cicero, dc Nat. D. ii. 39. 

As the air is subject to the laws of gravitation, likeother fluids, 
it has a constant tendency to preserve its equilibrium ; so that 
if it is by any means more rarified or rendered lighter in one 
place than another, the weightier air will rush in from all parts 
to that place •, which currents of air, if strong, are called winds; 
if gentle, breezes or gales. Thus the air is constantly carried 
from the polar regions towards the torrid zone, where it is also 
affected by the diurnal motion of the sun from east to west. 
The winds, therefore, for a considerable space north of the 
equator, about 30 degrees in the open sea, blow from the north- 
east, and as far south of the equator, from the south-east. These 
are called Trade-Winds, from their facilitating trading voyages. 

In the day-time, the air above the land is much hotter than 
above the sea, whose surface being constantly evaporated keeps 
the air cooler. Hence in the day-time a breeze always blows 
from the sea, more or less strong in proportion to the heat. 
But at night, when the influence of the sun's rays is with- 
drawn, the falling of the dews renders the air at land colder 
than at sea ; whence a land breeze or a current of air from 
the land, succeeds, increasing gradually like the sea breeze, 
but never so strong. These land and sea breezes are not con- 
fined to the torrid zone. The sea breeze in particular, during 
the summer season, is as sensibly felt along the coasts of the 
Mediterranean as within the tropics. 

The currents of air from the north and south meeting where 
the sun is vertical, by their opposition darken the atmosphere, 
and occasion heavy rains ; hence in the torrid zone they have 
then the coldest and most inconstant weather, which they cali 
ivinter. For they make summer to consist in a clear sky, and 
winter in wet weather and a little cold ; so that under the equa- 
tor they have two winters and two summers in the year. 

In the Indian ocean, from its particular situation and that of 
the lands which surround it, the trade winds blow one half of 
the year in one direction, and another half in an opposite di- 
rection : these are called Monsoons. From April or May, to 
October or November, the wind blows from the south-oast 
or north-east ; and during the rest of the year from the opposite 
quarters. The changing or shifting of the monsoons is generally 
attended with tcrible storms of rain, thunder, and lightning \ 
in some places with calms and variable winds. 

As the trade-winds always blow from the east, it is easy to 
sail westwards in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; but to sail 

14 eastwards 



Winds* 



57 



eastwards it is necessary to go far north or south to meet with 
variable winds. If the same constant trade-winds had taken 
place in the Indian ocean, it would have been impossible to sail 
eastwards north of the equator, as the continent of Asia would 
have prevented ships from going far enough north to meet with 
variable winds. 

In certain parts of America, particularly in the bays of 
Honduras and Campeachy, and that of Panama, the wind 
shifts regularly at certain seasons, although not so remarkably 
as on the African and Asiatic coasts. In Jamaica and the 
Caribbee islands, there are violent storms of wind, called Hur- 
ricanes, usually in July, August, or September ; the wind 
during the hurricane frequently veering, and blowing in every 
direction. 

In the Gulph of Persia, particularly at Ormus, during the 
months of June and July, a hot suffocating wind sometimes 
blows from the west, for a day or two together, which scorches 
up and destroys any animal exposed to it. On this account the 
people of Ormus then leave their habitations, and retire to the 
mountains. 

Winds similar to this in kind, although not in degree, are 
sometimes felt on the coast of Coromandel, where they are 
called Terrenos s and likewise on the Malabar coast. 

On the coast of Africa, north of Cape Verde, during the 
months of December, January, and February, an easterly wind 
sometimes blows for a day or two called by sailors Harmattan^ 
so intensely cold, as to be almost as destructive as the west 
winds at Ormus. 

In the temperate zones the wind blows from all quarters 
at different times. In most countries, however, the wind, at 
certain seasons of the year, blows from a particular quarter ; 
and more cold or warm from one part than from another. 
Thus Pliny observes, that periodical winds, called Etesije, 
used to begin in Italy about the rising of the dog-star, and 
blow from the north for about 40 days^ ii. 47. xviii. 34. s. 77.; 
so Seneca, Nat. Q. v. 10, 11. 18. serving to moderate the ex- 
cessive heat, Cie. Nat. D. ii. 53. There were certain winds 
which preceded them, called Prodromi, their forerunners, 
Plin. ib. But Etesia (i. e. anniversarii sc. venti) seem to be 
put for any periodical winds : thus they are mentioned as 
blowing from the west, Cic.Att. vi. 7.; Fam. xii. 25.; ad 
Brut. 15. ; Tacit • Hist. ii. 98. 5 Liv. xxxvii. 23. ; and in dif- 
ferent countries from different quarters j Plin. ii. 47. There 
were periodical west winds in spring, to mitigate the cold 

(hibernum 



58 



Winds. 



(hibemum molliunt caelum) ; called by the Greeks Zephyri, by 
the Latins, Favonii, Plin. xxiii. 34. or Chelidonii, [ab 
hirundinis visu,) because they began when swallows first ap- 
peared ; Id. ii. 47. ; Horat. ep. i. 7. 13.-, Virg G. i. 44. 

There is very often in summer, on the coast of Naples, for 
several days together, a very enfeebling wind from the south- 
east, called the Sirocc,or Scirocco, The properties of the differ- 
ent winds in Italy are described by Pliny, ii. 47. s, 48. 

The ancients observed only four winds; called Venti Car- 
dinales by Servius, in Virg. JEn i. 131. because they blow 
from the four cardinal points, Plin. ii. 47. Homer mentions 
no more than Eurus, the east ; NoTUSj the south ; Zephy- 
rus, the west; and Boreas, the north wind. Odyss. v. 295. 
So in imitation of him, Ovid, Met. i. 61 ; Trist. i. 2. 27. ; 
and Manilius, iv. 589. Afterwards intermediate winds were 
added, first one, and then two, between each of these. Most 
writers make only eight winds, and Vitruviua informs us that 
one Andronlcus at Athens built a marble tower in the form of 
an octagon with the eight winds marked, every one on that side 
which faced it, i. 6. In naming the winds, authors differ not 
only from the poets above mentioned, but also from one an- 
other ; thus Septentrio vel Grace Aparctias, the north ; 
Aquilo, Boreas v. Cacias, the north-east ; Subsolanus, So/a- 
nus, v. Apheliotes, the east; Eurus v. Voliumus, the south- 
east ; Auster v. Notus, the south ; Africus, vel Libs v. 
Lips, the south-west ; ZephyRUS vel Favonius, the west ; 
Corus, Caurus, Argestes, v. Japix, the north-west. Seneca 
and others make twelve winds. The names of the additional 
four are Cacias, between Boreas and Solanus ; Euronotus, Phoe- 
nic'ias v. Phoenix, between Eurus and Notus ; Libonotus, be- 
tween Notus and Africus ,• and Thracias vel Circius, between 
Caurus and Septentrio, Senec. Q. Nat. v. 16. ; Plin. ii. 47. ; 
Gell. ii. 22. Opposite or contrary winds were said reflare alter 
alteri, or adversus flare, Plin. and Gell. ib. Cic. Att. vi. 7. 

There were some winds peculiar to certain countries ; as 
Atabulus to Apulia, Senec. Nat, Q. v. 17. («7ro th anjv /3aAAs<v, 
quod pes tern immittat ;) Scholiast, in Horat. Sat. i. 5. 77. Japix 9 
to Calabria, Senec. ib. (Gellius says it blows from Apulia; ii. 
22. whence Apulia is sometimes called Japygia, especially by 
the poets, 5/7. i. 5 1. But Strabo makes Japygia the same with 
Calabria; vi. p. 191.) SciuoN, to Athens; Circius, to the 
provincia Narhnensis in Gaul, Sec. Senec. ib. ; Plin. ii. 47. 

The moderns make 32 winds, the 4 cardinal winds 90° dis- 
tant, and 28 collateral or intermediate, 11 deg. and 15 mm. dis- 

15 tant 



Winds, 



59 



tant from each other, of which those in the middle between 
two cardinals, are 45 distant from each cardinal. This division, 
with the several names of each point, was made by the Ger- 
mans, as most commodious ; but these names are not easily ex- 
pressed in other languages. They are thus marked in English j 
N. standing for north, S. for south, E. for east, and W. for 
west. 



North. 
N and by E. 
NNE 
NE and by N 
NE 

N E and by E 

ENE 

E and by N. 



East. 
E and by S 
ES E 

S E and byE 
S E 

S E and by S. 

SS E 

S and by E 



South. 
S and by W 

SS w 

S W and by S 

s w 

SWandbyW. 

wsw 

W and by S 



West. 
W and by N 
WNW 
NWand byW 
NW 

NWand byN 
NNW 
Nand by W 



But some make as many points on the compass, and as many 
winds, as there are degrees on the horizon, namely, 360. 

The beneficial effects of wind are manifold. It purifies 
the air, conveys the clouds from one place to another, promotes 
vegetation by agitating the plants, connects the different parts 
of the earth by commerce, &c. 

The velocity of the wind near the earth is very unequal, 
from the frequent interruptions it meets with; but, at- some 
distance from the earth, it appears, from the motion of the 
clouds, to be steady and uniform. This has been measured, and 
calculated to be in a strong wind, 61 miles an hour ; in a brisk 
gale, 2 1 miles ; and in a gentle breeze, about 9 miles. 

Of the various beneficial uses of the air, one of the most im- 
portant is the transmission of light. 



LIGHT, 

The nature of light is very little known. It is generally sup- 
posed to consist, according to the opinion of Newton, of an 
infinity of inconceivably small particles, issuing from all points 
of a luminous body, somewhat like sparks from a coal, in 
straight lines and in all directions. These particles entering 
the eye, excite in our minds the idea of light. Des Cartes 
thought that light is occasioned by the vibrations of a subtile 

fluid. 



60 



Light. 



fluid. We can trace the properties of light, as of fire, from 

its effects, but the nature and cause of both are involved in 
obscurity. 

That science which treats of the nature and properties of 
light, and of the laws of vision, is called OPTICS. 

The velocity of the rays of light, from the surface of a lu- 
minous body, is no less surprising than their minuteness. This 
velocity is estimated by observations on the satellites of Jupiter, 
to be about 95 millions of miles in 7 or 8 minutes. 

We commonly connect the ideas of fire and light together, 
and suppose a body that emits light to be burning. In general 
a considerable degree of heat is requisite to the emission of light 
from any body, but not always ; and some think that light in 
itself has no heat. 

Light is found to proceed both from animal and vegetable 
substances in a putrescent state, from various insects and fishes. 
Thus also a certain chemical preparation, called Phosphorus, 
shines in the dark. 

That appearance called Ignis fatuus, or Will with a wisp, 
visible chiefly in damp places, in burying grounds, and near 
dung-hills, is of the same nature with light produced from pu- 
trescent substances. Some have thought it owing to shining 
insects; and others account for it on the principles of electri- 
city. Newton calls it a vapour shining without heat. 

A body which emits light is called lucid or luminous. A suc- 
cession of the particles of light in a straight line is called a ray 
or beam of light. Any transparent body through which the rays 
of light can pass, is called a medium ; as air, water, glass, &c. 
A vacuum also transmits light. 

The rays of light always proceed in straight lines, unless they 
are turned aside by some intervening body. 

When the rays of light, passing from one medium to another, 
are inflected or diverted from their rectilineal course, they are 
said to be refracted ; and this property of light is called its rc- 
frangibility. 

The ancients knew that a ray of light was bent when it 
passed from one medium to another. To this they were led by 
observing the appearance of a straight stick, when immersed in 
water, of a ring or circle when seen below water, (on which 
Archimedes is said to have written a book,) and of a small 
coin or the like becoming visible at the bottom of a bowl 
when filled with water, to a person standing at a certain 
distance, where he could not see it when the bowl was 
empty. 

Ptolemy 



Light. 



61 



Ptolemy seems to have been well acquainted with refraction. 
For he says, that the light of the sun, moon, and stars, falling 
obliquely upon the gross atmosphere that surrounds the earth, 
are turned out of the rectilineal course •, which causes those 
luminaries to rise sooner, and to appear to us higher in the 
heavens than they would otherwise do : and also makes the dis- 
tances between the stars to appear greater, when near the ho- 
rizon than in the meridian. He ascribes the remarkably larger 
apparent size of the sun and moon, when near the horizon, 
to the same cause ; and also to the idea we conceive of their 
distance, from the multitude of intervening objects. So Po« 
sidonius, Strab. iii. 138. 

The true doctrine of refraction was first discovered by SneU 
lius, professor of mathematics at Leyden ; and the cause of it 
more fully explained by his contemporaries, Des Cartes and 
Leibnitz* Grimaldi, an Italian painter, first observed, that the 
coloured image of the sun refracted through a prism is always 
oblong, and that the colours proceed from refraction. But the 
complete illustration of this subject, together with the different 
refrangibility of the rays of light, was reserved for Newton, 
who is said to have been led to that discovery while grinding 
optical glasses in 1666. 

When the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing 
body, they are said to be reflected, and the bodies which reflect 
them are called opaque bodies, or reflecting surfaces. When the 
rays are absorbed by penetrating the substance of any body, they 
are said to be lost or extinguished. 

The rays of light are subject to the laws of attraction like 
other small bodies. If a stream of light be admitted by a small 
hole into a dark room, and made to pass by the edge of a knife, 
it will be diverted from its natural course, and inflected towards 
the edge of the knife. 

Refraction arises from this, that the rays are more attracted 
by a dense than by a rare medium. 

Rays proceeding from the same point as a centre, and con- 
tinually receding from each other, are said to be divergent. The 
point from which they proceed is called the Radiant point. 

Rays which approach nearer and nearer one another, and 
concur in one point, or would concur if they were continued, 
are said to be convergent. The point of concourse is called the 
Focus. 

Parallel rays passing out of one medium into another of dif- 
ferent density, and separated by a plain surface, will also be 
parallel after refraction. 

But 



But rays which come converging from a denser medium into 
a rarer, become more convergent ; if from a rarer medium to 
a denser, less convergent. So diverging rays going out of a 
denser medium into a rarer, become more dp rging. 

A ray of light, when it enters a dirF rent medium, is called 
an incident ray ; and the angle it forms with the surface of that 
medium, the angle of incidence: While it parses through the 
medium after being inflected or diverted from its former course, 
it is called a refracted ray ; and the angle it forms with the same 
surface, the angle of refraction. 

If a ray of light enter a dense medium from a rarer one, its 
velocity only is supposed to be increased by the force of attrac- 
tion ; but it moves on in the same line and is not refracted : 
If it enter obliquely, its direction becomes less oblique to the 
surface of the medium ; or, as it is otherwise expressed, is 
refracted towards the perpendicular ; that is, supposing a line 
drawn perpendicularly to the surface of the medium, through 
the point where the ray enters, and extended every way, the 
ray, in passing the surface, is refracted or bent towards the 
perpendicular line •, or, what is the same thing, makes a less 
angle with the perpendicular than it did before. 

The twinkling of the fixed stars is ascribed to the unequal 
refraction of light, in consequence of inequalities or undulations 
in the air, or of the agitation of the vapours or small particles 
floating in the atmosphere j but this twinkling seems rather to 
be owing to the immense distance of the stars, and the faint 
light which they transmit to us : for the undulation of the at- 
mosphere has not the same effect on the planets, which do not 
twinkle, but always shine with a steady light. 

The apparent concavity of the sky is only an optical decep- 
tion ; owing to the incapacity of our organs of vision to take 
in very large distances ; and its blue colour to a mixture of the 
white light of the sun, blended with the black space beyond the 
atmosphere, where there is neither refraction nor reflection. 
Others impute this to vapours diffused through the atmosphere, 
or to the constitution of the air itself. 

To the refraction of light is owing the twilight and the sun 
and stars appearing to rise sooner and set later than they do in 
reality, which is particularly rem ;rkable within the polar circles, 
where, by this means, the length of the summer is greatly in- 
creased, and of their winter diminished. 

But the refraction of the rays of light is chiefly remarkable, 
when the mediums through which they pass are separated by a 
spherical surface. 

That 



Light. 



That part of optics, which treats of refraction and the laws of 
it, is called Dioptrics ; and glasses made use of for assisting the 
sight in viewing distant objects are called Dioptrical glasses. 

In nothing have the moderns excelled the ancients more than 
in their discoveries concerning light, and the invention of opti- 
cal instruments. 

Convex glasses for collecting the rays of light into a point, or 
concave ones for making them diverge, are called Lenses, from 
their resemblance to the seeds of a lentil, [lens,) a kind of pulse. 

Of Iens.es there are five kinds; I. a plano-convex, that is plain 
on one side and convex on the other ; 2. convex on both sides, 
or a double convex ; 3. a plano-concave ; 4. a double concave s 5. a 
miniscus, or concavo-convex ; i. e. concave on one side and 
convex on the other, like a watch-glass. 

An oblong glass, with at least three plain sides bounded by 
parallel lines, and both its ends similar and parallel, is called 
a Prism, 

In passing through glasses plain on both sides, the direction 
of the rays is not changed. In passing through convex lenses, 
the rays converge towards one another in proportion to the 
greatness of the convexity of the glass ; and in concave lenses, 
the contrary : oblique rays, however, more so than direct 
rays. Convex lenses also become burning-glasses. With these 
the ancients were well acquainted ; Aristoph. in Nub. ii. 1. 140. ; 
Plin. 36.67. — 37. 10.; Lactant. de ird Dei, c.\o. and are 
thought by means of them to have lighted their sacred fire. 
Archimedes is said to have contrived burning glasses, which 
are supposed to have been of the reflecting kind, made of 
metal, of such amazing force, as to destroy the fleet of Marcellus, 
lying before Syracuse, at the distance of a bow-shot. And 
Zonaras says the same thing was done at the siege of Constanti- 
nople, by one Proclus under Anastasius. 

When the rays of light passing through a single or double 
convex lens are brought into their smallest compass, that point 
is the focus of the lens. 

By placing a convex lens in a small opening through the win- 
dow of a dark room, with a white paper at a proper distance 
opposite to it, is formed the Camera obscura ; and by placing a 
concave lens in a lamp of a particular construction, are repre- 
sented the wonders of what is called the Magic Lantern. In 
this last there is usually a combination of lenses. 

From the effects of convex glasses in collecting into a point 
the rays of light which pass through them, and thus forming 
the images of objects, we may conceive the manner in which 

images 



64 



Light, 



images are formed on the retina, a thin membrane spread like 
net-work on the bottom of the eye. 

If a small piece be cut out of the back part of the coat of the 
eye, and a piece of thin paper put in its place, and the eye 
directed towards any object, an inverted picture of that object 
will be seen on the paper : whence it is supposed that children, 
or blind persons when they recover their sight, at first see ob- 
jects inverted : but this does not follow ; for there is no more 
connection between an idea in our mind and an erect figure, 
than an inverted one. The truth is, the doctrine of vision is 
not understood, neither how we perceive objects, nor why, 
having two eyes, we do not see objects double. 

The cause of the reflection of light, whereby we see objects, 
is equally uncertain. Various hypotheses have been formed 
to account for it, but all of them unsatisfactory. 

Several bodies both refract and reflect the rays of light, that 
is, let part of the rays pass through them, and throw back others ; 
as water, glass , diamond, Sec. 

That part of optics which treats of the laws of reflection, is 
called Catoptrics. 

If a ray of light fall perpendicularly upon water, or any 
polished surface, it will be reflected near the perpendicular, 
and if it fall obliquely, it will be reflected obliquely ; or, as it is 
otherwise expressed, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle 
of reflection. 

With this likewise the ancients were acquainted ; and Aris- 
totle thought that it is the reflection of light from the atmosphere 
which prevents total darkness after sun-set, and in places where 
the sun does not shine in the day time ; also that rainbows, 
halos or circles round the sun, and mock suns, are all occasioned 
by the reflection of sun-beams in different circumstances. 

It was only in the last century that the different colours of the 
rainbow were accounted for upon the principles of refraction 
and reflection, from the rays of light falling upon small drops 
of rain in a particular direction.* 

The different refrangibility and reflection of the rays of light 
excite in our minds the idea of different colours. 

Those rays which do not differ from one another in refran- 
gibility are said to be homogeneous. Those which, under the same 
circumstances, are not equally inflected by refraction, are called 
heterogeneous . 

That part of optics which treats of colours, is called Chro- 
matics. 



Pliny ascribes this nppear.incc to difVurent causes, ii. 59. 

The 



Light 



65 



The opinions of the ancients concerning the cause of the di- 
versity of colours, were various and uncertain. This matter was 
first rationally accounted for by Sir Isaac Newton. He discovered 
that the rays of light, which to us appear to be perfectly homo- 
geneous, and white, are composed of no fewer than seven dif- 
ferent colours; red, orange, yellow , green, blue, purple, and 
violet or indigo ; and that bodies appear of different colours, as 
they have the property of reflecting some rays more powerfully 
than others. Hence a body which is of a black colour, instead 
of reflecting, absorbs all, or the greatest part of the rays which fall 
upon it; whence a black cloth imbibes more heat than any other; 
and, on the contrary, a body which appears white, reflects the 
greatest part of the rays indiscriminately without separating the 
one from the other. Thus if streaks of all the seven colours 
be intermingled on the surface of a table, and the table made to 
turn round quickly, it will appear white. Without light vege- 
tables would have no colour, but would all appear white. 

The seven different colours of the sun-beams are called Prz- 
tnary colours ; and by compounding any two of them, as red and 
yellow, or yellow and blue, the intermediate colours, as orange or 
green may be produced. 

All these colours are conspicuous in the rainbow, Ovid. 
Met. vi. 63. and are beautifully exemplified by making the sun- 
beams pass through a glass phial, exactly cylindrical, full of 
water, or through a glass prism into a dark room. 

The ancients believed that water- was drawn up from the 
earth, or from the fountains, to the clouds by Iris, the messenger 
of Juno, that is, of the air, Ovid. Met. i. 271.; and the goddess 
of the rainbow ; hence Bibit ingens arcus, Virg. G. i. 380. * ; 
that thus the clouds were fed, and rains produced, Lucan. iv. 
79. ; Ovid. ib. ; Senec. Q. N. i. 6. ; Stat. Theb. ix. 405. ; to 
which opinion Plautus humorously alludes, Cure. i. 2. 41. 

Clouds often appear very beautifully coloured, from their be- 
ing composed of aqueous particles, between which air is inter- 
spersed ; and therefore they exhibit various colours, according 
to the different distances of these aqueous particles. 

The opinions of several of the ancients, particularly of Plato 
and Pythagoras, concerning the nature of light -and of colours, 
came wonderfully near to this justly-celebrated discovery of 
Newton, concerning the cause of colours. They taught, that 
colours were the effect of light transmitted from bodies, and 
containing small particles adapted to the organ of vision : P/#- 



$o~-Pclago-soUtam Thaumaniida (i. e. Irida,) pasci, Stat, Achill, i. 7,%0. 

F tarch* 



66 s Light. 

tarch. de placit. philos. i. 15. iv. 13.; Qui (colores) quonlam 
quodam gignuntur luminis ictu> Lucret. ii. 807. & 754. 794, &c. 
Plato has even described the effects of the mixture of colours, 
and says that two colours might be formed out of one ; and 
while he points out the difficulties of this subject, and the me- 
rit of the person who should fully explain it, he, as it were by 
the spirit of divination, pronounces the noblest eulogium on 
Newton. Plato in Timao. 

The doctrine of Descartes concerning the instantaneous pro- 
pagation of light, was maintained by some of the followers of 
Aristotle, who even employed the same similitude with him to 
illustrate it ; that, as a long stick or string, when stretched, 
cannot be moved at one end without being instantly moved at 
the other, so if an impulse be made on a particle of the subtile 
fluid of light next the sun, it must be instantaneously commu- 
nicated to all the other particles between the sun and the organ 
of sight, 

Aristotle even explained the reason why the rays of the sun 
passing through a small hole of a square or triangular shape, 
form a circular image ; which is said to have been first solved 
by Maurolicus or Marolle, about the middle of the 15 th cen- 
tury. The reason Aristotle assigns is, that the rays converge 
into a cone, whose base is the luminous circle. Aristotle, pro- 
blem. 15. 5. 

The appearance of the Aurora Borealis, or Streamers, is sup- 
posed to proceed from electric matter in the atmosphere. In 
ancient times it seems to have rarely happened, as it is scarcely 
ever mentioned by any of the Latin or Greek classics. It was 
first observed in London in 1560, and called Burning Spurs. 
Since the year 1716, it has been more frequent. A history of 
it before that time was written by Halley. It is seldom seen in 
the southern hemisphere. 

The ancients, although acquainted with the magnifying power 
of glass, Senec. Nat. i. 3. seem to have had no instruments of the 
optical kind, but speculums or looking-glasses, and glass globes 
filled with water. These they are thought to have used in per- 
forming their minute works of art; and indeed we can scarcely 
conceive the possibility of executing them without such assistance. 
Thus Pliny mentions, on the authority of Cicero, the whole Iliad 
of Homer written on parchment, in so fine u character, as to be 
contained in a nut-shell, vii. 41. So iElian speaks of an ivory 
chariot, so small and so delicately framed, that a fly with its 
wing could cover it •, and a little ivory ship of the same di- 
mensions, u 1. Pliny says, that in his time artificers made 

use 



Light. 



67 



use of emeralds to assist their sight, which were made concave, 
the better to collect the rays [concavi ut visum colligant) ; and 
that Nero used them in viewing the combats of gladiators, 
xxxvii. 5. s, 16. Seneca says, that the smallest letters, which 
could hardly be discerned with the naked eye, might be dis- 
tinctly read through a glass tube filled with water ; as the 
stars appear larger when viewed through a cloud 5 Quasi, Nat. 
i. 6. 5 and Aulus Gellius speaks not only of multiplying mir- 
rors, but also of such as made the objects appear inverted ; 
xvi. 18. 

The magnifying and burning power of glasses is supposed 
also to have been known to the Druids, from certain lenticular 
or spherical gems of rock crystal, belonging to them as it is 
thought, which are still preserved in the cabinets of the 
curious. 

The doctrine of the refraction and reflection of light has 
been wonderfully illustrated in modern times, by the various 
inventions and improvements of glasses. Of these the most re- 
markable are the telescope and microscope, both refracting and 
reflecting. 

The first telescope was made by Zachary Jansen y a maker of 
spectacles at Middleburg, in 1590. Galileo^ professor of ma- 
thematics at Padua, having heard of this discovery in 1609, but 
without seeing any such instrument, set himself to contrive 
one of the same kind ; in which he succeeded, and in a short 
time carried his improvements to a surprising degree of perfec- 
tion : See p. 29. But it was Kepler who first explained the 
reasons of the effects of telescopes. 

The reflecting telescope was invented by Mr. James Gregory 
of Aberdeen, and improved by Sir Isaac Newton. But the 
greatest improvement on telescopes of the dioptric kind, was 
made some years ago by Mr. Dollond ; who ingeniously con- 
trived a method of correcting the defects of former instruments 
of this kind, arising from the different refrangibility of the rays 
of light, by the application of two different kinds of glass, pos- 
sessed of different powers of refraction, and of different figures, 
so that the effects of the one exactly counterbalance those of 
the other. 

In a reflecting telescope we never see the object itself, but 
only that image of it which is formed next the eye in the tele- 
scope. 

The magnifying power of the reflecting telescope was consi- 
derably increased by Mr. Short, and has been lately augmented 
to a wonderful degree by Dr. Herscheh 

F 2 The 



68 



Light. 



The microscope was invented soon after the telescope by 
Jansen and his son, impioved chiefly by Leuwenhoek, a Dutch 
physician, who was born at Delft in 1632, and died 1723. 
The microscope has as much extended the sphere of human 
knowledge, with respect to the nature a id properties of minute 
substances, as the telescope in viewing distant objects. 



Of MOTION, and its LAWS. 

Motion is the removal of a body from one place to another, 
or a continual change of place. 

Any force acting upon a body to move it is called a Poiver. 
The momentum or quantity of motion is in proportion to the 
force impressed. The heavier any body is, the greater is the 
power required either to move it, or to stop its motion. That 
science which teaches the effects of powers or moving forces, in 
as far as they are applied to engines, is called MECHANICS. 

The simple machines employed to move bodies are called 
mechanical powers. These are six in number, the lever, the 
wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the 
screw. 

1. The LEVER, a straight bar of iron or other substance, 
supported on a fulcrum or prop, made use of to raise weights to 
a small height, is of two kinds; 1. When the weight to be 
raised is on one end, the force applied on the other, and the prop 
between both, but much nearer to the weight than the power, 
which is the common sort of lever. 2. When the prop is at 
one end, the strength applied to the other, and the weight be- 
tween them. Thus in raising a water plug in the streets, the 
workman puts an iron lever through the hole of the plug, till 
it reach the ground, and making that his prop, lifts the plug 
with his strength at the other end of the lever. Our common 
balance is a common lever; so also the Roman steel-yard, 
[statera vel truttna) ; the arms (brachia) of which, or the two 
ends of the beam, are poised on a prop, an axis or centre, 
whereon it turns. When the weights on each brachium are 
equal, the balance is said to be in aquilibrio, or the weights to 
equiponderate. Unequal weights hanging at different distances 
from the centre may equiponderate. 

2. A wheel turning together with its axis, hence called 
AXIS in pekitrochio, which serves to raise weights to a 
greater height. The power in this machine is applied to the 
circumference of the wheel, by the motion of which, a rope 

that 



/ 



Motion, and its Laws. 69 

that is tied to the weight, is wound about the axis, by which 
the weight is raised. 

3. The PULLEY, or a little wheel moveable about its axis 
with a rope running over it. machine made by combining 
several pullies together, is often made use of to raise weights, 
when the axis in peritrochio cannot be applied. 

4. The INCLINED PLANE, the advantage gained by which 
is as great as its length exceeds its perpendicular height. Thus 
if the plane be three times as long as high, a weight may be 
rolled up on it with a third part of the power which would be 
requisite to draw up the same weight perpendicularly. 

5. The WEDGE ; which may be considered as two equally 
inclined planes joined together. 

6. The SCREW; which cannot properly be called a simple 
power, because it is never used without the application of a 
lever, or winch, to assist m turning it ; and then it becomes a 
compound engine of very great force, either for pressing the 
parts of bodies, or for raising great weights. 

Various machines are constructed, in which these simple 
mechanic powers are all combined ; hence called compound 
machines. We may judge of the knowledge of the ancients 
in mechanics from the stupendous works which they reared 5 
especially from their moveable towers, and other warlike 
engines. 

A thing of the greatest importance in mechanics is to dis- 
cover the centre of gravity of bodies. 

The CENTRE OF GRAVITY in a body is a point where 
all the parts of the body, in whatever position it is, are in 
aquilibrio. When the centre of gravity is sustained, the body 
remains at rest. When several bodies are joined together, 
that point on which the whole may be poised, is the centre of 
gravity. Hence a building will stand, although considerably 
bent from the perpendicular, while its centre of gravity is sup- 
ported : as the famous tower of Pisa, which inclines seventeen 
feet ; so at Bologna, &c. Whatever point in a body or 
machine sustains the centre of gravity, sustains the whole 
weight ; so that the force with which any body tends towards 
the earth, is, as it were, collected in that centre. 

The laws of motion, established by Sir Isaac Newton, which 
he calls the Laws of N:ture, are three in number. 

1. All bodies continue in the state they are in, whether of 
rest or motion, till they are obliged to alter that state by some 
force impressed. All motion is naturally rectilineal or in a 
straight line. 

F 3 2. The 



70 



Motion, and its Lans. 



2. The change of motion is always proportional to the mov- 
ing force impressed, and is always made in the same direction 
with the impressing force. 

3. Action is always equal and contrary tore-action. When 
one body strikes against another,* both suffer equally. Thus a 
loadstone draws iron, and is equally drawn by iron. The weight 
of the carriage pulls back the horse, as much as the horse pulls 
it forward. 

That science which explains the laws of nature and the pro- 
perties of body is called NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

The force of gravity decreases as the square of the distance 
increases, or as the distance multiplied by itself increases; that 
is, a body at twice the distance of another attracts with only a 
fourth part of the force ; at thrice the distance, with a ninth 
part ; at four times the distance, with a sixteenth part ; and 
so on. 

The velocity of falling bodies is in proportion to the timec 
of their descent ; thus, if a body move one mile the first 
minute, it will move three the second, five the third, seven 
the fourth, nine the fifth, and so on. Hence the whole spaces 
are as the squares of the times ; thus in two minutes the body 
will have fallen four miles : in three, nine ; and in four, six- 
teen; and accordingly it is found that a body falls about sixteen 
feet in one second of time; in two seconds, four times sixteen, 
or sixty-four feet; in three seconds, nine times sixteen, or 
144 feet, &c. 

When a body moves by two joint forces, not in the same 
direction, and uniformly by both, it will move in a straight 
line, and will describe the diagonal of a parallelogram, in 
the same time that it would describe either of the sides by 
one of the forces singly. But if one of the forces act in 
such a manner as to make the body move faster and faster as 
it goes forward, which is called an accelerative force, then the 
line described will be a curve. And this is the case of all bo- 
dies projected in a rectilineal direction, and at the same time 
acted upon by the power of gravity. The curves which bodies 
describe are different in different circumstances. The curve 
which a stone projected from the surface of the earth describes, 
is called a ParabXIa ; produced by the joint effect of the pro- 
jectile force, or the force with which it was thrown, and the 
force of gravity, by which it is every moment drawn to the 
caith. 

In like manner, the circular figure described by a body moving 
round a centre is formed by the joint action of the centripetal 

14 and 



1 



Tivr .2 









f 






\ 


■ 


C 


J 




V 






J 




Motion, audits Xjm$. 



71 



and centrifugal forces, called by the general name of CENTRAL 
FORCES, similar to that produced by a stone wheeled round 
one's head with a sling. The force of gravity and the circular 
motion of the planets were known to the ancients, Lucret. i. 983. 
Sec. ' 9 Vitruv. ix. 4. ; Plutarch, de facie in orbe luna. 

The various effects of these central forces, arising from the 
different magnitude and distance of the revolving bodies from 
their centre, have been described by Kepler (see p. 29.), and 
demonstrated by Newton with wonderful ingenuity. But they 
cannot be thoroughly understood without a previous acquaint* 
ance with mathematical studies, particularly with Geometry^ 
Trigonometry and Conic Sections. The following hints, however, 
may be of use to give the learner some idea of the subject. 

Fundamental Principles &f GEOMETRY, &c. 

Geometry originally was no more than the art of mea- 
suring the earth (from ysu or yjj, the earth, and pergsoo, to 
measure) ; but at present denotes the science of magnitude in 
general. It had its rise in Egypt, where it was necessary every 
year to measure the land after the overflowing of the Nile. 
In modern times it has been applied with success to illustrate 
Geography and Astronomy. 

Geometry has magnitude for its object, and treats of the 
properties of lines, surfaces, and solids. 

Every surface is bounded by at least three straight lines, or 
by one or more curve lines : and every solid is bounded by one 
or more surfaces. 

Two straight lines inclining to each other and meeting in a 
point form an angle. If both lines are straight, it is called a 
right-lined angle ; if one of them be curved, a mixed angle ; if 
both be curved, a curve-lined angle. 

If a right line fall upon another, so as to make the angles 
on both sides equal, it is said to be perpendicular to the line on 
which it stands, and the two angles on each side are called 
right angles. 

Thus, if the right line D C {see fig. 1.) fall on the right line 
A B, so as to make the two angles A C D and BCD equal to 
each other ; then D C is perpendicular to A B, and the angles 
are said to be right angles. 

In describing angles mathematicians always express the angle 
by three letters, putting that latter which stands at the point 
where the lines meet in the middle. Thus the angle, which 
is formed by the line A C and C D, is called A C D. 

F4 If 



72 



Fundamental Principles of Geometry, &c. 



If an angle be greater than a right one, it is called an obtuse 
angle ; if less an acute angle. 

Lines in the same direction not inclined to one another, or 
equally distant, and which, if prolonged, would never meet, 
are called Parallel lines. 

If a right line be carried round a point, it will form a circle. 
The point is called the centre ; and the curve described, the 
periphery or circumference of the circle. Any straight line drawn 
from the centre to the circumference, is called the radius ; 
any straight line drawn through the centre, and terminated by 
the circumference, a diameter ; which divides the circle into 
two equal parts or semicircles, and is double of the radius, hence 
called also the semi- diameter. The diameters and radii of the 
same circle are always equal to one another. 

The circumference of every circle is supposed to be divided 
into 360 equal parts, called** degrees s each degree into 60 mi- 
nutes ; each minute into 60 seconds ; and these into thirds, 
fourths, &c. greater or less according to the length of the 
radius. 

They are marked thus; 8° 5' 4" 5"' 6 iv , Sec. ; 8 degrees, 3 
minutes, 4 seconds, 5 thirds, 6 fourths, &c. each including 60 
of the following denomination. 

The circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts, be- 
cause that number can be divided into more aliquot parts than 
any other convenient number; thus, into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 
9, 12, &c. parts; though some are of opinion that the 
circle might be more advantageously divided into an hundred 
parts, on account of the facility of subdividing it into decimal 
parts. But the usual division into 360 parts is with pro- 
priety retained on account of its being used by the ancient 
mathematicians. 

The circumference of a circle is said to be incommensurable 
to its diameter, because no exact proportion between them can 
be ascertained. The proportion commonly used is 7 to 22 *, or 
113 to 355 ; thus, if the diameter be 12 feet, then, as 7 is to 
22, so is 12 to the circumference of the circle ; which propor- 
tion was invented by Archimedes, who also squared the parabola, 
and first fouwd out the proportion between a cone, a sphere, and 
a cylinder of the same height and base, to be as 1, 2, 3, so that 
a cylinder is the triple of a cone, and one and a half of a sphere ; 
whence he ordered a cone, a sphere, and a cylinder, to be 
engraved on his sepulchre, whereby Cicero, while quccstor at 

* Quantas enim Jimetlcns babct srfiiffias, tantas baler: circulum duo et -vicetimas , 
Plin. ii. »3< s. 21. 

Syracuse, 



Fundamental Principles of Geometry, &c. 73 

Syracuse, discovered it, after it had been long unnoticed by his 
countrymen, and was overgrown with briars and bushes, Cic. * 
Tusc. Quxst. v. 23. 

The moderns have carried their calculations of this propor- 
tion between the diameter and circumference of a circle still 
nearer to the truth. Among the most remarkable of these was 
Leudolf van Ceulen, a Dutch mathematician about the begin- 
ning of last century, on whose tomb-stone ; in imitation of Ar- 
chimedes, the proportion is engraven to 36 places of figures. 
Since the discovery of fluxions, this proportion may be carried 
to any assignable length. 

Any part of the circumference of a circle is called an arch 
or arc ; and an arc of as many degrees, as it contains parts of the 
360, into which the circumference is divided. 

Any straight line drawn from one end of an arc to the other 
is called a chord, and any part of a circle cut off by a chord, is 
called a segment. Any part of a circle less or greater than a semi- 
circle, contained between two radii and an arc, is called a sector. 

A line drawn from one end of an arc perpendicular to a 
diameter drawn from the other end of the same arc, is called 
the sine of that arc. The greatest possible sine is the radius. 

A perpendicular line drawn from either end of the diameter 
is called the tangent of the circle. 

What an arc wants of the quadrant or fourth of a circle is 
called the complement of that arc ; and what it wants of a semi- 
circle, the supplement of the arc. The sine, tangent, &c. of 
the compliment of any arc, is called the co-sine, co-tangent, &c. 
of that arc. 

A right lined angle is measured by an arc of a circle 
described upon the angular point as a centre, comprehended 
between the two legs that form the angle ; thus a right angle 
is 90 degrees, because the arc so described is a quadrant. 

In the annexed figure, (see jig. 2.) C is the centre of the cir- 
cle ARBS, the circumference ; A C or CB, the radius; A B, 
the diameter s the curved line B D is an arc ; the straight line 
B D or D B, the chord of that arc ; and BCD, the angle of 
which the arc D B is the measure. 

D E is the sine of the arc D B or of the angle BCD. 

B T a tangent of the circle ; and B F, the tangent of the angle 
B C D or B C F, or of the arc BD: C F, the secant of the same 
arc or angle. 

The curved line D S is the complement of the arc B D, being 
as much as that arc wants of the quadrant BS; and D A is 
the supplement of the same arc. 

In 



74 



Fundamental Principles of Geometry^ &c. 



In like manner the angle D C S is the complement of the angle 
B C D j and the angle A C D is the supplement of the angle 
BCD. 

D H the sine of the complementary angle D C S is the co- 
sine of the angle BCD. 

G S the tangent of the complementary angle D C S is the co- 
tangent of the angle BCD. 

C G the secant of the complementary angle D C S is the co- 
secant of the angle BCD. 

C S the radius is the sine of the right angle S C B, which 
having no complementary angle has no co-sine ; and there can 
be no determined tangent or secant of a right angle. 

The measures of all these lines for different angles are given 
in tables calculated to facilitate trigonometrical operations. 

A figure bounded by straight lines is called a rectilineal 
figure, A figure bounded by three right lines is called a tri- 
angle ; if the three lines be equal to one another, an equilateral 
triangle ; if two sides are equal to one another, and the third 
not equal, an isosceles triangle if none of the sides are equal to 
one another, a scalene triangle. 

A triangle having one of its angles right, a right-angled tri- 
angle ; having one of its angles obtuse or greater than a right 
angle, an obtuse-angled triangle : having all its angles acute, or 
less than a right angle, an acute angled-triangle. 

In all right-angled triangles, the sides comprehending the 
right-angle are called the legs; and the side opposite to the right 
angle, the hypothenuse. 

Both obtuse and acute-angled triangles are in general called 
oblique-angled triangles ; in all which any side is called the base, 
and the other two, the sides. 

The three angles ' of every triangle, when taken together, 
arc equal to two right angles or 180 degrees; and therefore 
the two acute angles of a right-angled triangle make exactly 
90 degrees. 

That part of practical geometry, which teaches the manner 
of finding the proportions between the sides and angles is 
called TRIGONOMETRY. 

A figure bounded by four sides is called a quadrilateral 
figure j if the opposite sides aro parallel, a parallelogram; if the 
angles of a parallelogram be right angles, the figure is called a 
rectangle, or a right-angled parallelogram ; if all the sides are 
equal, and the angles right, a square : if the sides are all equal 
but the angles not right, it is called a rhombus or lozenge. 

A line 



Fundamental Principles of Geometry, &c. 75 



Aline joining the opposite angles of any parallelogram is 
called its diagonal or diameter. In every parallelogram, there- 
fore, two diagonals may be drawn, which in the square and 
rectangle are equal to one another 5 and the diagonal divides 
every parallelogram into two equal parts. 

A figure nearly resembling a rhombus is called a rhomboid ; 
when the four sides are not equal, and none of them parallel 
to one another, a trapezium and trapezoid. 

Every other right-lined figure, that has more sides than four, 
is called a polygon - according to the number of its sides, penta~ 
gon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, &c. if the sides are equal to 
one another, a regular polygon. 

Solid figures are such as have length, breadth, and thickness \ 
and are bounded by one or more surfaces. 

A solid body exactly round is called a globe or sphere ; which 
we may conceive to be formed by the circumvolution of a 
semicircle round its diameter, so that every part of its surface is 
equally distant from a point within it called its centre. 

A spherical figure, not exactly round, is called a spheroid. 

If we suppose a solid to be formed by the revolution of a 
right-angled parallelogram about one of its sides, it is called a 
cylinder or roller, and the ends of it are equal circles ; but a solid, 
whose ends are elliptical, is called a cylindroid, ox fiat roller. 

A solid body bounded by three or more plane sides, inclining 
gradually from its base to a point, is called a pyramid. 

A solid, whose sides are parallelograms, and its ends two 
similar equal plane figures, parallel to one another, is called a 
prism. 

A solid bounded by six equal squares, placed perpendicular 
to one another, is called a cube. 

A solid body having a circle for its base, and its top termi- 
nated in a point or vertex, in the form of a sugar-loaf, is called 
a cone; which may be conceived to be formed by the revolution 
of a right-angled triangle round one of its legs. When the 
sides are perfectly equal, or, as it is otherwise expressed, 
when its axis is normal or perpendicular to its base, it is called 
a right cone ; when its axis is inclined to its base, and its sides 
unequal, a scalene cone. 

Curve lines or figures formed by cutting a cone with a plane, 
are called CONIC SECTIONS ; whence that part of geome. 
try which treats of these curves and figures has got its name. 
The chief of them are the parabola, hyperbola, and ellipsis or 
ellipse. 

A know- 



/ 



76 Fundamental Principles of Geom e try &c. 

A knowledge of the properties of the ellipse is particularly 
requisite for understanding the motion of the planets. 

An ellipse may be described by fixing the ends of a thread to 
two points in a plane, or tying them to two pins stuck in i 
table *, and then with a pencil keeping the thread stretched, 
and marking all around the line it describes ; thus, A D a d. 
{See figure 3.) 

The curved line is called the circumference of the ellipse, 
and forms an oblong kind of circle ; the two points of F f are 
called the foci or focuses; a straight line passing through them 
and produced both ways to the circumference, is called the 
greater axis ox longest diameter, as, A, a-, a point upon this line 
in the middle between the foci, is the centre of the ellipse, as, 
C ; a line passing through this point, and cro aing the greater 
axis at right angles, is the shortest di '.meter or lesser axis, as D d. 

If an ellipse is supposed to revolve on its longer axis, it will 
generate what is called an oblong spheroid; if on its shorter axis, 
an oblate tpherdid, such as is the figure of the earth. 



Of the HE AVE XL Y BODIES. 

y I 'O form a just conception of the Heavenly Bodies we must 
suppose them to be viewed from the sun. In this situa- 
tion the stars would appear as so many bright spots of different 
magnitude and splendour fixed in a concave sphere, always 
remaining at the same distance from one another : and the 
planets, as so many lucid orbs, moving among the fixed stars 
with different degrees of velocity, and completing their revo- 
lutions in different periods ; but each of them always in the 
same space of time. The planets would also appear of very 
different bulks, and some 01 them to be accompanied by smaller 
bodies always moving round them. 

I. The Pl AXETS and their SATELLITES. 

If we suppose a spectator at the sun capable of discovering 
the distances of the planets, they will appear to move in differ- 
ent orbits i thus, Mercury, Venus, the Earth attended by the 
moon, and Mars. {Sec jig. 4.) 



Planets, 



77 



So Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus, in much larger 
circles ; which will be better understood by means of a plane- 
tarium. 

The orbits of the planets, however, are not exactly circular, 
nor in the same plane, as they are usually represented in a dia- 
gram, or by a planetarium, but elliptical, and crossing each other 
obliquely in different parts of the heavens. So that if we take 
the plane of the earth's orbit or of the ecliptic, as a standard, and 
suppose it to be continued every way, the paths of the ether pla- 
nets wil'i be differently inclined towards it. 

The points where the orbit of any planet intersects the plane 
of the ecliptic are called its nodes ; and a straight line between 
these points, the line of the nodes. 

The orbits of all the planets are in such a position, that one of 
their foci coincides with the centre of the sun thus, let the 
ellipse AT) a d (see fig. 3.) represent the orbit of a planet, F 
will be the centre of the sun. 

The distance between the centre of the sun and the cen- 
tre of the orbit, is called the Eccentricity of the planet, 
as F C. 

In every revolution the planet approaches once to the sun, 
and once recedes from it. The point in which it is at the 
greatest distance, is called its Aphelium or -on ; as a ; the 
point in which it is at the least distance, the Perihelium ; as, 
A. These points at the ends of the greater axis are called the 
apsides or auges of the planet, and hence the greater axis is 
sometimes called the line of the apsides. 

That distance of a planet from the sun is called its mean dis- 
tance, which is equally different from the greatest and the least; 
as, at D or d, the extremities of the smaller axis. 

Although the centre of the sun be commonly reckoned the 
point round which the planets revolve, yet that is not strictly 
true ; for the sun himself not only turns on his axis, but is agi- 
tated by a small motion round what is called the centre of gra- 
vity of the whole system. 

A planet moves with different degrees of velocity in differ- 
ent parts of its orbit. The nearer it is to the sun, the swifter is 
its motion. Thus the earth takes almost eight days more to 
run through the northern half of the ecliptic, when it is far- 
thest from the sun, than it does to pass through the southern; 
so that our summer is that much longer than the summer of 
the other hemisphere, which, in the space of 4000 ye.rrs, 
amounts to more than 87 years. And hence also among other 
reasons, the temperature of places in the higher northern lati- 
tudes 



78 



Plan els. 



tudes is much more mild than in the correspondent southern 
latitudes. 

The more distant the planets are from the sun, the slower 
they move in their orbits ; so that the periodical times of their 
revolutions are greater, both on account of the largeness of their 
orbit and the slowness of their motion. 

By the observation of certain spots on the surface of planets, 
it has been discovered, that beside* their motion round the sun 
each of them moves round its axis in the same manner with the 
earth. 

A ball whirled from the hand into the open air turns round 
upon a line within itself, while it moves forward ; such a line 
as this is meant when we speak of the axis of a planet. 

The earth and the other planets move round the sun as they 
do round their axis, from west to east. 

None of the planets, in any part of their orbits, recede far- 
ther from the ecliptic on either side than 8 degrees; so that the 
breadth of the zodiac is only 16 degrees. 

The axis of the earth is inclined 23 \ degrees to the plane of 
its orbit : and consequently goes that far north and south of the 
equinoctial line : hence the obliquity of the ecliptic. This 
obliquity is found to be now above the third part of a degree 
less than it was in the time of Ptolemy, which is ascribed to the 
force of the attraction of the sun and also of the moon upon the 
earth. 

The same attraction of the sun and moon on the earth causes 
it to bo 50 seconds later every year of coming round to the same 
point in the equator, or, as it is called, to the equinoctial point, 
than it did the year before. So that all the stars annually shift 
50 seconds forward before the apparent place of the sun; which 
is called the precession of the equinoxes, the retrogradation 
of the solstitial and equinoctial points, the progression or movement 
of the stars in longitude ; and makes a degree in 72 years; about 
31 degrees since the time of Meton, the inventor of the cycle 
of the moon or the golden number, about 2224 years ago. 
Thus the constellations, in which the sun at that time seemed 
to move at the vernal equinox, or at any other time of the year, 
have now got near 3 1 degrees forward ; those which then were 
in Aries, are now in Taurus, Sec. and the stars, which set at 
any particular season of the year in the time of Virgil, for in- 
stance, now set at a di lie-rent time. 

The annual motion of the earth round the sun makes the 
stars appear to go round the earth in 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 se- 
conds; so that if we observe this night, when any star disappears 

behind 



Planets. 



19 



behind a chimney or corner of a house at a little distance, the 
same star will disappear next night 3 minutes 56 seconds sooner, 
the second night 7 minutes 52 seconds sooner, and so on 
through the year : so that in 365 days, as measured by the 
return of the sun to the meridian, there are 366 days as mea- 
sured by the stars returning to it. The former are called solar 
days, and the latter sidereal. Hence in 365 days the earth 
turns 366 times round its axis ; and therefore as a turn of the 
earth on its axis completes a sidereal day, there must be one si- 
dereal day more in a year than the number of solar days ; one 
day being lost with respect to the number of solar days in a 
year, by the planets going round the sun ; just as it would be 
lost to a traveller, who in going round the earth would lose one 
day by following the apparent diurnal motion of the sun ; and 
consequently would reckon one day less at his return, than 
those who remained all the while at the place from which he set 
out. 

The earth's motion on its axis being perfectly uniform, and 
equal at all times of the year, the sidereal days are always pre- 
cisely of an equal length; and so would the solar or natural days 
also be, if the earth's orbit were a perfect circle, or its axis 
perpendicular to its orbit. But the earth's diurnal motion on 
an inclined axis, and its annual motion in an elliptic orbit, 
cause the sun's apparent motion in the heavens to be unequal. 
For sometimes he takes more than 24 hours to perform a re- 
volution from the meridian to the meridian, and sometimes less, 
according to a well-regulated clock. So that time shewn by 
an equally going clock and a true sun-dial is never the same 
but at four times of the year. From the 24th December till 
the 15th of April, the clock goes before the sun; from that 
time till the 1 6th June the sun will be before the clock ; from 
thence till the 3 1 st August the clock will be before the sun, and 
from thence to the 24th December the sun will be faster than 
the clock. 

The difference between the time shewn by a well-regulated 
clock and a true sun-dial is called the equation of time. 

When we speak of the sun as moving in the ecliptic, the 
distance which he has gone at any time from his apogee, or 
farthest point from the earth, till he return to it again, is called 
his mean anomaly ; and is reckoned in signs and degrees, al- 
lowing 30 degrees to a sign. When the sun's anomaly is less 
than 6 signs, the solar noon precedes the clock noon; and 
when more, the contrary* 



80 



Planets. 



Thus neither the days nor hours, as measured by the sun's 
apparent motion, are of an equal length; owing, ist, to the 
unequal progression of the earth through her orbit, as she takes 
near eight days more to run through the northern part of the 
ecliptic th in the southern ; and 2dly, to the obliquity of the 
ecliptic to the equator, on which last we measure time; as 
equal portions of the one do not correspond to equal portions of 
the other, which may be illustrated on any globe. 

The satellite? of the planets cannot be seen without a telescope, 
although ome of them are supposed to be bigger than the earth. 

The satellites revolve round the planets and attend them in 
their orbits as the moon does the earth. According to their 
respective distances from the primary planet, they are divided into 
first, second, third, &c. The nearest is called the firsts and so on. 

Th" periods of their revolutions are ; of the moon 29 days, 
12 hours, 44 minutes: of the first satellite of Jupiter, t d. 
18 h. 36 m. — of the second, 3d. 13 h. 15 m. — of the third, 
7 d 3 h. ^9 m. — of the fourth or outermost, 16 d. 18 h. 3 m. 
The first satellite or moon of Saturn cjoes round him in 1 d. 
21 h. 19 m. ; the second in 2d. 17 h. 40 m. ; the third, in 
4 d. 12 h. 25 m. ; the fourth, in 45 d. 22 h. 41 m. ; and the 
fifth, in 79 ci. 7 h. 48 m. 

The point in which the moon is at her greatest distance from 
the centre of the earth, is called her APOGEE, Apogeum or 
Apogceon ; at her least possible distance, her PERIGEE, or 
Perigeum : which names anciently, when the earth was con- 
sidered as the centre of the system, were applied to the sun and 
all the planets. 

The planets, when viewed from the earth, appear to be con- 
tinually changing their places, both with respect to the 
stars and one another ; whence their name, PLANETS, Si- 
dera errantia vel vngantia, planets or wandering stars. They 
seem sometimes to be going forwards, sometimes backwards, 
and at other times to be stationary. 

When a planet appears to move according to the order of the 
signs of the Zodiac, its motion is said to be Direct, or in 
toNsr.oi : n i'ia; but when its apparent motion is contrary to 
the order < the signs, it is said to be Retrograde, or in an- 

TECEDEN Tl \. 

The place in the heavens that any planet appears in, when 
viewed from the c ntre ot the earth, is called its Geocentric 
PLACE ; when supposed to be seen from the centre of the 
sun, its I Iei.kk entric ri.ACE. When two planets are seen 
together in the same sign of the Zodiac, and equally advanced 

1 5 in 



Planets. 



3! 



In it, they are said to be in conjunction. But when they are in 
opposite signs of the zodiac, they are said to be in opposition. 
Thus a planet is said to be in opposition to the sun, when the 
earth is between the sun and the planet. 

The light which each planet reflects has a particular tinge, 
whereby they may be distinguished from one another. Plin. 
\L 1 8. 

Mercury emits a bright white light. He keeps so near the 
sun that he is very seldom visible ; and that only for a shore 
time, a little before sun-rise or after sun-set, his motion is so 
swift. 

Venus is the most beautiful star in the heavens, known by 
the names of Lucifer or Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hes- 
perus or Vesper, the evening star. She apparently recedes 
much farther from the sun than Mercury ; but, like him, 
always appears, according to the part of her orbit she is in, 
either in the east before the sun rises, or in the west after he 
sets ; and never the contrary. 

Mercury and Venus are sometimes seen passing over the disk 
of the sun like round dark spots. 

Mars is of a red fiery colour, giving a much duller light 
than Venus, though he sometimes appears equal to her in size. 
He is not limited in his motions like Venus and Mercury j but 
appears sometimes very near the sun, sometimes at a great dis- 
tance from him, rising when the sun sets, or setting when he 
rises. So Jupiter and Saturn; Jupiter shines with a bright 
white light, Saturn with a pale faint one. The motion of Sa- 
turn among the fixed stars is so slow, that unless carefully ob- 
served for some time he will seem not to move at all. 

The Georgium Sidus cannot be perceived without the assist- 
ance of a telescope. 

Venus, Mars, and Jupiter appear of different magnitude at 
different times, owing to the nature of their motion and of that 
Df the earth. This was observed by the ancients, but the causes 
:>f it they could not explain. 

The planets and their satellites are opaque bodies, which 
shine only by reflecting the light of the sun. Hence they ex- 
hibit different appearances or phases in different parts of their 
:ourse, and when they fall into the shadows of one another 
:hey are obscured or eclipsed. Thus the moon disappears when 
she comes between us and the sun, because her dark side is 
:hen towards us. 

When the moon appears to be in the same place of the hea= 
/ens with the sun, she is said to be in conjunction ; when in an 
opposite part to the sun, in opposition ; and when a quarter of 

G a circle 



82 



Plan cis. 



a circle distant from him, in quadrature. The conjunction and 
opposition of the moon are termed Syzygies or Syzgies, and 
the line where these conjunctions and oppositions happen, the 
line of the Syzgies. 

As she moves forward in her orbit from the sun, we gradu- 
ally see more and more of her enlightened side, till she comes 
to he opposite to the sun, and then she appears with a round 
illumined orb, which we call the full moon. During the other 
half of her course she gradually ivanes or decreases, till her 
next conjunction with the sun, when she disappears, as 
before. 

During the first quarter of the moon, she appears in the form 
of a semicircle with its circumference turned towards the west* 
during the last quarter, towards the east : sometimes in an 
erect position ; sometimes inclining according to her situation 
with respect to the sun. 

The earth reflects the light of the sun upon the moon in the 
same manner that the moon does upon the earth. Hence arises 
that dim light which is observed in the old and new moon?, 
when the illuminated side of the earth is turned towards the, 
moon •, whereby, besides the bright and shining horns, we 
can, although but darkly, perceite the rest of her body between 
them. 

The moon turns round her axis in the same time that she 
moves round the earth ; hence she always presents the same 
face to us. But from the inequality of her motion round the 
earth, as being performed in an ellipse, a small segment is ob- 
served by a telescope on the eastern and western limb, to ap- 
pear and disappear by turns, as if her body vibrated to and fro, 
which is called the moon's libration. 

When the moon has gone an eighth of her orbit from her 
conjunction with the sun, a quarter of her enlightened side is 
towards the earth, and she appears horned t or in the form of a 
crescent ^ and is said to be in the first octant. When she has 
gone a quarter of her orbit, one half of her enlightened side is 
towards the earth, which is called a half moon ; and then she is 
said to be in quadrature y or a quarter old. When the greatest 
part ol the moon is enlightened, she is said to be gibbous. 

The disk of the moon is divided into luminous and obscure 
parts ; the former are thought to resemble land and the latter 
sias ; but some think the moon has no seas, and consequently 
no rain nor clouds. The same diversity of opinion existed 
among the ancients, Cic. shad. Qa^'l. ii. 39. ; Plutarch, d( 
luna. 

When 



Planets. 



When the moon is viewed through a telescope, especially at 
her increase or decrease, mountains and cavities are evidently 
perceived j and in April 1787, Dr. Herschel observed some- 
thing like volcanoes in three different places. 

The moon, from several appearances, is thought to be sur- 
rounded by an atmosphere ; but this, by others, is denied. 

It is generally believed that the moon rises about fifty minutes 
everyday later than the preceding. But this takes placeonlynear 
the equator. In places of considerable latitude there is a re- 
markable difference, especially in harvest-time. Here the au- 
tumnal moons rise very boon after sun-set for several evenings 
together, and at the polar circles from the first to the third quar- 
ter. Thus they are supplied with almost constant moonlight in 
the sun's absence at the poles, for at that time the winter moon 
shines without setting. These appearances are owing to the 
particular position of the moon's orbit ; which occasions also 
several other apparent irregularities in her motion. When the 
moon comes between the earth and the sun, she appears to 
cover a part or the whole ot the sun's body, and he is then said 
to undergo an eclipse ; although properly his rays are only inter- 
cepted from that part of the earth on which the moon's shadow- 
falls. When the earth comes between the sun and the moon, 
the moon falls into the earth's shadow; and having no light ci 
her own, she suffers a real eclipse from the interception of the 
sun's rays. 

Not only the figure and motion, but also the comparative 
magnitude of the sun, moon, and earth, is proved from the 
phases and eclipses of the moon. 

An eclipse of the sun never happens but at the change of the 
moon, and of the moon only at full moon. 

If the moon always moved in the plane of the ecliptic, we 
should have an eclipse of the sun at every change, and of the 
moon at every full. But this is not the case. The orbit of the 
moon is inclined to that of the earth 5 \ degrees ; or, as it is 
otherwise expressed, one half of the moon's orbit is elevated 
5 1 degrees above the ecliptic, or goes that far north of it •, and 
the other half is as much depressed below the ecliptic, or goes 
that far south of it. Hence the moon, every revolution she 
makes round the earth, or every month, intersects the ecliptic 
in two points, called her nodes. The point where she goes 
north of the ecliptic into north latitude, is called her ascending 
node, and marked thus SB ; the point where she goes south of 
the ecliptic, or into south latitude, her descending node, and 
marked thus ft ; a straight line between these points is called 
the line of the moon's nodes. 

G 2 As- 



Planets. 



As the moon every month not only revolves about the earth, 
but also advances so far along with the earth, in her orbit round 
the sun, she must move more than once round the earth, before 
she comes again in conjunction with the sun. Hence the time 
between one conjunction and the next that follows it, or be- 
tween two new moons, commonly called a Lunation or Synodical 
month, is about two days five hours longer than the time in 
which the moon performs one entire revolution round the earth, 
called a periodic month. 

The moon's place in her orbit is always changing with re- 
spect to the ecliptic. Her nodes go backwards, or contrary 
to the earth's annual motion, 19; degrees every year j so that 
in this manner they shift through all the degrees of the ecliptic, 
contrary to the order of the signs, in i3 years and 225 days ; 
when the moon comes to be in the same place, or the line of 
her nodes comes to be in the same direction, with respect to the 
fixed stars, or with respect to the ecliptic, as before. This gave 
occasion to Meton's famous cycle of the moon. (See p. 14.) 

When in this progress the moon is less than seventeen de- 
grees from either node at the time of her conjunction with the 
sun, her shadow falls more or less upon the earth, as she is more 
or less within that limit ; and thus occasions a total or partial 
eclipse of the sun. When she is less than twelve degrees from 
either node at the time of opposition, she goes through a 
greater or less portion of the earth's shadow, as she is more 
or less within this limit : and thus appears to us to be more 
or less eclipsed. Hence the diversity of eclipses at different 
times ; and hence also we have so many new and full moons 
without eclipses. 

All opaque bodies, when illuminated by the rays of the sun, 
cast a shadow from them, which is encompassed by a Penum- 
bra, or thinner shadow, that grows larger and larger as we re- 
cede from the body. This causes the moon in an eclipse to lose 
her light gradually; which is not perceptible at first, but as 
she goes into the darker part of the penumbra^ she grows paler 
and paler till she become quite obscured. The penumbra % 
where it is contiguous to the shadow, is so dark that it is dif- 
ficult to discover the one from the other. When the moon's 
centre passes through that or the shadow, it is called a total .\nd 
tent nil ellipse. The moon (. liters the western part of the shadow, 
with the eastern part of her limb, and leaves it contrariwise. * 

* 'flic Kom. us . :| n st iiiniisly imagined th.it the nuvn in .in eclipse was under the 
power ot some i harms ui n.cw.t.uioiis; hum winch sin- would be relieved by the sound 
of trumpets, or beating on brascn vessels, Juvenal, vi. 441. Ovid. Met. 7. aoj. 

It 



Planets, 



It has been imagined that the shadow of the earth terminates 
In a point which does not reach so far as the moon ; and that 
properly she is eclipsed by the shadow not of the earth, but of 
the earth's atmosphere. Hence it is that the moon is visible in 
an eclipse. But this appearance is more justly attributed to 
some of the rays of light being refracted by passing through the 
earth's atmosphere. 

The number of eclipses, either of the sun or moon, visible in a 
year, cannot be less than two, nor more than seven ; they are 
usually four, rarely more than six. Eclipses of the sun are more 
frequent than of the moon, yet more of the latter are visible than 
of the former, because eclipses of the moon are seen from all 
parts of that hemisphere of the earth which is next to her, but 
the sun's eclipses are visible only to that small portion of the 
hemisphere next to him, whereon the moon's shadow falls. 

Eclipses are of great use in determining exactly the time of 
past events. Hence Sir Isaac Newton was led to compose his 
chronology. 

Lunar eclipses are particularly useful in determining the lon- 
gitude of places; thus, if a lunar eclipse is known to begin or 
end at London exactly at midnight, and is seen at another place 
at 10 at night, that other place is 30 degrees west of London: If 
at two in the morning, the place is 30 degrees east of London. 

But as it is not easy to ascertain the precise moment either of 
the beginning or end of a lunar eclipse, recourse has been had 
for determining the longitude of places to the eclipses of Jupi- 
ter's satellites, which disappear so instantaneously as they enter 
Jupiter's shadow, and emerge so suddenly out of it, that the ob- 
servation maybe made to a second of time. The first or nearest 
satellite to Jupiter is found to be most advantageous for this pur- 
pose, because its immersions and emersions are most frequent. 
By observing these, the longitude of places may be very exactly 
ascertained on land, but not so at sea, because the rolling of the 
ship prevents all nice telescopic observations. 

It has been observed, since the invention of telescopes, that 
the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites are seen 16 minutes sooner, 
when the earth is nearest to Jupiter, than when it is farthest 
from him; which shows that light takes 16 minutes to move 
through a space equal to the width or diameter of the earth's 
orbit, which is about 190 millions of miles ; and consequently 
it must take 8 minutes in coming from the sun to the earth ; 
as the sun is nearly in the centre of the earth's orbit ; that is, 
at the half of 190 millions of miles, or 95 millions of miles 
from the earth. So that light moves 11,875,000 miles in a 

G 3 minute \ 



86 



Tides. 



minute; that is, more than a million of times swifter than a can- 
non ball, which is computed to move at the rate of 480 miles 
in an hour, or eight miles in a minute. 



TIDES. 

The Tides are produced chiefly by the attraction of the moon, 
Cic. divin. ii. 14. and partly by that of the sun ; [causa in sole lu- 
ndque, Plin. ii. 97. s. 99.) The £ux and reflux of the tide (astus 
accessus et recessus) take place twice every 24 hours 50 minutes, 
w hich is a complete lunar day y or the time of the moon's revolv- 
ing round the earth, from the meridian to the meridian again. 

When the tides rise higher than ordinary, they are called 
spring tides s when lower than ordinary, neap tides. Both hap- 
pen twice every month ; the former at new and full moon, 
when the force of the sun and moon act in conjunction on the 
waters of the sea ; and the latter when the moon is in quadra- 
ture, and the influence of her attraction is diminished by the 
opposite influence of the sun. The tides rise highest near the 
equator, and are more perceptible at the mouths of rivers than 
in the open sea. The greatest height to which the tide is 
known to rise, (according to Varenius, vol. i. page 251.) is at 
the mouth of the river Indus, where it rises above 30 feet*. 
Hence we may easily conceive the astonishment of the soldiers 
of Alexander at this appearance, which they had never before 
seen, &c. Curt. 9. 29. For in those seas which come far up 
into the land, and are joined to the ocean only by a narrow 
strait, as the Mediterranean, with which alone they were ac- 
quainted, the tides are scarcely perceptible. 

Although the cause of the tides was known to the ancients, 
yet it was first rationally explained by Kepler, and more fully 
illustrated by Newton, who, with his usual sagacity, solved se- 
veral difficulties on this subject, which formerly were thought 
inexplicable. 

By the motion of the tides the waters of the sea are kept from 
putrefaction, and thus those myriads of animals it contains are 
preserved. Although the tides seem to fluctuate on the sea- 
shores, yet in the great ocean the waters have a constant motion 
westwards, following the courbe of the moon, which has been 

• Ic t lie B.iy of Fundy in North America, the tide rises from 45 to 60 feet. See 
p. 685. lu some place* of the Bristol channel the tide rises 42 feet and sometimes 
jjrxoi e. 

observed 



Tides. 



87 



observed by navigators in various places, particularly in those 
straits which join one ocean to another. 

Besides this general motion of the sea, there are others 
peculiar to certain parts of it, called currents. There is one 
along the coast of Guinea, from west to east, so strong, that a 
passage, which, with the current, is gone in two days, is with 
difficulty performed in six weeks against it. This current de- 
stroyed several ships before mariners were acquainted with it a 
either by driving them on rocks and shoals, or detaining them 
till the crews perished by famine. This current, however, 
does not extend above fourteen miles from shore. There are 
also strong currents between Madagascar and the Cape of Good 
Hope, and in several other parts. But the most remarkable is 
that in the straits of Gibraltar, from the ocean into the Medi- 
terranean. For considering the number of large rivers which 
are continually running into that sea, we should naturally ex- 
pect a strong current from it into the Atlantic*. But the con- 
trary is the case: to explain which, an under current has been 
supposed, which carries as much or more water into the Atlan- 
tic, than the upper current carries from it. Some explain it 
by evaporation, and others by a subterraneous communication 
with the Red Sea. But the real cause seems not to be yet 
thoroughly understood. 



II. Of the FIXED STARS. 

The apparent motion of the stars, and their different altitude, 
are occasioned by the diurnal motion of the earth, and the dif- 
ferent position of a spectator on its surface. Lucan. ix. 540. 

Although the fixed stars keep their relative places with re- 
spect to each other, yet they change their situation very much 
with respect to us 5 some rising, others setting; some describ- 
ing large circles, others small ; some going over our heads, 
others just rising above the horizon, and then disappearing. 
Some stars neither rise nor set, but seem to turn round one 
immoveable point, near which is placed a single star, called 
the north pole , or polar star. This star appears more or less 
elevated above the horizon, according to the part of the earth 
from which it is viewed. As we go north it gradually rises, 
and if we could reach the north pole of the earth the polar star 

* As there is from the Euxine sea into the Propontis, Plitu ii. 07. j. ico. Senec. 
Nat. Q. \ v . 2 f. V y/ 

G 4 would 



88 



Fixed Stars. 



would appear directly over our heads, and we should see only 
the stars of the northern hemisphere, none of which would 
ever set ; but they would all appear to move round in circles 
parallel to the horizon j whence this is called a PARALLEL 
SPHERE. 

As we go south, the polar star gradually sinks, till we reach 
the equator, when it appears in the horizon. There we see 
the stars of both hemispheres, all of them rising and setting 
perpendicularly to the horizon ; so that, like the sun, they are 
exactly 12 hours above the horizon, and 12 hours below it; 
and the whole starry heavens resemble a large concave sphere, 
bespangled with stars moving round two immoveable points, 
which like the ends of an axis remain fixed in the horizon. 
Hence this is called a RIGHT SPHERE ; and to have a just 
conception of the starry firmament, a spectator should be sup- 
posed to be placed in this situation. 

When we cross the equator, and go southwards, the north 
polar star disappears, and then gradually, as we advance, the 
stars next to it. The south pole proportionally rises, and the 
stars round it, which are all at some distance from the pole ; 
so that none of them has got the name of the south polar star, 
as in the north. 

In every other part of the earth, except at the equator and the 
poles, the stars seem to rise and set obliquely, with respect to 
the horizon ; whence this is called an OBLIQLTE SPHERE. 

The fixed stars have been distributed by astronomers into 
certain parcels called CONSTELLATIONS 5 and the num- 
ber of visible stars in each, with their position and magnitude, 
ascertained. 

The stars, from their different apparent size, are divided into 
six classes. The largest and brightest are called stars of the 
first magnitude ; those next in lustre and brightness, are called 
stars of the second magnitude g and so on, till we come to those 
of the sixth or seventh magnitude, which are the smallest that 
can be discerned with the naked eye. 

Those stars which cannot be seen without the assistance of 
glasses, arc called TELESCOPIC STARS. 

The number of stars visible at once in cither hemisphere, 
with the naked eye, does not exceed 1000 ; in both hemi- 
spheres, or in the whole heavens, 2000. 

The first person who numbered the stars, and reduced them 
to order, was HipparchuS, a native of Rhodes, about 120 years 
before the Christian xra. (See p. 19.) 

The number of the ancient constellations was 48, including, 
according to Hipparchus, 1022 stars : 12 constellations in the 
14 Zodiac; 



Fixed Stars. 



89 



Zodiac; 21 north of it, or in the northern region; and 15 
south of it, or in the southern region. 

Such stars as were not included in any of these, were called 
unformed stars. Modern astronomers have added 14 constella- 
tions in the southern region, made up chiefly of stars unknown 
to the ancients ; and one constellation in the northern region, 
Hevelius composed 10 constellations out of the unformed stars. 

The ancients gave various names to the different constella- 
tions, the reasons of which are involved in fable. See Ovid. 
Fast. & Manil. Astr. 

The constellations of the Zodiac, and the stars contained in 
each, according to Flam stead, are as follow 
1. Aries, the Ram, 66 



Scorpius, the Scorpion, 44 
9. Sagittarius, the Archer, 69 

10. Capricornus, the Goat, 51 

1 1 . Aquarius, the Water- 
bearer, 108 

12. Pisces, the Fishes, 113 



2. Taurus, the Bull, 141 

3. Gemini, the Twins, 85 

4. Cancer, the Crab, 83 

5. Leo, the Lion, 95 

6. Virgo, the Virgin, 110 

7. Libra vel Chela, the 

Balance or Scales, 5 1 

The first six are called the northern signs, the last six the 
southern, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, and 
Gemini, are called the ascending signs ; the other six, the de- 
scending signs. * 

The ancient constellations north of the Zodiac, or in the 
northern region, are, 

Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear, containing 24 stars; Ursa Ma- 
jor, the Greater Bear, 87; Draco, the Dragon, 80; Cepheus, 
a King of Ethiopia, father to Andromeda, 35 ; Bootes Arcto- 
phylax, the keeper of the Bear, 54 ; Corona Borealis vel Sep- 
tentrionalis, the Northern Crown, 2 1 ; Hercules, or Engonasis, 
the man on his knee, 113; Lyra, the Harp, 2 1 ; Cygnus, the 
Swan, 8 1 ; Cassiopeia, the wife of Cepheus, and mother of 
Andromeda, represented as sitting in a chair, 55 •, Perseus, the 
deliverer and husband of Andromeda, with the head of Me- 
dusa, 59 ; Auriga, the Waggoner, 66 ; Ophiuchus Anguitenens, 
or Serpentarius, the man who holds the Serpent, 74 ; Serpens, 
the Serpent, 64; Sagitta, the Arrow, 18 ; Aquila, the Eagle, 
71; Delphinus, the Dolphin, 1 8 ; Equuleus vel Equisectio, the 
Horse's Head, 10 ; Pegasus vel Equips, the Flying Horse, 89 , 
Andromeda, 66; Triangulum, the Triangle, 15. 

* Libra anciently was not ranked among the signs, Virg, G. i, 33, et Sew. in loc. 
Ovid. Met. ii. 195. 

The 



90 



Fixed Stan. 



The ancient constellations in the southern region are, 

Cetus, Pristis, Pistris vel Pistrix, the Whale, to which An- 
d&omeda was exposed, and from which she was freed by Per- 
seus, 97; Orion, a famous Hunter, of enormous size, 78; Eri- 
danus fiuvius, the river Eridanus or Po in Italy, 84 ; Lepus, the 
Hare, 19*, Canis Major, the Greater Dog, 31 ; Canis Minor, 
the Lesser Dog, 14; Argo Navis, the Ship Argo, 64 ; Hydra, 
the Water Serpent of Lema, 60 ; Crater, the Cup, 3 1 \ Gor- 
vus, the Crow, 9 ; Centaur us, the Centaur, 35 ; Lupus, the 
Wolf, 24 ; Ara, the Altar, 9 •, Corona Australis, the Southern 
Crown, 12 ; Piscis Australis, the Southern Fish, 24. 

The new southern constellations, mostly invisible to us who 
live so far north, are, 

Columba Ncachi, Noah's Dove, 10 ; Rcbur Carolinum, the 
Royal Oak, or King Charles's Oak, a name contrived by Hal- 
ley in memory of the oak which saved Charles II. 1 o ; Grus, 
the Crane, 13 ; the Phoenix, 13 ; Indus, the Indian, 12 ; P<7: ;, 
the Peacock, 34 ; Apus vel Avis Indica, the Bird of Paradise, 
II ; Apis vel Musca, the Bee or Fly, 4; the Chamalecn, 10 ; 
Triangulum Australe, the Southern Triangle, 5 ; Piscis Volans, 
the Flying Fish, 6; Dorado vel Xipkias, the Sword Fish, 6; Tou- 
can, the American Goose, 9 ; Hydrus, the Water Snake, 10. 

The new constellation in the Zodiac is, 

Coma Berenices, Berenice's Hair, 43, near the Lion's tail: 
and in the northern region, Antinous, near the Eagle. 

The constellations made out of the unformed stars by Heve- 
lius are, 

The Lynx, 44, between Gemini and Ursa Major : Leo Jlli- 
nor, the Lesser Lion, between Leo and Ursa Major, 53; Aste- 
rion et Charas, vel Ccr Caro/i, the Greyhounds, between Ursa 
Major and Bootes, 25 ; Cerberes et Ramus, Cerberus and the 
Branch, in the right hand of Hercules, 4 ; Vulpecula et AnseA 
the Fox and the Goose, between the Swan and the Eagle, 35 - f 
Scutum Sobiesli, Sobicski's Shield, or the Cross, 7, near Sagitta- 
rius ; Lacerta, the Lizard, between Pegasus and Ccpheus, \6\ 
C.iimclopardus, between Cassiopeia and Ursa Major, 58 ; Mo- 
?ioctros, the Unicorn, 31, near Canis Major, or the Greater 
Dog ; Sextans Urania-, the Sextant of Urania, or the sixth part 
of a circle, 41, near Hydra : To these add, Mount MenXlus% 
near the Serpent ; Musca, the Fly, and the lesser Triangle, 
between Aries and Perseus. 

In the number of stars annexed to each constellation, and 
usually marked on modern globes, are included a good many 
visible only with a telescope. 

Some 



Fixed Stars. 



91 



Some of the principal stars have got particular or proper 
names, as, Sirius, or the Dog Star, the largest and brightest of 
all the stars, in the mouth of the Greater Dog •, Procyon, in the 
Lesser Dog ; Aldebaran, or the Bull's eye ; Capella, or the Goat, 
in the Waggoner ; Arcturus y between the legs of Bootes ; 
Castor and Pollux^ two stars in Gemini ; Hoedi, the Kids, two 
stars in Auriga near Capella : So certain clusters of stars ; as, 
Pleiades or the Seven Stars, in the BulPs neck ; Hyades or 
Sucula, near the Bull's eye, &c. 

On most celestial globes or charts the stars in each constella- 
tion are distinguished by the letters of the Greek and Roman 
alphabets, which mark them as exactly as proper names ; the 
contrivance of J. Bayer, a. 1603. The first letter of the Greek 
alphabet is fixed to the largest star in each constellation ; the 
second letter to the next, and so on. If there are more stars 
in the constellations than letters in the Greek alphabet, the 
remainder are marked with the letters of the Roman alphabet. 

There is a particular tract in the sky, of a whitish colour, 
which goes round the whole heavens, called Via lactca, the 
Galaxy or milky way ; occasioned, it is thought, by an innu- 
merable multitude of stars placed in it, which are not visible to 
the naked eye. 

Besides the milky way, there are many other parts of the 
heavens brighter than the rest, called Nebulae, of which very 
few are perceptible to the naked eye. Of these Dr. Herschel 
has given a very large catalogue. Only 103 had been ascer- 
tained before. This eminent astronomer has also discovered 
certain luminous points in the heavens, which, from their uni- 
form and vivid light, he calls planetary nebula. 

All these nebula are supposed to be produced by the blended 
light of a vast number of small stars, many of which have been 
discovered by means of the late improvements in telescopes, 
whereby also the number of the stars has been found to be great 
beyond conception. We may form some idea of this from the 
calculation of the same accurate observer, that in one quarter of 
an hour there passed through the field of view of his telescope 
no less than 1 16,000 stars. 

Although the fixed stars appear to remain in the same situa- 
tion with respect to one another, yet many of them are found 
to undergo particular changes \ and some astronomers think that 
all the stars have a certain motion, similar to that of the solar 
system, which their distance prevents us from perceiving. 

Some stars known to the ancients are no longer to be seen 
while new ones have been discovered. Some stars are found to 

have 



92 



Fixed SliCts. 



have a periodical increase and decrease of magnitude. Some 
new stars have appeared all at once with surpassing splendour, 
and in a short time have entirely disappeared as that in the 
time of Hipparchus, which is said to have induced him to com- 
pose his catalogue of stars for the instruction of future observers. 

The first star of this kind observed by the moderns was 
discovered in November 1572, and disappeared March 1574. 
Several others have since been observed. 

Some stars have been found to disappear and appear again, 
and that at fixed periods, hence called re-apparent stars. A 
number of stars which appear single to the naked eye, when 
viewed through a telescope, are found to consist of two, three, 
or more stars. 

We may form some conception of the immense distance of 
the fixed stars from this consideration ; that although the earth 
in moving round the sun is 190 millions of miles nearer the 
fixed stars in one part of its orbit than in the opposite, yet their 
magnitude and brightness are not in the least altered \ and the 
polar star, in every part of the earth's orbit, always appears 
to us in the same position ; hence we conclude, that the 
whole extent of the earth's orbit is but an imperceptible point, 
in comparison of the distance of the fixed stars. 

The CELESTIAL GLOBE. 

The celestial globe is an artificial representation of die hea- 
vens, on which the fixed stars are marked according to their 
magnitude and situation. This is not so just a representation 
of the heavens as the terrestrial globe is of the earth ; because 
the stars are drawn upon a convex sphere, whereas they appear 
to us in a concave one. So that to have a proper conception of 
the celestial globe, we must suppose the observer placed in the 
centre, ami the surface to be transparent ; then, by turning on 
its axis, it will exhibit a just representation of the apparent 
diurnal motion of the heavens. 

The planets are not marked on the celestial globe, on account 
of the irregularity of their motion. 

The circles on the celestial are much the same as on the ter- 
restrial globe. 

All circles that divide either globe into two halves are called 
the great eireles of the sphere, oi which some are fixtd and Im- 
moveable, ami therefore marked on the surface of die globe, as 
the equator, (which on the celestial globe is always called the 

equinoctial,) 



Celestial Globe. 



93 



equinoctial,) and ecliptic; others vary their place or position, 
according to the situation of the spectator and therefore are 
called moveable circles, as the horizon and meridian. Such cir- 
cles as do not divide the globe into two equal parts are called 
lesser circles ; as the parallels of latitude, the tropics, and polar 
circles. 

Great circles passing through the zenith and nadir, and con- 
sequently cutting the horizon at right angles, or straight over, 
are called secondaries to the horizon ; vertical circles or azimuths. 

The vertical circle passing through the east and west points 
of the horizon, is called the prime vertical, or circle of east 
and west. 

The azimuth of any star is an arc of the horizon, intercepted 
between the vertical circle passing through it, and the north or 
south point of the horizon. Thus, if a vertical circle passing- 
through a star cut the horizon in a point 70 degrees from the 
north, we say, the star's azimuth is 70 degrees from the north, 
or 110 degrees from the south. 

The amplitude of a star is the distance of its rising or setting 
from the east or west. The amplitude of a star rising is called 
ortive or oriental ; setting, occasive or occidental ; and both these 
are called northern or southern, as the star rises or sets to the 
north or south of the east or west points. 

Amplitude denotes the bearing of the sun or of a star, with 
respect to east or west, only at their rising or setting ; but 
azimuth shews their bearing with respect to east and west at 
any time, either when above or under the horizon. 

All lesser circles parallel to the horizon are called its parallels, 
and with respect to the heavens, they are called almacanthers, 
or parallels of altitude. 

The altitude of a star, or any point in the heavens, is an 
arc of a vertical circle intercepted between the star or point and 
the horizon. If the star or point be upon the meridian, it is 
then called the meridian altitude. The complement of altitude, 
or what it wants of 90 degrees, is called zenith distance. 

The want of vertical circles and parallels of altitude on the 
globe is supplied by the quadrant of altitude, which being 
screwed to the brass meridian in the zenith, and having its lower 
end put in between the globe and wooden horizon, may be 
turned about to any point required. The fiducial or graduated 
edge represents the vertical circles, and the degrees marked on 
it describe the parallels of altitude. 

By altering the position of the globe, one kind of circles may 
be made to represent or supply the place of another. Thus, if 

the 



94? 



Celestial Globe. 



the poles of the world be brought to the zenith and nadir, that 
is, in a parallel sphere, the equinoctial will coincide with the 
horizon, the meridians will become vertical circles, and the 
parallels of declination will become almacanthers, or parallels 
of altitude. In like manner, if the poles of the ecliptic be 
brought to the zenith and nadir, the ecliptic will coincide with 
the horizon, the circles of longitude on the celestial globe will 
become vertical circles, and the parallels of latitude will be- 
come almacanthers ; for the latitude and longitude of stars 
are determined from the ecliptic. 

The longitude of the stars and planets is reckoned upon 
the ecliptic ; the numbers beginning at the first point of Aries, 
or the vernal equinox, where the ecliptic crosses the equator, 
and increasing according to the order of the signs. Thus, 
suppose the sun to be in the tenth degree of Leo t we say, his 
longitude or place is 4 signs, 10 degrees; because he has al- 
ready passed the 4 signs Aries, Taurus, Gemini s Cancer, and 
is 10 degrees in the fifth. 

The latitude of the stars and planets is determined by their 
distance from the ecliptic, upon a secondary or great circle 
passing through its poles, and crossing it at right angles. 
Twenty-four of these circular lines, which cross the ecliptic at 
right angles, f 5 degrees from each other, are usually marked 
on the celestial globe, meeting in two points, called the poles 
of the ecliptic. — Hence longitude and latitude on the celestial 
globe bears just the same relation to the ecliptic, as tin y do on 
the terrestrial globe to the equator. 

As the longitude of places on the earth is measured by 
degrees upon the equator, counting from the first meridian ; 
so the longitude of the heavenly bodies is measured by degrees 
upon the ecliptic, counting from the first point of Aries. And 
as latitude on the earth is measured by degrees upon the meri- 
dian, counting from the equator; so the latitude of the heavenly 
bodies is measured by degrees upon a circle of longitude, count- 
ing either north or south from the ecliptic. The sun, there- 
fore, has no latitude, being always in the ecliptic ; nor do we 
usually spe.ik of his longitude, but of his place in the ecliptic, 
expressing it by such a degree of such a sign, as, 5 degrees of 
TauXUS, instead of 35 degrees of longitude. 

The two DOirtS where the ecliptic crosses the equinoctial are 
called the equinoctial points, and the first points of Cancer and 
Capricorn the solstitial points : The meridian passing through 
the equinoctial points is called the equinoctial colure^ through the 
solstitial points the silstit'utl coluvc. 

t t The 



Celestial Globe. 95 

The distance of any heavenly body from the equinoctial, 
measured from the meridian, is called its declination. 

The sun's declination, either north or south, is the same as 
the latitude of the place to which he is then vertical. There- 
fore, all parallels of declination on the celestial globe are the 
same as parallels of latitude on the terrestrial. 

That which is called longitude on the terrestrial globe is 
called right ascension on the celestial, namely, the distance 
of the sun or stars from the first point of Aries, counted on 
the equinoctial. Astronomers also speak of oblique ascension 
• and descension> by which is meant the distance of that point of 
I the equinoctial from the first point of Aries, which rises or sets 
! at the same time that the sun or star rises or sets. Or thus, 
the right ascension of the sun or of a star is that point of the 
equinoctial which comes to the meridian with the sun or star : 
oblique ascension is that point of the equinoctial which rises or 
sets with the star. Ascensional difference is the difference be- 
tween right and oblique ascension. The sun's ascensional dif- 
ference turned into time, is just so much as he rises before or 
after six o'clock. 

The celestial globe is rectified^ when it is put in that position 
in which it may represent exactly the apparent motion of the 
heavens. As that position varies in different places according 
to their different latitude; therefore, to rectify the globe for 
any place, is to elevate the pole of the celestial globe the same 
number of degrees and minutes above the plane of the horizon 
as the latitude of the place is. Thus the latitude of London 
being $\\ degrees, let the globe be moved till the meridian cut 
the plane of the horizon in that point ; bring the ( sun's place 
in the ecliptic to the meridian, make the hour index point to 
the most elevated 12, or xii at noon, and set the meridian of 
the globe north and south by the compass, and the globe will 
I be rectified. 

That parallel to the equinoctial which divides the stars that 
never set to us from those that do, is called the cirle of perpetual 
apparition; the parallel on the other side of the equinoctial 
which divides the stars that never rise from those that do, is 
; called the circle of perpetual occultation. 

The right ascension and declination of the sun, or of any 
given star, is found after the same manner as the longitude and 
latitude of a place upon the terrestrial globe. 

Bring the sun's place to the meridian, and that point of the 
equinoctial which is under the meridian will shew the sun's 

right 



96 



Celestial Globe. 



right ascension ; thus, on the i ith May, the right ascension 
of the sun will be found to be 47 degrees jo minutes. 
Bring the sun's place to the western edge of the horizon, and 
the degree of the equator cut by the horizon is his oblique de- 
scension bring it to the eastern side, and you will there find 
his oblique ascension. 

So, bring the given star to the meridian, and the degree 
under which it lies is its declination ; and the point in which 
the meridian intersects the equinoctial is its right ascension ; 
thus the declination of Arcturus is 20 degrees 20 minutes 
north; his right ascension 21 1 degrees. So the declination of 
Sirius is 16 degress 30 minutes south \ and the right ascension 
98 degrees 20 minutes. 

If the right ascension and declination of a star be given, its 
place is easily found. Thus, suppose the right ascension of 
Aldebaran to be 65 degrees 30 minutoft, and its declination to 
be 16 degrees north ; then turn the globe about till the meri- 
dian cut the equinoctial in 65 degrees 30 minutes, and under 
the 16th degree of the meridian, on the northern part, you will 
observe Aldebaran, or the Bull's Eye. 

The time of the rising, southing, setting, amplitude, &c. of 
any star in a given latitude and day of the year may be thus 
found : — Let it be required to know at what time the Pleiades 
or seven stars rise, set, Sec. in the latitude of London on the 1 1 th 
of May. The globe being rectified for the latitude of London, 
and the sun's place for the given day, with the hour-index 
pointed to twelve, turn the glebe about till you bring the 
Pleiades to the eastern side of the horizon, and the index will 
point to 34 degrees 45 minutes, the time of their rising in the 
morning. Then bring the said cluster of stars to the meridim, 
and the index will point to about half after xii. for the time of 
their culminating or being upon the meridian ; bring them to 
the western side of the horizon, and the index will point to 
viii. 40 minutes, which shews the time of their setting in the 
evening that day. It will also appear on the circle of the 
horizon, that they rise with about 40 degrees of amplitude to 
the north, and set with the same amplitude from the west. 

To find what constellation any remarkable star in the firma- 
ment belongs to, 

Bring the sun's place in 1 lie ecliptic for that day to the brass me- 
ridian, and set the horary index to that xii. which is most elevated ; 
the celestial globe beingTectified to thelatitude, turn the globe till 
it points to the present hour \ and by the help of the mariner's 
eompass, and attending to the variation, which at London is 

nearly 



Celestial Globe. 



97 



nearly 24 degrees from the north, westward, set the north pole of 
the globe towards the north pole of the heavens. The star upon 
the globe (if you conceive yourself in the centre), which directs 
towards that point in the heavens in which the star you want to 
know is seen, is the star required. At the same time, by com- 
paring the stars in the heavens with those upon the globe, the 
other stars and their constellations may be easily known. 

To represent the face of the heavens on the globe at a given 
hour on any day of the year. 

Rectify the globe to the given latitude of the place, setting it 
due north and south by the needle, with the hour-index pointed 
to xii. then turn the globe on its axis till the index points to the 
given hour of the night *, then the upper hemisphere of the globe 
will represent the visible face of the heavens for that time. 

Ancient authors mention three sorts of risings and settings of 
the fixed stars, called poetical risings and settings, because chiefly- 
taken notice of by the ancient poets. 

When a star rises or sets at sun-rising, it is said to rise or 
set cosmically. When it rises or sets at sun-setting, it is said to 
rise or set achronically. When a star first becomes visible in the 
morning, after being for some time so near the sun as to be hid 
by the splendor of his rays, it is said to rise heliacally : and to set 
heliacally> when approaching towards the sun, it begins to be 
immersed in, or hid by, his rays, and ceases to appear above 
the horizon after sun-set. 

The heavens are bespangled with stars as much in the day- 
time as in the night, only the stars are rendered invisible to' us 
by the light of the sun. At the bottom of a deep pit, how- 
ever, we can see them with the naked eye. When the sun is 
about 12 degrees below the horizon, stars of the first magni- 
tude become visible ; at 13 degrees, those of the second ; at 14 
degrees, those of the third ; at 1 5 degrees, those of the fourth 
magnitude appear ; and at 18 degrees all the rest. The stars 
disappear in the same manner before sun-rising. Hence allow- 
ance must be made for these variations in computing the time 
of the cosmical, achronical, and heliacal rising and setting of 
the stars. 

To find the time when any planet rises, sets, or culminates 
at any given place and time. 

Find the place of the planet for the day in some ephemeris or 
almanack, mark its place on the ecliptic ; then elevate the pole 
to the given latitude, bring the sun's place to the meridian, and 
set the index to xii. noon \ then turn the globe till the marked 
degree of the ecliptic comes successively to the eastern hori- 
zon, to the meridian, and to the western horizon 5 and the index 

H will, 



98 



Terraqueous Globe. 



will, in these respective situations, shew the hour of the planet's 
rising, culminating, and setting. 

On the celestial globe may be explained the equation of time, 
the precession of the equinoxes, the phases of the moon, the 
tides, the motion of comets, &c. for the illustration of which 
the learner is referred to Adams on the Globes, and other 
larger works on this suhject. 

Of the TERRAQUEOUS GLOBE audits COMPONENT 

Parts. 

Tuts earth, as being divided into land and water, is called 
the Terraqueous Globe. The land comprehends every thing on 
and below its surface the water, all liquids and fluids. 

The surface of this globe is found almost every where covered 
with a blackish mould, properly termed the ground, or the soil ; 
of a different thickness and consistence in different places, 
producing vegetables of various kinds for the sustenance of 
animals, and again receiving the substance of animal and vege- 
table bodies when dissolved, Plin. ii. 63. These vegetables are 
generally of a green colour, the most delightful to the sight, 
and beautifully diversified. 

The surface of the earth is usually intersected with hills and 
dales, with springs and lakes, and rivulets •, sometimes with a 
craggy mountain, a rapid torrent, or the spreading ocean. 

Below the surface we find various beds or layers of different 
substances, sometimes interrupted with dreadful chasms or 
fissures, as in the Alps and Andes, and with caves or caverns, 
which are common in most countries. 

All bodies dug up from below ground are called fossils • from 
a mine, minerals : but the word minerals is sometimes taken in a 
more limited sense to denote those bodies which maybe melted, 
but not malleated or beaten out with the hammer. Thus all 
metals are minerals, but all minerals are not metals. A de- 
scription of the situation of the bodies which are found below 
ground is not improperly called subterraneous geography. 

How the land and water were at first separated from one 
another) and how the different parts of the earth were arranged 
in their present form, although it has often exercised the inge- 
nuity of learned men in their various theories of the earth, as 
they are called, yet still remains as much unknown as what 
kind of BUD8tance9 exist towards its centre. From shells and 
other marine substances being now found at a distance from 
the sea, and even on the tops of mountains, it appears that 



Terraqueous Globe. 



99 



such places have at some time been covered with water. 
From the appearance of certain rocks and metallic substances, 
some suppose this globe to have once been in a state of fusion. 
The interior part of the earth is found to consist of Seams 
or layers of different substances lying parallel to each other, 
and often the one above the other. Seneca observes that light 
metals are found near the surface, and heavier metals farther 
down, ep. 23. & 90. Hence some naturalists imagine that 
the gravity or density of bodies increases as they approach 
nearer the centre. This, however, is not always the case; 
for layers of stone are often found above the lightest soils, 
and the softest earth under the hardest bodies. Gold, too, 
is frequently found in loose earths on the surface, even on the 
tops of mountains. 

But our knowledge on this subject extends only a very little 
way ; the deepest mine known, which is thought to be that at 
Cotteburg in Hungary, not reaching farther than about 3000 
feet deep. All beyond this is mere conjecture ; whether we 
suppose the globe to consist of water, as Burnet ; of glass, as 
Buffon ; of heated iron, with Whiston ; or of volcanic matter, 
with Kircher. 

The ancient philosophers entertained different opinions con- 
cerning the original formation of the world ; some asserting the 
eternity of matter, out of which all things were formed, as 
Democrttus and Aristotle ; others that the world was made out 
of nothing, and is constantly preserved by the Supreme Being, 
as Pythagoras and Plato, Plutarch, de p/acit. Phil. ii. 4. : Senec, 
Q. Nat. praf. But Cicero makes the opinion of Plato similar 
to that of Aristotle, Acad. iv. 37. 

There was the same diversity of opinion concerning the com- 
ponent parts of bodies, or the first principles of which they are 
composed, Ibid. These were thought by Aristotle, and most 
of the ancient philosophers, to be earthy water, air 9 and fire ; 
hence called the four elements. But Leucippus, Democritus, 
and Epicurus, supposed all bodies to consist of certain small 
solid particles, called corpuscles or atoms* ; which doctrine, with 
a small variation, was adopted by Des Cartes. 

Modern chemists (for so those who examine the nature of 
bodies are called, by a name unknown to the ancients, and of 

* These atoms (ex u, priv. et rofjcvi, sectio, i. e. qus stctionem non recipiunt), Virgil 
calls the seeds of the four elements, (semina terrarumque, animceque, (i. e. aeris,) ma- 
risque, et liquid} simul ignis), or principles, (prima,) from the concourse of which, in 
the great void, magnum per inane, i. e. spatium, coacta,) all things were formed, («e 
his exordia prim'ts omnia,) Virg. Eel, 6. 31—35. Et Serv. ad he. So Lucretius, i. 53* 

H z I which 



100 



Terraqueous Globe. 



which the origin is uncertain) have established various prin- 
ciples of nature, as they are termed : some salt, sulphur, mercury, 
and pure earth ; others, as Varenius, water, oil, or sulphur, salt, 
earth, and a fixed spirit or acid. But the best chemists now 
maintain the impossibility of resolving all bodies into any cer- 
tain first principles or elements ; and divide bodies or the objects 
of chemistry into salts, earths, inflammable substances, metals, 
and waters. The effects of heat and mixture on these bodies 
constitute what is called the science of chemistry, which, although 
known and cultivated by some of the ancients, has been carried 
to a much greater degree of perfection by the moderns. 

The history of chemistry is involved in obscurity. The 
earliest traces we have of it are only the accidental mention 
of certain arts dependent on it as the extraction of metals 
from their ores, the dying of cloths, the imitation of gems, the 
making of glass, &c. Plin. xxxv. II. s, 42. ; xxxvi. 26. s. 66. 

The first appearance of chemistry, as a science, was among 
the alchemists, who professed the art of converting the baser 
metals into gold, in the third or fourth century, according to 
the testimony of Suidas, and several Greek writers. This art 
was again revived or introduced into Europe from the East in 
the 13th century, and however absurd it may now appear, 
was for several ages cultivated with wonderful attention ; and 
some pretended to have discovered a composition called the 
philosopher's stone, which had the power of turning every thing 
it touched into pure gold. Nor was the absurdity of this pre- 
tension exploded till the 15th century. 

PARACELSUS, born near Zurich in Switzerland, a. 1493, 
first introduced chemistry into physic at Basil, and by the suc- 
cess of his remedies gained great reputation. He pretended, 
by means of alchemy, to have found out an universal remedy lor 
all diseases, whereby human life might be prolonged to any 
extent ; but died himself at the age of 48. This notion, 
however, of an universal remedy, ridiculous as it was, had 
many partizans ; particularly Van Helmont, an eminent phy- 
sician, born at Brussels, a. 1577; nor was it entirely abolished 
till chemistry begun to be studied in a philosophical manner, 
about the beginning of the 16th century, by Barrier in Poland, 
Glauber in Germany, Basil Valentine at Hamburgh, Becher at 
MentZ, Bochnius at Leipsic, Boyle, Hook, and Newton, in Bri- 
tain ; Boerhaave at Leyden, &c. 

This science has been prosecuted with particular success in the 
present age, and seems to be that branch of philosophy to which 
the gi-eutcsi attention is now paid. But alter all the di*coveriei 

which 



Terraqueous Globe. 



101 



which hare been made, there is yet much room for improve- 
ment. On several points there has been, and still is, great 
diversity of opinion. 

Division of Bodies on the Terraqueous Globe. 

The bodies upon this earth may be divided into animate and 
inanimate. 

A description of these bodies is called Natural History, 
as that of Pliny. 

ANIMATE bodies are distinguished from the rest by the 
properties of sensation and voluntary motion conjoined. 

Animate bodies are either such as have red blood or colourless 
blood. 

Those that have red blood are divided into such as are hot 
and such as are cold. 

The animals that have hot blood are either viviparous or 
oviparous. 

The viviparous, all of them suckle their young, and the 
class which comprehends them is called by Linne mammalia, 
; sc. animalia. 

This class comprehends many quadrupeds, whales , and some 
other sea-animals. 

The oviparous, with warm blood, are birds. 

Those animals which have cold red blood are divided into 
such as have lungs, and breathe ; or into such as are destitute 
of lungs, but are furnished with gills, which serve the place 
of lungs. 

The former of these divisions constitutes the class which 
Linne calls Amphibia, which comprehends serpents ; lizards, 
frogs, tortoises, &c. •, the latter constitutes the class called 
Fishes. 

The animals with colourless blood, are either covered with 
a crust or kind of case, or are naked. The former constitute 
the class of insects, and the latter the class of worms. 

For further particulars on each of these classes authors on 
Zoology may be consulted. 

Zoology, although it literally means a description of animals 
in general, has nevertheless been confined to denote the de- 
scription of quadrupeds. Descriptions of birds have been 
intitled Ornithology; of amphibious animals, Amphibiology ; of 
fishes, Icthiology ; of insects, Entomology ; of worms, Helmin- 
thology. Nay, natural historians have increased these terms* 
when they have confined their description to a particular part 

H 3 of 



102 



division of Bodied. 



of a class only ; as Conchology, a description of shell-fish J 
Ophiology, of serpents, &c. or to a particular part of an animal, 
as the bones, Osteology, &c. 

That science which teaches the structure of animal bodies 
by dissection is called Anatomy. 

That science which treats of the constitution and functions 
of animal bodies arid their several parts, is called Physiology ; 
but this word sometimes denotes that science which treats of 
the nature of body in general, otherwise called Physics , or 
Natural Philosophy. 

The INANIMATE bodies are either organic or inorganic. 

The ORGANIC are vegetables, and all other inanimate 
bodies are inorganic. * 

That part of natural history which relates to vegetables is 
called BOTANY. 

Vegetables have many properties common with animals, 
but they are distinguished from animals by the want of volun- 
tary motion. 

Vegetables are all propagated by seeds, which very much 
resemble the eggs of oviparous animals ; and it has been long 
known that vegetables are of different sexes, Plin. xiii. 4. s.6» 
This discovery was early applied to useful purposes. Thus figs, 
which were not only a considerable article of commerce, but of 
food among the ancients, were greatly improved in their size 
and quality by the process called caprification, described by 
Pliny, xv. 19. s. 21. which consisted in applying the barren 
flower of the male fig-tree (caprificus) to the female fig-tree 
{feus). 

The difference of sexes in plants may be distinguished by the 
conformation of the flower and this conformation serves as 
the foundation of the justly admired system of Botany, pub- 
lished by that great naturalist Lintw y professor of medicine at 
Upsal in Sweden, who died a. 1772. 

Vegetables are not only propagated by seeds, as oviparous 
animals are by eggs, but like animals they receive nourishment 
and increase in bulk, and at length produce seed, which is 
likewise capable of reproducing another vegetable similar to its 
parent. The act by which vegetables grow is called Vrcr- 
tation, which depends upon moisture, air, heat, and light. 
Of these some are necessary to the very existence of the plant; 
others, to its vigour, colour, and other properties. Thus no 
plant can gTow without moisture and heat ; if a sufficient quan- 
tity of air be wanting, the plant will be destitute of leaves, and 
without light it will be perfectly colourless. 

14 The 



Division of Bodies. 



The nourishment which plants receive is absorbed by the 
roots \ and this nourishment, which is chiefly moisture, is con- 
veyed by proper canals to every part of the plant, and variously 
modified into different kinds of juices, not only in different 
plants, but in the same plant. Thus the moisture absorbed by 
a peach-tree is converted into an austere harsh-tasted juice in 
the leaves ; into a mild gummy liquor that exudes from the 
branches; into a sweet, delicious, high-flavoured juice in the 
fruit ; and a nauseous bitter in the kernel. By artificial mean* 
plants may be made to grow upon one another. Thus, if aa 
incision be made in an apple-tree, and a small twig of a pear- 
tree be inserted into that incision, the branch will not only 
grow, but produce pears ; which operation is called engrafting: 
and gardeners sometimes engraft several different kinds of trees 
on the same stock, the same root supplying nourishment to 
fruits of very different tastes and flavours. The process by 
which the same moisture received by the root is thus diversified 
into so many different juices is the effect of vegetation, but by 
what means it is performed is unknown. 

Besides this peculiarity of vegetation there are several other 
circumstances, which are equally mysterious and inexplicable. 

Thus, if a young willow tree be taken up by the roots in the 
winter, and planted with its branches in the ground and its 
roots upwards, the branches become roots, and the roots 
branches. In the present state of science we must content 
ourselves with the knowledge of facts, and leave the expli- 
cation of them to futurity. 

Vegetables are of different kinds with respect to their dura,- 
tion ; and are either trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, mosses, ferns, 
and flags or sea-weeds. 

For particular descriptions of these, writers on botany must 
be consulted.* 

The substances obtained from animafs and vegetables are 
various : 

I. From animals are obtained, besides their flesh and skins, 
milky cream, butter, cheese, (produced from milk coagulated by 
rennet or runnet, which is an infusion of the stomach of a suck- 
ling caif in water, prepared in different ways, according to the 
fancy of the makers,) eggs, honey, \v ax, tallow, silk, wool, hair,, 
horn, &c. ; spermaceti, a kind of solid oil, found in the head of 
a species of whale *, isinglass, a light gluey substance, extracted 
from several large fishes of the sturgeon kind found in the 



* Ovid enumerates a great many trees, Met,x, 90, &c. 

H 4 Danube^ 



104 



Division of Bodies. 



Danube, Boristhenes, Wolga, and other great rivers in the north 
of Europe*. Very considerable articles in commerce are pro- 
duced from various sea-fish ; as, oil from cod in Newfoundland, 
and other places ; from whales, seals, &c. in Greenland, and 
other parts. 

II. From vegetables are obtained, i. from their juices, gums 
and resins, which exude either spontaneously from the plant, 
or by makinng an incision in the bark ; balsams, the gums of 
fragrant plants •, turpentine, the gum or rosin of the pine or fir, 
and other trees ; the same trees also produce tar ; but this is 
not a natural production, being extracted by a peculiar distilla- 
tion ; sugar y obtained from various plants, but chiefly from the 
sugar-cane, the juice of which is expressed by passing the cane 
between two iron rollers. This juice is made into sugar, by 
repeated boilings and purifications ; and the grosser parts, being 
subjected to fermentation, yield rum. 

2. From the seeds; meal, flour, glue, oils, Sec. Fat oils 
are obtained by pressure from the seeds or kernels of vegetables ; 
volatile, or essential oils, as they are called, which usually have 
a strong aromatic smell, exist in almost all fragrant vegetables, 
being found in various parts of the plant besides the seed in 
the wood, the root, the bark, the leaves, the flowers, the fruit, 
Sec. and are obtained either by pressure, as from the peel of 
oranges and lemons, or by distillation with water. The most 
valuable of these fragrant plants are brought from the east, as 
cinnamon, camphire, sassafras, Sec. 

3. From various plants are extracted colouring matters used 
in dying, as, red, from logwood, sanders, madder, Sec. ; blue, 
from indigo ; yellow from fustic, turmeric, Sec. 

4. From various vegetables acids are produced, as vinegar, 
tartar, Sec. 

5. By fermentation wine is made from various fruits; as 
grapes, currants, raspberries, apples, &C. ; ale and beer usually 
from barley made into malt. By distillation spirituous liquors, 
or ardent spirits, are made from all those liquors produced by 
fermentation ; as whifky or aquavit* from barley and other grains 
malted ; brandy or spirit of wine from wine J rumtvom molasses, Sec. 

Rectified spirit of wine, mixed with different acids, and dis- 
tilled, produces a kind of fluid called Ether, of various kinds, 
according to the acid used, as vitriolic, nitrous, marine ether, Sec. 

• Isipfdass is produced from the fwimming bladders of sturgeon cleaned and dried. 
Tlie greatest quantity conns from Astucan at the mouth of the Wolga, whence also 
there is a large export of Caviare or Kavear, i. e. the hard roes of sturgeon salted, 
mnde into smyll cakes and dried in the tun. Sc; Ftllatt Journey into tie Southern 
Difartmcnij <>f Jiujiia, vol. ». 

Division 



Division of Bodies. 



I OB 



Division of INORGANIC Inanimate 
Bodies. 

INORGANIC Inanimate Bodies may be divided into Salts, 
Earths, Inflammable Substances, and Metals. 

I. SALTS. 

SALTS are bodies soluble in less than 200 times their 
weight of water, affect the tongue with a singular taste ; and, 
when the water in which they are dissolved is evaporated, form 
themselves into regular angular figures, called crystals. These 
crystals are of different figures in different salts, each salt form- 
ing crystals of a figure peculiar to itself. Thus the crystals of 
common salts are cubes *, those of saltpetre, hexagonal prisms, 
or six-sided columns ; those of other salts of different figures. 
Some natural historians have classed salts according to the 
figure of their crystals 5 but chemists divide salts into simple 
and compound. 

Simple salts are of two kinds, alkrlis and acids. 

There are three alkalis, the fossil, vegetable, and animal. The 
ancients produced one of these from the ashes of the herb kali 
or glasswort hence the general name of a/kali, the (salt pro- 
duced from) kali; and because this salt was used in making 
glass, the herb is called glasswort. 

The ALKALIS are divided into volatile, which fly off in the 
open air, as the animal alkali ; and into such as are fixed and 
which do not evaporate, as the fossil and vegetable alkali. 

The distinguishing qualities of alkalis are, that they change 
the blue colour of vegetables into green, unite with oil to form 
soap, and with sand to form glass. 

The acids are also divided into fossil, vegetable, and animal. 

The FOSSIL ACIDS are, the vitriolic acid, the nitrous acid, 
the muriatic or marine acid, and the boracic acid. 

The vitriolic acid is so called, because it was first produced 
from the compound salt called vitriol; but the vitriolic acid now 
used is produced from sulphur, and hence the modern French, 
chemists called it sulphuric acid. 

The 



106 



Division of Bodies. 



The nitrous acid is so called, because it was obtained from 
nitre or saltpetre the MURIATIC or marine acid, because it was 
obtained from muria or sea-salt ; and this acid is sometimes 
called spirit of salt ; the boracic acid, because it was obtained 
from borax, a salt which comes from the East Indies, and is 
dug up in a crystalised state from certain salt lakes in the king- 
dom of Thibet. 

Besides these fossil acids there are several others which mo- 
dern chemists have discovered •, as, arsenic acid, from arsenic ; 
the fluoric acid, from fluor or spar, Sec. 

VEGETABLE acids are either native or fictitious. The na- 
tive are obtained from the juices of certain fruits and plants, as 
from lemons, currants, and other sour fruits ; or from the leaves 
of sorrel, and other acid plants. The fictitious are, vinegar, 
which is produced either from the fermentation of sweet fruits 
or grain ; and tartar, which is found adhering to the bottom 
and sides of vessels in which wine has been kept. 

The ANIMAL acids are, the phosphoric acid, obtained from 
most animals ; the formic acid, produced from ants ; and several 
other acids produced from insects ; as, the bombyc from silk- 
worms ; apic, from bees, &c. 

The distinguishing properties of acids are, that they change 
the blue colours of vegetables into red, they effervesce with 
alkalis, metals, and some earths, which, possessing this pro- 
perty in common with alkalis, are called alkaline earths as, 
chalk, lime, magnesia, Sec. 

The COMPOUND SALTS are those which are formed 
from the union of any acid, either with an alkali, an earth, or 
a metal. Thus, if the nitrous acid be united with the vege- 
table alkali, there results a compound salt called nitre or saltpetre. 
— From considering the nature and quality of this salt, it ap- 
pears very different from the nitre of the ancients, Plin. xxxi. 10. 
s. 46. The modern nitre does not effervesce with acids, which 
the nitre of the ancients did, thus, As vinegar upon nitre, Sec. 
Prov. xxv. 20. Nor docs our nitre answer the purpose of 
soap, as that of the ancients, Though thou ivash thee ivith nitre 
and soap, Jerem. ii. 22. But both these qualities are found in 
the fossil alkali ; and hence modern chemists conclude the nitre 
of the ancients to have been the fossil alkali, which abounds in 
many parts of the cast, where it is called natron, and in some 
places trcna ; both of which words have a great resemblance to 
nitrum or nitron. 

To enumerate all the compound salts would be needless in 
this place. 

Those 



Division of Bodies. 10T 

Those compound salts which consist of acids and alkalis are 
called neutral salts, from the supposition that they are nei- 
ther alkali nor acid. 

NEUTRAL SALTS are formed by acids and alkalis ; and 
when the acid is first added to the alkali, an effervescence en- 
sues, which decreases in proportion as more acid is added, till 
at length the addition of the acid no longer causes an effer- 
vescence. The alkali is then said to be saturated with the acid, 
or the alkali and acid are said to be mutually saturated with 
each other. Thus the acids may be saturated with metals and 
absorbent earths, to form compound salts with these substances ; 
and the salts thus formed are callad metallic or earthy salts, or 
sometimes salts with metallic or earthy bases. In a similar man- 
ner, as the acids may be saturated with alkalis, metals, or 
earths; so salts of all kinds may saturate water; for a certain 
quantity of water will only dissolve a certain quantity of any 
salt ; and when the solution is so made it is said to be a satu- 
rated solution. 



II. EARTHS. 



Earths, or earthy bodies, are distinguished from salts by 
their not being soluble in water ; from inflammable bodies, by 
not being inflammable ; and from metals, by their inferior 
weight. 

All earthy bodies may be reduced to the following classes ; 
Absorbent earths, Plastic earths or clay. Verifiable earths, or fuch 
as melt into glafs, and Apyraceous earths, which remain unaltered 
by fire. 

Absorbent earths are distinguished from other earths by 
their effervescing with acids, as, calcareous earth, chalk, lime- 
stone, marbles, spars of different kinds, one of which, found in 
Iceland, is remarkable for the property of doubling all objects 
viewed through it ; Barytes, or heavy earth, forming the heaviest 
of all stones, which are about four times and a half their weight 
of water; the Bolognian stone, first found near Bologna in 
Italy by a shoemaker, who applied himself to alchemy, which, 
after being exposed to the light, has the power of retaining it for 
some time, and of shining in the dark. Magnesia, which is 
seldom found in a pure state, but generally combined with other 
substances, as with the vitriolic acid in certain mineral springs, 

especially 



108 



Earths. 



especially at Epsom in Surrey ; or with the muriatic acid in sea- 
water ; or with different earths, as in various stones, especially 
in the Lapis Serpentinus or Ollaris. This is a stone so soft 
that it may be turned in a turner's lathe, and pots (olU) and 
pans made of it *, which are remarkably clean, and resist the 
action of fire. 

2. Plastic or Argillaceous earths, are such as are friable or 
pulverisable when dry, but form a tough ductile paste with 
water, and when burnt become extremely hard, as clays, of 
which there are various kinds. Clays, when baked, constitute 
all the varieties of bricks, pottery , and porcelain. 

3. Vitrifiable earths are such as differ from the two former by 
wanting the properties above mentioned. They melt in a due 
degree of heat, but they generally require some other substance 
to be mixed with them to promote their fusion, arid are so hard 
that they strike fire with flint, and a file makes no impression 
on them. They are commonly found, not in an earthy state, 
but in the form of stones, flints, agates, quartz, (a whitish semi- 
transparent stone, which has the property of emitting flashes of 
light, when two, of them are rubbed one against the other in 
the dark, accompanied with a strong sulphureous phosphoric 
smell,) granites, sand-stone, sand, gravel, &c. The pure silicious 
earth, as it is called, has been found in the bottom of some 
lakes in the Highlands of Scotland. To this class belong most 
of the gems, jasper, calcedony, cornelian, so called from its flesh 
colour, onyx, sardonyx, opal, tourmaline, garnet, amethyst, topaz, 
sapphire, emerald ; as also lava, basaltes, pumice, and other volcanic 
matter ; schoerl, a substance of a chrystalline appearance and of 
different colours, and many species of ivhin-stone. 

4. Apyraceous earths differ from the rest in having a peculiar 
plated or fibrous texture, and wanting the properties of the other 
earths ; as, Tall, consisting of thin scales or plates, so large 
and transparent that they are used for windows in Russia. As- 
bestus, consisting of fibres, which are sometimes so fine as to 
be capable of being wrought into cloth ; and, from its power of 
withstanding the fire, (as the name denotes,) it was used by the 
ancients as a covering for the body when burnt, to preserve the 
ashes ; Mountain leather and Mountain cork, which are stones 
pliable like these substances. 



m. in- 



Inflammable Substances. 



109 



HI. INFLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES. 

Inflammable substances are such as possess the property of 
being consumable by fire, and are distinguished by emitting 
heat and light. 

Most bodies which belong to this class are mixed with cer- 
tain impurities, chiefly of an earthy nature, which prevent 
their being entirely consumed, and therefore they leave a 
residuum called ashes. 

All inflammable substances are violently acted upon by the 
vitriolic and nitrous acids, except camphor and naptha, or 
liquid bitumen, Plin. ii. 105. j. 109. 

The mineral inflammable substances are amber, in which 
are found fishes, insects, and vegetables, which shews that it 
has once been liquid ; ambergrise, rock oil (petroleum), both 
solid and liquid; bitumen, Plin, xxxv. 15. s. 51. ; sulphur or 
brimstone, either pure or mixed with other substances, Plin. 
xxxv. 15. s. 50.; asphaltus, v. -urn, a bituminous substance 
found on the surface of the Dead Sea in Palestine, jet, peat, 
turf, &c. 

Of inflammable substances, one of the most remarkable is 
coal.' 

The use of coal for burning was unknown to the Romans* 
It was first discovered by the Britons, as it is thought, near 
Manchester, some time before the invasion of Julius Caesar* 
But for ages after the discovery, wood continued to be generally 
used for firing as long as the forests abounded. 

The first public notice of coal is in the reign of Henry III. 
who, in 1272, granted a charter to the town of Newcastle, 
allowing the inhabitants to dig for coals. They were not, how- 
ever, brought into common use till the reign of Charles I. and 
were then sold at 17s. a chalder or chaldron. 

Some years after the Restoration, about 200,000 chaldrons 
were burnt in London, at the Revolution above 300,000, and 
at present 600,000. In Ireland, although they have coal, yet 
they take annually a considerable quantity both from England 
and Scotland. 

There are several other countries in Europe which have coal- 
mines; as, France, Liege, Germany, and Sweden; and in 
America, Newfoundland, Cape-Breton, Canada, and some of the 
New England provinces. But in all these the coal is of a 

quality 



110 



Inflammable Substances. 



quality very inferior to the British, so that they are obliged to 
import great quantities of the British coal for the use of their 
manufactures. 

Coal is found in Strata, not in mountainous situations, but 
in places abounding with vallies, moderately rising hills, and 
interspersed with plains of considerable extent. The strata of 
coal are found between strata of other substances, usually of 
stone of various kinds. 

The strata are seldom or never found to be in a horizontal 
situation, but usually having an inclination or descent, called 
the dip. 

The strata are sometimes interrupted by fissures, called dykes, 
hitches > and troubles. 

Strata of coal are seldom found dry. They are commonly 
attended with large springs of water, which is drawn off some- 
times by a drain ; but when a level for this purpose cannot 
be found, by machinery of different kinds, chiefly by steam- 
engines. 

There is often much difficulty in digging for coal. The 
strata or seams are often of different thickness ; sometimes 
there are several strata below one another. 

Collieries or coal-pits are exposed to dreadful accidents 
from what is called a crush or sitt, when the pillars fail by the 
superincumbent weight or otherwise, and from damp or in- 
flammable air. 

There are several kinds of coal, as the common Scotch coal, 
which burns to white ashes ; the Newcastle coal, which cakes 
and by burning becomes cinders ; the blind coal, which burns 
without flame like charcoal ; Kennel coal, which burns with a 
vivid light, easily takes fire, and is so hard as to be capable of 
receiving a polish, so that trinkets of various kinds, snuff-boxes, 
buttons, &c, are made of it. 

The most remarkable effect of heat in combustible bodies is 
when they are brought^ into contact with nitre. 

If nitre touches an inflammable substance heated red hot, a 
violent combustion is produced, accompanied with a kind of 
crackling noise or explosion, and the body is then said to 
deflagrate. 

If the explosion is almost instantaneous, the body is said to 

detonate. 

This property of nitre gave rise to the composition of GUN- 
POWDER, a substance which has wholly changed the mili- 
tary system of nations, and which, although in itself most de- 
structive, 



Inflammable Substances. Ill 

Structive, appears to have diminished the slaughter in wars, 
by repressing in some degree the rancour, which used anciently 
to actuate combatants, who fought hand to hand. If we sup- 
pose gun-powder to be divided into 100 parts, 75 parts consist 
of nitre, 15 of charcoal, and 10 of sulphur; or if we suppose 
it divided into 9 parts, there are 7 parts of nitre, 1 of sulphur, 
and 1 of charcoal. These ingredients are intimately blended 
together by long pounding in wooden mortars, with wooden 
pestles, and a small quantity of water. The mixture is then 
formed into a stiff paste, which being forced through wire sieves 
is broken into small grains, or becomes granulated; and these 
grains being shaken or rolled in a barrel with some powdered 
blacklead, are rounded by their mutual friction against each 
other, and are glazed by the powder of the lead. 

The force and explosion of gun-powder, when set on fire, 
is occasioned by the sudden expansion of the elastic aerial mat- 
ter which it contains. 

When three parts of nitre, two of mild vegetable alkali, and 
one of sulphur, are rubbed together in a warm mortar, they 
form a composition known by the name of fulminating powder, 
from its astonishing effects. 

When a little of this powder is laid on a plate of iron, and 
the plate held over a chaffing dish of charcoal, it begins to melt 
into a blackish dark brown mass, and as soon as the whole 
of it is melted, it explodes with a surprisingly loud and smart 
noise. 

Gun-powder is said to have been accidentally invented by 
Schwartz, a German monk, at Mentz, about the year 1330; 
and fire-arms to have been first used by the Venetians in their 
war with the Genoese, a. 1376 ; but historians affirm that great 
guns were used by the English at the battle of Cressy, a. 1346, 
and the year following at the siege of Calais, Rapin. Fol. edit. 
1743 > voL i. p. 425. 



IV. METALS. 

Metals are distinguished from all other known bodies by 
their weight, the heaviest stones being not much above four 
times their weight of water, but the lightest metal more than 
seven times heavier than water. Metals are also the most 
opaque bodies, and reflect the rays of light most powerfully. 

Those 



112 



Metals. 



Those metals which are most ductile and malleable, or may 
be most extended by the hammer, and remain longest unchanged 
by fire, are called perfect metals. These are three, gold, silver, 
and platina or platinum, lately discovered in the gold-mines of 
Spanish America, resembling gold in its properties, but of a 
white colour. Pure or refined platina is by much the heaviest 
body known, which gold was reckoned to be before the disco- 
very of platina. It requires a very strong heat to melt it. Its 
parts adhere together by hammering, as a plate of heated iron 
does when doubled and beaten. This property is called uoeld- 
zng, and is peculiar to iron and platina. 

Such metals as may be destroyed or changed into earth by 
fire, are called imperfect metals. These are four, copper^ iron, 
lead, and tin. Those metallic substances which do not possess 
malleability and ductility are called semimetals, as antimony, 
bismuth, zinc, cobalt, arsenic, nickel, and some others. Mercury 
forms a class by itself. All these were known to the ancient* 
except platina, cobalt, arsenic, and nickel. 

By the joint action of fire and air all metals, except gold, 
silver and platina, may be reduced to an earthy-like substance 
called calx, and then they are said to be calcined. 

The pure metallic part of some of these is called regulus; 
as, regulus of antimony, cobalt, or arsenic. 

The calx, being mixed with any inflammable substance, and 
exposed to fire in close vessels, is restored by melting into its 
metallic form, and is then said to be revived or revivified. 

When metals are calcined the calx is found to be heavier than 
the metal from which it was produced. This fact long puzzled 
chemists, and it was never satisfactorily explained, till of late it 
has been found to be owing to the combination of pure air with 
the metal during the process of its calcination. 

The places where metals are found are called mines, chiefly 
in mountainous countries. They are seldom found pure, ex- 
cept gold, silver, and quicksilver, then called native or virgin 
gold and silver, but generally mixed with sulphur, arsenic, or 
both •, in which state the metals are said to be mineralized, and 
the mixture is called an ere. 

ORES are frequently found in detached fragments, but most 
commonly in continued masses, wholly filling long crevices or 
cracks in the rocks. These continuations of ore arc called veinf, 
and traverse the rock in all directions, sometimes half an inch 
thick, andat other times several feet. The rock or stony matter mix- 
ed with the ore in the vein is called the matrix. Sometimes ores 

arc 



Metals. 



IIS 



are found neither in detached fragments nor in continued veins, 
but compose the whole substance of a mountain, which is par- 
ticularly the case with copper and iron. Thus the mountain 
of Anglesea in England, and Tahlun in Dalecarlia, consist al- 
most entirely of copper ; Danemora in Sweden, of iron. 

Veins are seldom found but in mountains. When they ap- 
proach the plains they gradually sink under the different strata 
of these plains, so deep as to be beyond the reach of miners. 
Hence the inferior strata of the earth are supposed to contain 
large quantities of pyritous, sulphureous, and metallic sub- 
stances, which, taking fire, have been thought the cause of 
subterranean fires, volcanoes, and earthquakes. 

Pyrites is a mineral resembling the ore of metal, and is some- 
times so hard that it has the power of striking sparks of fire from 
steel, whence its name, or rather because it has a great deal 
of fire in it, Plin. xxxvi. 19, s. 30. It is chiefly of a white, 
yellowish, or yellow colour. 

The operations by which metals are obtained from ores are 
called the smelting of ores. A chemical operation to determine 
the quantity of metal or other matter in minerals, or to disco- 
ver the value or purity of any mass of metal, is called an Essay 
or Assay. 

Metals are ranked in the following order ; 1 . with respect to 
their weight ; platina, gold, mercury, lead, silver, copper, iron, 
and tin : — 2. with respect to their ductility ; gold, silver, copper $ 
iron, tin, lead. The ductility of mercury and platina is not yet 
determined : — 3. with regard to their hardness ; iron, platina, 
copper, silver, gold, tin, and lead : — 4. with respect to their te- 
ll nacity, or the force with which their parts adhere to one an- 
other and resist separation ; which is proved by the weight which 
wires of the same diameter, made of the several metals, can 
sustain without breaking ; gold, iron, copper, silver, tin, lead. 
The tenacity of mercury is unknown, and that of platina unde- 
termined : and — 5. fusibility; mercury, tin, lead, silver, gold, 
: copper, iron, and platina. 

By mixing different metals together are formed compound me* 
tals. Thus brass and pinchbeck is formed by a mixture of 
copper and zinc, or its ore, lapis calaminaris, calamine, in dif- 
i ferent proportions. 

I Silver and gold, in their pure state, are too soft to be em- 
ployed for various purposes, and are therefore mixed with some 

; other metal to harden them, which mixture is called alloy or 
allay. The alloy for gold is either pure copper, or a mixture of 

I silver 



1U 



Metals. 



silver and copper, according to the colour desired whether deep 
or light. Silver is always alloyed with copper. 

Two soft metals mixed together produce a compound much 
harder than either of them : and in some cases, as when copper 
and tin are mixed together in certain proportions, the mixture 
hecomes the hardest of all metallic substances, called bronze or 
bell-metal. This compound is employed for making cannons* 
statues, bells, and parts of heavy machinery which are liable to 
be much worn. It also possesses the property of receiving a 
very fine polish •, and is hence used for specula or mirrors, and 
for making reflecting telescopes. 

Certain metals easily mix and combine together •, hence the 
art of soldering. Thus tin is a solder for lead ; brass, gold, or 
silver are solders for iron, &c. Some metals will not unite at 
all. This property of uniting or not uniting is called the af- 
finity of metals. 

When any metal is united with quicksilver, it is said to be 
amalgamated (from upct together, and yu^iw, to marry) ; as all 
the metals may, except iron and platina, and with difficulty, 
copper and arsenic. 

The use of this operation is to render metals soft and ductile. 
Gold is thus drawn over other matter by the gilder. The mix- 
ture prepared for this purpose, commonly consisting of six parts 
of mercury and one of gold, is called amalgam or amalgama. 

Gold is separated from alloy by the operation called cupelhit::n 
from cupel, a shallow porous crucible, made of burned bone-, 
in which the gold is exposed to a strong heat, together with 
lead, and is thus purified from the imperfect metals. The 
operations by which gold is purified from silver are called 
quartation and parting. 

Lead, by means of heat and air, is formed into minium or 
fed lead : by means of the steam of the acetous acid or vinegar* 
into ceruse or white lead. 

These are the calces of lead, and are used chiefly for paints ; 
as ingredients in colourless or jlint-glass ; and for glazing earthen- 
ware. The calx of lead is a principal ingredient in most of the 
modern fine white glasses. 

All the preparations of lead are found to be deadly poisons; 
hence lead is thought not to be perfectly innocent for water- 
pipes, and much less so for any kind of vessels. 

There is a mineral substance called plumbago ox black lead, of 
which pencils arc made ; found in different parts, the best at 

13orro\vdale 



Metals, 



115 



Borrowdale in Cumberland. It is a compound of iron and 
inflammable matter. 

From copper is formed that substance used in painting green 
colours, called verdegris, which also is a strong poison. The 
use of copper vessels has, in some instances, been productive 
of fatal consequences ; whence, unless with particular precau- 
tions, they are thought unsafe for culinary purposes* 

IRON, the most useful of all metals, is found in greater 
abundance than any other. It undergoes several operations be- 
fore it is fitted for the purposes of the forge. Two pieces of 
iron, when heated to a certain degree, in what is called a white 
heat, will adhere to one another, and may be perfectly united 
by hammering; a property peculiar to iron and platina : this 
operation is called welding. 

If the purest malleable iron be bedded in pounded charcoal 
in a close vessel, and kept for a certain time, longer or shorter, 
according to the thickness of the bars, it is found that by this 
operation, which is called cementation, the iron has gained a small 
addition of weight, about the 150th or the 200th part, and is 
rendered much more brittle and fusible than it was before. 
After this operation it is called STEEL. It may be welded 
like bar-iron ; but its most useful property is that of becoming 
extremely hard when made red hot and plunged in cold water. 
The hardness produced is greater in proportion as the steel is 
hotter and the water colder. 

Artists soften the hardest steel to any degree, by gradually 
heating it and suffering it to cool again gradually. This is 
called tempering. 

Tin is very malleable, though not very tenacious. It is ex- 
tended into plates called tin-foil y and these plates may be beaten 
into leaves like gold. 

A mixture of tin and lead in certain proportions forms the 
:ompound called Pewter, which is much more applicable to 
Certain purposes than tin or lead alone, being much harder, and 
nelted with less heat than either of these metals in their 
leparate state •, and sometimes to make it harder a little zinc is 
idded. One very remarkable property of pewter is, that by 
idding bizmuth to it, a mixture is formed which may be melted 
»vith less heat than is necessary to make water boil. 

Tin is chiefly found in the county of Cornwall, whence the 
?hcenicians are said to have got their tin. 



WATERS, 



116 



Waters. 



WATERS. 

Newton defines water when pure to be a very fluid salt, vo- 
latile, and void of all savour or taste. According to others it 
is nothing but ice dissolved : and all fluidity is supposed to be 
the effect of heat, which exists to a certain degree in a latent 
state in all bodies, for when part of the heat of water is gone, 
it becomes fixed and solid. 

An important discovery was lately made by Mr. Cavendish 
in England, and farther confirmed by Monsieur Lavoisier at 
Paris, that water is a compound of vital and inflammable air, 
in the proportion of 85 of the former, and 15 of the latter, 
or as 17 to 3, which shews the falsehood of the notion for- 
merly entertained, that water is a pure element. Water, 
however, is so universal an agent in the most important oper- 
ations of nature, that we need not be surprised at some ancient 
philosophers imagining all things to be derived from it. For not 
only dew, rain, snow, and meteors, owe their existence to 
water, but all animals and vegetables, says Newton, grow 
from water, and after putrefaction return (in part) to water 
again. Its weight is used as the measure for determining the 
specific gravity of bodies, one cubic foot of water weighing 
1000 ounces Avoirdupois weight; and the boiling point has 
been assumed as the standard of comparison of the different de- 
grees of heat in other bodies. Water is the great solvent of 
all salts, and these solutions of salts in water are the solvents of 
metals, earths, and inflammable substances. The disposition 
of this globe into parallel strata is supposed to have been the 
effect of water, from the numerous relics of aquatic animals 
and productions found in them. Thus the vast strata of mar- 
ble, lime-stone, chalk, &c.are entirely composed of shells, 
Corals, &c. or of the matter into which these animal produc- 
tions have mouldered and decayed. Vegetable substances, and 
the relics of land animals, are observable in the strata of free 
•tone, of some clays, of coal, and of slate. Some have 
thought, from various experiments, that water is convertible 
into earth ; and others have ascribed to this the diminution 
they supposed to have taken place in the waters of the sea ; 
but later naturalists have detected the fallacy of these expe- 
riments , and we know, that as the sea has sunk or receded 
from some places, so it has made encroachments upon die dry 
land in others. 

Water 



Waters. 



m 



Water is generally defined to be a fluid that is insipid, co- 
lourless, and without any flavour. It was also said to be 
inelastic, but later experiments have shewn that it is in some 
degree compressible. 

Water is seldom found perfectly pure, but almost always 
impregnated with some foreign matter, and to purify it distil- 
lation is often used. 

The varieties of water are, rain or snow water, fountain or 
well-watery river-water, the water of lakes, marshes, and small 
pools, and sea-water. Of these rain-water is the most pure, 
being in fact water distilled by nature. It, however, is seldom 
free from impurities of different kinds : for in descending it 
attracts the various volatile substances suspended in the atmos- 
phere. Hence, near great towns, it is found to have a black- 
ish tinge, and a sensible taste of soot ; and in the country, in 
summer, when large quantities of the pollen or staminal dust of 
plants are carried up with whirlwinds, the rain falling through 
this yellow dust is so much discoloured by it, as sometimes to 
have given rise to the popular error of showers of sulphur, as 
a number of certain insects is supposed to have occasioned the 
belief of showers of blood. 

Fountains or wells are impregnated with various matters, 
according to the nature of the different strata through which 
the waters pass in their way to the springs. 

SPRINGS are of several kinds. They are in general of 
the mean heat of the climate where they occur, but some of 
them are very hot ; as the waters of Bath and Buxton in 
England, Aix la Chapelle in Germany, Baia in Italy, Selinus 
in Sicily, &c. But the most remarkable hot springs occur 
in Iceland. They owe their heat most probably to subter- 
raneous fires, because the hottest are found in places near 
volcanoes. 

Springs are impregnated with various matters ; salts, sul- 
phur, metals, earths, and airs of different kinds. The salts 
which they contain consist of compounds of the fossil alkali, 
combined either with vitriolic or muriatic acid, or of different 
earths or metals with these acids. 

Sometimes the earths and metals are dissolved in spring- 
, water by means of fixed air ; as, the calcareous earth in petrifying 
springs, and iron in chalybeate springs. In consequence of the 
fixed air, which is a very volatile substance, evaporating, when 
these waters are exposed, the calcareous earth or metals, which 
had been kept dissolved in the water, by this fixed air, is depo- 

I 3 sited 



118 



) Voters. 



sited upon the bottom of the channel in which these waters 
run. And if the waters chance to run over any vegetable or 
animal substance, such substance is gradually covered with 
calcareous earth, and is then said to be petrified. Sometimes 
springs contain a greater quantity of fixed air than is sufficient 
for the solution of the different substances in the water. The 
water is then impregnated with a superabundant quantity of 
fixed air, and acquires an agreeable brisk and acid taste, which 
waters are called acidulje, sc. aqua, as the Seltzer waters, and 
others. 

Sulphur, and other inflammable substances, are found dis- 
solved in water. These are called sulphureous springs, as, at 
Harrowgate in Yorkshire. Springs impregnated with these dif- 
ferent substances are distinguished, not only by their flavour, but 
also by their medical qualities, hence called medicinal springs. 

Water may be considered as either hard or soft. Soft water 
is such as is pure from any admixture, except alkaline salt j 
hard water, such as is impregnated with an acid, either alone, 
or in a compound salt. The mark of hard water is curdling 
soap. 

The water of rivers or lakes is derived either from rain or 
springs, or most generally from both. The water of rivers is 
impregnated with a great variety of matter, both mineral and 
vegetable-, according to the nature of the soil through which 
they pass. The water of rivers near great cities is replete 
with such a quantity of animal and vegetable substances, that 
upon standing a few days in a vessel, it undergoes a putrid 
fermentation; as is the case with Thames water, which is thus 
purified. 

The water of lakes is in general purer than that of ri- 
vers. The water of the larger lakes in America is said to be 
so transparent, that stones and rocks at the bottom may be 
seen at the depth of several hundred feet, as clearly as if no 
medium intervened. 

The water of marshes and small pools abounds with various 
impurities, both from vegetable and animal substances. In 
summer, especially, they sometimes abound with such a num- 
ber of insects and small aquatic animals, that the water appears 
of the same colour with these insects ; and the insects are so 
quickly produced as to give rise to a vulgar error, that the 
water lias been suddenly changed. One species of insects, 
called inonoi iiius, in particular, of a scarlet colour, has sometimes 
made it be believed, that water was changed into blood, which 
the vulgar consider as a portentous omen. 

16 SEA- 



Waters. 119 

SEA-WATER is very full of impurities, chiefly of the 
saline kind. There are three compound salts found in sea-water, 
viz. i. common salt, or a compound of muriatic acid and fossil 
alkali ; 2. saliied magnesia, or a compound of muriatic acid and 
magnesia ; 3. gypsum, or a compound of vitriolic acid and lime. 
The proportions of these ingredients in sea-water, brought 
from the Cape of Good Hope, are according to Bergman's ana- 
lysis, in a thousand parts, 33 of the first, 9 of the second, and 
1 of the third, making about 43 parts in a thousand. How 
these ingredients came to be in the sea-water, can only be 
explained by supposing, that the water meets with these salts 
either at the bottom of the sea, and dissolves them, or that they 
are washed down by the rivers from various strata, and accu- 
mulated in the ocean 5 for the water evaporated by the sun's 
heat from the surface of the sea takes up with it no particles 
of salt. Hence those lakes which receive rivers, but have no 
exit or discharge are salt j as the lake Asphalfites or the Dead Sea, 
in Palestine, into which the river Jordan runs. The banks of 
this lake in summer are encrusted with great quantities of dry 
salt, of a more pungent nature than the marine salt, having a 
relish of sal ammoniac. There are very few salt lakes in the 
world. That surrounding the city of Mexico, and the lake 
Tittica in Peru, communicating with that of Paria, are said 
to be of this kind. Some add the Caspian Sea, which, if con- 
sidered as a lake, is no doubt the most wonderful in the world. 
It is reported to be somewhat less salt than the ocean. Strabo 
mentions a salt lake in Armenia, xi. p. 529. 

The portion of salt in sea-water is different in different parts 
of the ocean. The water of the Baltic sea is said to contain 
one 64th of its weight of salt j that of the sea between Eng- 
land and Flanders, the 3 2d part ; on the coast of Spain, the 
1 6th part ; and between the tropics, from one 1 ith to one 8th 
part. 

The. sea-water in the Ethiopic ocean, on the coast of Guinea^ 
yields white salt as fine as sugar, with once boiling \ which 
cannot be produced from the water of any of the seas in 
Europe without frequent boilings. The greater saltness of sea- 
water in the torrid zone is ascribed to the greater exhalation of 
the sun, to the heat of the water which dissolves the salt mixed 
with it, as the same water or salt-meat tastes Salter when hot 
than when cold ; and to the less frequency of rain or snow. 
In the rainy months the ocean within the tropics is not so salt 
near the shores as it is in the dry months j and at the mouths 

I 4 of 



120 



Waters. 



of the rivers Oroonoco, of the Amazons, and dc la Plata t the ocean 
loses its salt taste for several leagues from the shore. 

The sea-water is heavier than fresh in proportion to its salt- 
ness. It was the opinion of the Peripatetics^ that salt water would 
freeze sooner than fresh, as being less pure. But the contrary 
is the case ; owing to this, that in salt there is a certain spirit 
which resists coagulation, and which being separated from the 
salt, will not congeal in the hardest frost. See Varenius, vol i. 
p. 220. This, however, is not altogether consistent with the 
opinions at present entertained. 

Salt is extracted from sea-water, or from any water which 
contains it, (for there are many salt springs in various parts of 
the earth,) by evaporating the water. That is done in this 
country by means of large shallow iron boilers, called salt- 
pans, and the chrystals of salt are taken out in baskets. In 
Russia and other northern parts, the sea-water is exposed to 
freeze ; and the ice, which is almost entirely fresh, being taken 
out, the remaining brine, thus rendered much stronger, is eva- 
porated by boiling. 

In the south of Europe salt is made by spontaneous evapora- 
tion in flat pieces of ground near the sea, which are banked 
round ; and the water made to pass from one shallow pond to 
another, till the salt is formed. This is called Bay salt, from 
its being found in large quantities formed by nature on the Bay 
of Biscay. 

Common salt is found in large masses, or in pits below ground, 
as in England and elsewhere. This is called rock-salt. 

The island of Onnus is nothing buc white hard salt, of which 
they make the walls of their houses, and there is not one spring 
of fresh-water in the whole island. 

Sea- water, if taken up near the surface, contains also the re- 
mains of animal substances, which render it nauseous, and in 
long continued calms cause the sea to emit a disagreeable smell. 

Explanation of Terms ; Solution, Fusion, Distillation, Sec. 

I. "When a body is so diffused through any liquor as to be 
invisible, that is, when the mixture is perfectly transparent 
and homogeneous, then that body is said to be dissolved in the 
liquor; and the mixture is called a solution; the body dissolved 
is called the solvend ; and die liquor Which dissolves it, the 
solvent or menstruum* 

A body 



Solution, Fusion, Distillation, &c. 



121 



- A body may be separated from the liquor in which it is dis- 
solved by the addition of a third substance, which is taken up 
by the solvent, and the body which was before dissolved is set 
loose, and falls to the bottom of the vessel in the form of very 
fine powder. Thus, if lime be dissolved in muriatic acid, and 
an alkali salt be added to the solution, the lime will fall down 
to the bottom of the vessel in the form of a white powder ; this 
operation is called precipitation. The substance used to pro- 
duce it is called the precipitant, and the powder which falls 
down j the precipitate. 

Fusion is the reducing of a solid body to a fluid state, by the 
application of heat. 

The vessels for fusion are either iron ladles or crucibles, so 
called, because formerly they used to be marked with a cross. 
Crucibles are vessels composed of earthen ware of a peculiar 
kind. Those in common use are called Hessian crucibles, be- 
cause originally brought from that country ; but for certain 
purposes, which require a more intense heat, crucibles are made 
of a mixture of clay and black lead, commonly called black-lead 
crucibles, or blue pots. 

Filtration or straining, is when a fluid is purified by making it 
pass through different substances. 

Evaporation is the separating of the more volatile parts of a 
body from the more fixed ; but the term evaporation is more 
strictly confined to the dissipating of fluids by heat. When 
the volatile parts of a body tnat are dissipated are solid, the 
operation is called roasting. Thus water is separated from some 
salts, which are dissolved in it by evaporation ; and sulphur is 
separated from the ores of metals by roasting. 

When the evaporation is so performed that the volatile parts 
are preserved, it is called distillation, if the volatile parts are 
fluid ; and sublimation if they are solid. 

Distillation is of three kinds, technically called per descensum, 
ad latus, and per ascensum. The first is when the vapour is 
made to descend, and is received into a vessel below; but this 
method is seldom used. The second is, when the vapour is 
made to pass out of the vessel, which contains the materials, 
at one side, and is received into a vessel properly adapted to it. 
In this kind of distillation, which is in frequent use, the vessel 
; containing the materials is called a retort and the vessel fixed 
to its side, in which the vapour is condensed, is called a re- 
ceiver. The retorts are made of iron, earthen ware, or more 
commonly of glass. The receivers are generally of glass, but 
sometimes of earthen ware. In the third, namely the distilla- 



122 Solution, Fusion, Distillation, &c. 



tion per ascensum, the vapours are suffered to take their naturai 
course upwards, and are condensed in a cavity above the vessel 
which contains the materials. 

Formerly the vessels used in this operation were called a 
cucurbit for holding the materials, and an alembic for condensing 
the vapour. These vessels are usually made of glass or earthen 
ware. But for general use they are found inconvenient, and 
their place is supplied by the common still, which is generally 
made of metal, and consists of a body for holding the material-, 
a head or cavity above the body for receiving the vapour, a 
beak or pipe issuing from the head, and terminating in a long 
tube that passes through a vessel constantly filled with cold 
water, called the refrigeratory. The vapours passing through 
this pipe are condensed into a fluid before they arrive at its 
extremity, whence they drop into vessels placed below. The 
more effectually to condense the vapours in the pipe passing 
through the refrigeratory, the pipe is bent spirally like a 
cork screw, and thus makes several circumvolutions in the 
cold water. This spiral pipe is commonly called the worm 
of the still. 

The fluids obtained by distillation are generally called spirits, 
or distilled waters* ; and what remains in the still is called the 
residuum, which from its often having a blackish appearance, is 
called a caput mortuum. And as it is frequently of no use, the 
ancient chemists sometimes called it terra damnata. "When 
spirits undergo a second distillation, they are said to be rectified. 

The vessels used for sublimation are chiefly the cucurbit and 
alembic, above described, or sometimes aludcls, which are glo- 
bular vessels, either of glass or earthen ware, with two openings 
diametrically opposite to each other. These aludels are placed 
one above another, the neck of the undermost into the mouth 
of the uppermost; so that if any vapour be not condensed in 
the first, it may pass to the second to be there condensed, so to 
the third, the fourth, &c. The product of the sublimation 
is called sublimate, which, from its pulverised light State, is 
sometimes called jlowers ; as,fiowers of sulphur, &c. 

Both in distillation and sublimation the different vessels are 
fixed to one another by means of certain pastes, most com- 
monly made of clay (lutum), hence called lutes. 

In some distillations, especially in retorts, the retort itself is 
not exposed to the naked fire 9 but another substance is placed 
between them ; thus, an iron pot is placed above the iue, and 
filled with sand, ashes, water, or some other substance in 
which the retort is placed. These are calks] baths, {balnea,} 



Solution, Fusion, Distillation, &c. 



123 



as balneum arena, maris, vaporis, &c. sand-baths, water-baths, 
vapour baths, &c. The use of these baths is to convey an 
equal heat to every part of the retort, to moderate the de- 
gree of heat, and to prevent the retorts, which are generally 
mad? of glass, from being broken by a sudden exposure to the 
fire. 



General Divisions of the TERRAQUEOUS GLOBE. 

What part of the earth is covered with water is not exact- 
ly known. It is supposed to exceed the land at least by one 
third. 

The whole collection of water is called the ocean, or the sea. 
It is commonly divided into three parts ; the Atlantic, which 
separates Europe and Africa from America, about 3000 miles 
broad ; the Pacific, which separates America from Asia, 10,000 
miles broad ; and the Indian ocean, which separates the East 
Indies from Africa, 300c miles broad : all of them communi- 
cating with one another. To these may be added the Northern 
and Southern oceans. 

Certain parts of the ocean are called seas, and have their 
names from the countries they border on, as, the Irish sea } the 
German sea. 

A part of the sea running up into the land is called a gulf, 
as, the Arabian gulf or Red-sea, the Persian gulf, &c. If it be 
of great extent, it is called an inland sea, as, the Mediterranean, 
the Baltic : If it do not go far up into the land, it is called a bay, 
as, the bay of Biscay, the bay of Bengal, &c. : If it be of very 
small extent, it is called a creel, haven, station, or road for ships. 
A narrow communication between two seas is called a strait or 
straits, as, the straits of Gibraltar, the straits of Dover and Calais, 
Sec. ; if so shallow as to be sounded, a sound, as the sound of 
Denmark, the sound of Mull, &c. The Caspian sea in Asia 
communicates with no other. 

A great body of fresh water, surrounded by land, is called a 
lake, as, the lake of Geneva, the lake of (Constance, Sec. In 
Scotland and Ireland lakes are usually called lochs or loughs, as 
loch Lomond, loch Ness, lough Neagh, See. which name is also 
applied to arms of the sea. A small quantity of standing water is 
called a pool, or, especially if it be artificial, a pond. Standing wa- 
ter having earth raised and appearing above it here and there, 

or 



124 General Divisions of the Terraqueous Globe. 

or having earth or mud mixed with it, is called a morats, a 
marshy a bogy a fen % or swamp. 

A large stream or body of running water is called a river s a 
small stream, a brook or rivulet ; a violent flux of water from 
the top of a mountain, or down any steep declivity, is called a 
torrent. A river on which vessels may sail is called a navigable 
river. But rivers are usually distinguished simply by their large- 
ness or rapidity. The hollow or cavity in which a river run3 
between its banks is called its channel ox bed; a place where 
two rivers meet, a confuence or conflux. When a river runs 
over a precipice, it is called a cataract or fall ; if the quantity of 
water be small, a cascade. The streams or smaller rivers which 
run into a great one are called its branches ; which name is like- 
wise given to the divisions of a river, when it separates or 
divaricates into two or more channels. These are sometimes 
called arms, and when they run into the sea mouths. An 
inlet of the sea into the land is properly termed an arm ; and 
when the sea runs up a river, a frith or estuary. The sources 
from which a river flows are called its springs. The springs of 
most rivers are upon mountains, but several flow from lakes. 
A place where water rises when the earth is dug up, but does 
not run out, is called a well (puteus, Plin. ii. 97. s. 100.), but 
this word is sometimes put for a spring or fountain. 

A great extent of land, containing many countries not 
separated by water, is called a continent. A country entirely 
surrounded by the sea is called an island : a country almost 
surrounded by the sea, a peninsula, or, by a Greek word, 
Chersonesus. That neck of land which joins a peninsula, to the 
continent, is called an isthmus , as the Isthmus of $uez s between 
Asia and Africa : the Isthmus of Darien, between North and 
South America. When the land projects far into the sea, it is 
called a promontory, (quod in mare prominct,) and the end of 
it a cape : as, Cape Tanarus or Metapan, the most southern 
part of Europe ; the Cape of Good Hope, the most southern 
part of Africa ; Cape Horn, the most southern part of Ame- 
rica ; Cape Comorin, the most southern part of Indostan, Sec. 
If the part of land which projects be small or not high, it is 
called a pointy a bead-land, naze, ncsSy or mull ; as the Lizard 
point, the Naze of Norway, Buchan-rt^J, the Mull of Gallo- 
way or Can tire. 

When the land rises to a very great height above the 
level country, it is called a mountain or a chain of mountains ; 
as, the A/pSy in Europe ; Taurus and ImauSy in Asia ; Atlas 
and the Mountains of the Moon, in Africa ; the Andes, in South 

15 America 



General Divisions of the Terraqueous Globe. 12£ 



America. When the land rises to a small height, it is called 
a hill. A mountain which casts forth flames is called a W- 
cano-s as, Mount JEtna, in Sicily ; V esuvius, in Italy ; Hecia 9 
in Iceland. 

The land is divided into two great continents, called the 
eastern and the western continent, or the old and new world* 
The eastern continent comprehends Europe, Asia, and Africa $ 
the western, America ; so called from Americas Vespucius, a 
native of Florence, in the service of Portugal, who having made 
some trifling discoveries, A. D. 1497, had the address to give 
his name to that part of the world ; although it had been 
formerly discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native of 
Genoa, in the service of Spain, A.D, 1492. 

The surface of the earth, or particular parts of it, are re- 
presented by Maps ; the top of which is the north, and the 
bottom the south : on these are marked the degrees of longi- 
tude. The right hand is the east, and the left is the west : on 
these are marked the degrees of latitude* From the top to 
the bottom of maps are drawn the meridians or lines of longi- 
tude, and from side to side the parallels or degrees of latitude. 
Among the latter are included the equator, the tropics, and 
polar circles. Rivers are represented by black lines ; moun- 
tains, by a sort of cloud ; forests and woods, by a kind of 
shrub ; bogs or morasses, by shades ; sands or shallows, by 
small dots *, roads for ships usually by double lines ; the depth 
of water in or near harbours, by figures expressing fathoms, 
each 2 yards or 6 feet ; and towns by o, or by the shape of a 
small house. 

The measures most commonly mentioned in geographical 
books are miles and leagues. The English statute mile consists 
of 5280 feet, 1760 yards, or 8 furlongs. The Turkish, Italian, 
and old Roman mile, is nearly the same with the English: the 
Scotch and Irish mile is about i\ English: the Dutch, Spanish, 
and Polish mile, is about 3! English: the German is more than 
4 English : the Danish and Hungarian is from 5 to 6 English : 
the Swedish is nearly 7 English. The French league is near 
3 English miles, and the English marine league is 3 English 
miles. 

Several large countries subject to one sovereign, are called 
an empire. A smaller extent of territory subject to one sove- 
reign, is called a kingdom ; a still smaller extent, a ducky or 
principality. 



The 



126 The chief Empires which have been in the World. 



The Cfc/gfEMPIRES Ifihich have existed in the World. 

The first great empire in the world was the Babylonian or 
Assyrian, in Asia, supposed to have been founded by Nimrod, 
who built Babylon, not long after the deluge, B. C. 221 7 *, — 
afterwards greatly enlarged by Ninas, who built Nineveh, B. C. 
2059, and by his queen Semiramis ; — overturned by Cyrus, 
who established the second great empire, namely, that of the 
Medes and Persians, B. C. 438. This empire was overturned 
by Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia, who established 
the empire of the Greeks and Macedonians, B. C. 330. His 
conquests, after his death, were shared among his Generals. 
The chief of them were, Ptolemy in Egypt, Seleucus in Asia, 

and the descendants of Antigtfnus in Macedonia. All these 

kingdoms afterwards fell under the empire of the Romans, 
which comprehended the greatest part of the then known world. 
The Roman empire was overturned — in the west by the Goths 
and Vandals, and other barbarous nations from the north, in 
the 4th and 5th centuries ; whose descendants now possess se- 
veral of the most fertile countries of Europe : — In the east, 
first by the followers of Mahomet, under the name of Saracens : 
and finally by the Turks, who still keep possession of their 
conquests. 



The Chief Commercial States in ancient times. 

THE Phoenicians were the first who distinguished themselves 
by commerce, Cic. dr. rep. lib. 3. apud. Non. v. 35., particularly 
the inhabitants of TYRE and Si don. The next were the 
CARTHAGINIANS, whose chief city, Carthage, was founded 
by a colony of Tyrianr. Among the Greeks, commerce WM 
cultivated chiefly by the Athenians and Corinthians, and in 

later times by the Rhodians. -The communication from 

Greece, and the northern parts of Asia, with INDIA, which, 
in all ages, has been the great source of commerce, was in 
ancient times by the Easint: and Caspian seas. The produc- 
tions 



Tlie chief Commercial States in ancient times, 127 



tions of India were brought by land to the banks of the Oxus 9 
then down that river into the Caspian sea, from thence up the 
Cyrus, and then over land to the river Phasis and the Euxine 
sea, Strab. xi. p. 509.; Plin. vi. 17. s. 19. The riches ac- 
quired by this commerce are supposed to have given rise to the 
story of the voyage of Jason in the ship Argo, in quest of the 

golden fleece, Strab. i. 45. That communication is now 

entirely shut up by the Tartars, who have diverted the course 
of the Oxus, so that it does not now empty itself into the 
Caspian Sea. 

The Tyrians brought their commodities from India by the 
Red Sea, and over the isthmus of Suez. 

After Tyre was destroyed by Alexander the Great, the city 
of ALEXANDRIA in Egypt, founded by that prince, became 
the principal seat of commerce, Strabo, xvii. p. 798., and con- 
tinued to be so till it was destroyed by the Saracens in the 7th 
century. 

The singular institutions of the Jews were unfavourable to 
commerce. We read, however, of Solomon's having fitted out 
fleets, which under the direction of Phoenician pilots, sailed 
from Ezion-geber, on the Red Sea, to Tarshish and Ophir, sup- 
posed to have been ports in the kingdom of Sofa/a, on the 
south-east coast of Africa ; whence they returned in three years 
with rich cargoes, I Kings, x. 11, 12. 22. & 23. 

The Egyptians, as early as the reign of Sesostris, B. C. 1510, 
are said to have opened a commerce with India, Diod. Sic. 1. 
p. 64., where that king is reported to have made considerable 
conquests, Ibid. But this is denied by Strabo, xv. p. 687., who 
says, that the ancient Egyptians were so far from cultivating 
commerce, that they even refused strangers admission into 
their harbours, Strab. xvii. p. 791. & .802. 

The Romans, at no period of their state, ever encouraged 
commerce. Towards the end of the republic, however, and 
under the emperors, it became an object of greater attention, 
as being necessary to supply them with the articles of luxury. 
These were brought to Rome from various places. From Ara- 
bia and India they were procured by the way of the Red Sea 
and Alexandria, or by the gulf of Persia and up the Euphrates, 
thence through the desarts of Arabia to Palmyra, and from 

it to the Mediterranean. Strabo says, that 120 ships, in 

his time, were employed in bringing merchandise from India 
into Egypt, \\.p. 1 18. 'This traffic was carried on entirely with 
bullion, as it still is to China. Pliny complains that 50 mil- 
lions of sesterces were sent thither annually, (if. S. quingen- 



128 The chief Commercial States in ancient times. 



ties, equal to ^403,645 : 16 : 5,) and that the merchandises 
brought from thence were sold at Rome at an hundred for one 
profit (centuplicate), that is, at about 40 millions sterling of 
our money for the whole imported, Flin. vi. 23. s. 26. 

As the Romans had no articles of their own produce to give 
in exchange for foreign commodities, we may see the reason 
why they discouraged commerce, because it carried away mo- 
ney, and brought thcrn nothing in r< turn. Hence we find 
the exportation of gold prohibited in the Codex, iv. 63. 2., so 
in former times, Cic. Flacc. 28. ; and to the exportation of 
money to foreign countries for articles of luxury, when the for- 
mer means of procuring wealth by conquest no longer existed, 
we may impute the scarcity of gold, and consequently the great 
alloy in the gold coins under the later emperors ; thus, under 
Nero, there were only 45 aurei, or gold pieces, mane from a 
pound of gold, Plin. xxxiii. 3. ; but under Constantine, 72. 
The immunities said to have been granted to merchants at dif- 
ferent times, Sent. Claud. 18.; Tacit. Ann. xiii. 5.; Digest, 
xiv. I. J. 3 Lamprid. in Alexandro Sever, were to those only 
who dealt in the corn-trade, and imported provisions in their 
own ships for the use of the city. For several ages the only 
professions thought /espectable among the Romans were war 
and agriculture; the employment of a merchant was reckoned 
unsuitable to the character of a Roman citizen, Dionys. ii. 28. 
The nobility were forbidden to trade, both under the republic, 
Liv. xxi. 63.; Cic. Verr. v. 18.; and under the Emperors, Dig. 
50. 3. ; Cod. iv. 63. 3. But although the business of a mer- 
chant was not esteemed respectable, Cic. Off. i. 42., yet Horace 
speaks of it as very lucrative, Od. i. 31. 10. ; iii. 6. 31. & 24. 
40. ; ep. i. 1. 45^ 

During the existence of the Roman republic, the city of 
Marseilles in France carried on a considerable commerce. Iu 
early times it waged war successfully against the Carthaginians 
on the subject of fishing, Justin, xlii. 5. After Carthage 
grew powerful by conquest, and engaged in war with the 
Romans, Marseilles became the ally of Rome. During the 
Punic wars the ISlassilians acquired great opulence by trade, and 
still more after the destruction of Carthage and Corinth ; but 
in the contest between Cxsar and Pompey, having impru- 
dently engaged too keenly on the side of the latter, their city 
was taken by the generals of Cxsar after an obstinate defence, 
and never afterwards recovered its former prosperity, Strab. iii. 
180. 



"Different Forms of Government. 129 



The barbarous nations which over-ran the Roman empire in 
the west, extinguished commerce, together with the arts. Con- 
cerning the revival of commerce, first in Italy, and then in other 
countries, an account will be given hereafter in its proper place. 

Different Forms of Government. 

A large society of men united under one government for 
their common security and welfare, is called a state. That 
part of the earth which they possess is called the territory of 
that state ; and the body of inhabitants, the people. The power 
of governing a state is called the sovereignty 3 - and the person 
or persons who exercise it' the sovereign. The power of pre- 
scribing general rules or laws is the legislative part of the sove- 
reignty ; the power of executing the laws, and of discharging 
all functions of government which cannot be regulated by laws, 
: is the executive part of the sovereignty. The particular manner 
in which the sovereignty is exercised, is called the form of go- 
vernment. When it is exercised by one person, it is called a 
[ monarchy. When the power of the monarch is limited by law, 
liit is called a limited monarchy. When the power of the mo- 
narch is not limited by law, the government is said to be abso- 
\ lute or arbitrary. When the government is very absolute it is 
called despotic. When the supreme power is vested in the hands 
of many, it is called a republic. If it be posessed by the nobles, 
it is called an aristocracy ; if by a few, an oligarchy ; if by the 

people at large, a democracy. When only one of these forms 

obtains, the government is called simple ; when two or all of 
them are united, it is denominated a mixed government. Thus 
the British government partakes of the monarchical, aristocra- 
tical, and democratical forms ; which Polybius says was the 
lease with the government of Rome, and extols as the best 
j(api<TT>j noXiTsia, vi. I. xolXXhjtqv crvo-TYipscTwv toov xutf y^ac 
TroXnstwv, the most excellent system of government then in the 
; world, lb. p. & 1 6. 

The monarchical form appears to have been the most ancient, 
land is thought to have originated from the authority of a fa- 
ther over his children. As far as we can trace from history, 
'it took its rise from a number of individuals, heads of families 
tor of tribes, chusing a certain person for his wisdom or valour 
to be their leader in war, and to preside in their councils, to 
administer justice, and perform other acts for the public good 
Ln time of peace, Samuel, viii. 20. ; Herodot. i, 95. &c. 5 Ciede 
officii. 12. ; Polyb. vi. 3. This chief or king was at first purely 
elective ; but afterwards became hereditary, or partly hereditary 

K and 



1 30 Different Forms of Government. 



and partly elective. The dominions of princes, in the early ages 
of the world, were generally but of small extent, Justin. L I. j 
Joshua, xii. & xxiv. •, Judges, i. 7.; Thucydid. i. 13. 17, &c. 
Almost every city had its own king, or tyrant ; for so by the 
Greeks they were commonly called (rvpavvoi, reges, reguli, vel 
principes, Nep. Miltiad. 8. ; Serv. in Virg. iEn. vii. 266.', Strab. 
vii. p. 310.) The abuse of power, and other causes, occasioned 
the expulsion of kings, and the establishment of republican or 
free governments. The licentiousness and corruption of these 
produced their destruction, and commonly terminated in des- 
potism, Polyb. vi. 6, 7. 55, &c. 

The fundamental laws of a state, which secure the rights of 
its inhabitants, and regulate the conduct of its rulers, are called 
its Constitution. Although despotic governments cannot 
properly be said to have a constitution, yet even in these, there 
are certain things established by law or custom, to which 
the sovereign is obliged to conform, and which he dares not 
violate. 

When several states form a perpetual alliance for their mutual 
safety and happiness, they are called United States ,- as, the 
Greek and Achaian republics of old ; the Swiss cantons, and the 
states of Holland and of America, in modern times . 

Different Religions* 

The Religions which chiefly prevail in the world, are the 
Christian and Mahometan. Such as profess neither of these, 
are called Pagans or Heathens. 

The Jewish Religion is peculiar to the Jews but they for a 
long time have no where had any political establishment. 

A number of Christians adhering to the same opinions and 
form of worship, is called a church. 

Those Christians who profess submission to the Pope of Rome, 
are called Roman Catholics or Papists. Those who have sepa- 
rated from that church are called Protestants or Reformed ; but 
by the Roman Catholics they are termed Heretics. From the 
two most eminent reformers, Luther and Calvin, those whe 
embrace the opinions of the former are called Lutherans ; of 
the latter, Calvinists. 

The doctrines of the Church of England are much the same 
with those of Calvin, but its discipline and form of worship 
are different. The church of England maintains a diversity or 
rank among its pastors, the chief of whom are called bishops 
(episctipi) and archbishops ; whence this form of church-govern- 
ment is termed Episcopacy, Prelacy, or Hierarchy. But the Cal- 
vinists 



Europe* 



131 



vinists hold an equality of rank among the ministers of religion, 
whom they also call presbyters ; whence in Scotland, because 
the church is governed by meetings called presbyteries, con- 
sisting of ministers and lay-members, termed ruling elders^ 
(Tgsj-jSwTepo*, ) the national religion is called Presbyterian. 

Christians in those countries which never acknowledged the 
authority of the Roman Pontiff, are said to be of the Greek 
Church. 

That religion which is sanctioned by law, and its teachers 
supported by the public, is called the established religion, or the 
established church. Those who differ from it are called Dissenters 9 
Nonconformists ', Dissidents, Seceders, Sectaries, Puritans, &c. If 
such are allowed openly to profess their religion, they are said 
to be tolerated. 

Those who deny the validity of infant baptism, are called 
Anabaptists. Those who assert that there is no authority in 
scripture for a national or established religion, are called Inde- 
pendents. Those who adhere to the doctrines of the established 
church, are called Orthodox', those who do not, Heterodox, The 
most violent disputes have often been raised in the Christian 
church about doctrines difficult to be understood. Those who 
differed from the established belief concerning the divinity of 
our Saviour, were in ancient times called Arians, from one 
Arius, a priest of Alexandria in Egypt, who died a. 336; and in 
modern times also Socinians, from Socinus, a native of Sienna in 
[taly, who died in Poland a. 1604, the latter differing in several 
particulars from the former. Those who differ from the esta- 
blished doctrine concerning predestination or necessity, and 
: reedom of will, are called Arminians, from James Arminius, a 
Dutch divine, who died a. 1609. This difference of opinion is 
.imilar to that which prevailed among the ancient philosophers 
:oncerning liberty and necessity, fate and contingence, or the 
connection between cause and effect ; Cic. de Fat. iii. 14. &c» 



EUROPE. 

EUROPE is situate between 36 and 72 degrees north lati-* 
tude, and between 10 deg. west, and 65 deg. east longi- 
ude, from London ; extending about 3000 miles from North 
-ape to Cape Tanftrus or Matapan, and 2500 from east to 
rest. It is by far the least of the four quarters of the world in 
xtent, but the most considerable by the genius of its inhabitants, 
t is bounded on the north by the Northern or frozen ocean % 

K 2 on 



1 32 The Seas, Straits, and Rivers of Europe. 



. on the west by the Atlantic ocean, which divides it from Ame- 
rica on the south by the Mediterranean, which divides it from 
Africa ; on the east by Abia, from which it is divided by the 
JEgaan sea or Archipelago, the Hellespont or the Straits of the 
Dardanelles, the Prcpontis or sea of Marmora, the Thracian 
Bosphorus or the Straits of Constantinople, the Euxine or Black, 
sea, the Cimmerian Bosphorus or the Straits of KarTa, the Palus 
Mdotis or sea of Asoph, the Tanais or Don, a line from 
thence to the Rha or Wolga, from thence to the Tobol, Irtis, 
and Oby. 

The chief Seas and Straits of Europe are, 

The White sea ; the Baltic, anciently Mare Suevlcum, or 
Sinus Codanus ; the parts of which are, the Cattegat or Scag- 
gerac Sea, the Sound, the two Belts, the Greater and Lesser 
Belt, the gulf of Lubec, the mouth of the Oder, the gulf of 
Dantzic at the mouth of the Vistula, the gulf of Riga at 
the mouth of the Dwina, the gulf of Finland, and the gulf of 
Bothnia : 

The British or German sea ; the Irish sea ; St. George's 
Channel ; the British Channel; the Straits of Dover and Calais; 
the Bay of Biscay : 

The Mediterranean, joined to the Atlantic by the Fretum 
Gaditanum or Herculeum, the Straits of Gibraltar : The most 
remarkable parts of the Mediterranean are, Sinus Gallic us, the 
gulf of Lyons ; mare Ligusiicum, the gulf of Genoa ; mare In- 
ferum, Tyrrhenian ox Etruscum, the Tuscan sea; Fretum Siculum % 
the Straits of Messina; the gulf of Tarentum ; mare Superum, Illy- 
ricum, or Sinus Hadriaticus, the Hadriatic sea or gulf of Venice; 
east of this the Mediterranean, is now called the Levant, Ar- 
chipelago, &c. anciently mare Ionium, Creticum, JEg&um, &c. 

The principal Rivers in Europe are, the 



Rha, W olga ; 
Tana is ) Don ; 
Borysthenes, Dnieper ; 
Tyras, Niestcr ; 
Danubius ox Ister, Danube ; 
Padus, Po ; 
Rhodanus, Rhone ; 
I her us, Ebro ; 
liu-tis, Guadalquiver ; 
Anas, Gu.uliana ; 
Taguf, Tayo ; 



Darius, Douro ; 
Garumna, Garonne ; 
Liger, Loire; 
Sequdnciy Seine ; 
Samara, Somme ; 
Scaidis, Scheld ; 
Mesa, Maesc ; 
Rhcntts, Rhine ; 
VijurgUf W eser; 
Albts, Elbe ; 
Viadrus, Oder ; 



f he Vistula, the Dwina at Riga, and the Dwina at Archangel. 

Ancient 



Ancient and Modern Divisions of Europe. 135 



Ancient Divisions of Europe. 

Scandinavia, now Denmark, Norway, Lapland, Finland, 
and Sweden ; Germania, Germany ; Sarmatia or Scythia, Po- 
land, Prussia, Russia, and Little Tartary, countries unknown 
to the Romans; Dacia, Moldavia, Walachia, and Transyl- 
vania; Masia, Servia and Bulgaria; Thracia, Romania; Mace- 
donia, still called by the same name ; Thessalia, Janna ; Gratia 
propria, Livadia ; Peloponnesus, Morea ; Eplrus, Albania and 
Canina ; Illy rt cum 9 Dalmatia, Bosnia, Croatia, and Sclavonia ; 
Pannonia, Hungary ; Noricum, Austria ; Rhatia and Vindelicia, 
Tyrol, and the country of the Grisons ; Gallia, France, Swit- 
zerland; Flanders, and Holland ; Britannia, Britain ; Hibernia, 
Ireland ; Hispania, Spain and Portugal ; Baleares, or Balearides 
Insula, Ivica, Majorca, and Minorca; Corsica; Sardinia; Si' 
eilia ; Italia. 



Modern Divisions. 



Capital, 



Scalholt. 



Bergen 
Copenhagen 
Stockholm 
Petersburg 

Dublin ) 
London £ 
Amsterdam 

Brussels 

Paris 
Bern 
Vienna 

Prague 

Presburg or 7 
Buda J 
Hermanstadt 
Posega 
Carlstadt 



Warsaw 

Koningsberg * 
Asoph 



NORTH. 

Dist.tzf Bearing 
from London. 



54° N. 
500 N.E. 
750 N.E. 
1 140 N.E. 

MIDDL 

27oN.W.| 

180 E. 

180 S. E. 

200 S. E. 
420 S.E. 
600 E. 

600 E. 

780 E. 

loao E. 
790 E. 
703 E. 

760 E. 



Government. 

Subj. to Denm. 
The same 
Subj.to Sweden 1 
and Russia $ 
Subj. to- Sweden 
Absolute 
Absolute 



E. 

Limited mo- 7 
narchy £ 
Monarchical 
Subj.to theK.of 
theNetherlands. 
Monarchical 
Republican 
Mostly absolute 
Subject to the? 
Emp. of Austria. 3 

The same 

The same 

The same 

The same 

Subj. to Rus-*1 
sia, Prussia, / 
and the Emp.i" 
of Austria j 

Absolute 

Absolute 



Religion. 

Mostly Heathen, 
Protestants. 
Protest ants,and 
someHeathena. 
Protestants. 
The same. 
The same. 
Greek Church. 



Protestants. 

The same. 

Roman Catholics. 

Roman Catholic. 
R. Cath. & Frot. 
The same. 

Roman Catholics, 

The same. 

The same. 
The same. 
The same. 

R. Cath. & Prot. 

Protestants. 
Mahom. & Heath. 



* But the capital of the King of Prussia's dominions is BERLIN, in Brandeahurgh, 
Upper Saxony, Germany, 540 £, 



K3 



SOUTH. 



134 



Italy. 



SOUTH. 



Ccuntries. 



Portugal 

Spain 

Ivica ~\ 
Majorca C 
Minorca j 
Corsica 
Sardinia 

Sicily 

"Piedmont.&c 
Venice 

5"^ Pope's ter. 

Naples 
Turkey in Europe 



Capital. 



Lisbon 
Madrid 



Bistia 
Cjgliari 

Palermo 

Tuin 
Venice 

Rome 

Naples 

Constantinople 



Dist.llf Bearing] Government. 

from London. I 



8so$. W. 
800 S. 



560 S. E, 

702 S. E. 

820 S.E 



870 S E. 
1520 S.E. 



Absolute 
Absolute 

Islands suh / 
je t to ^pain V 

Subj. to France 
Absolute 
Subj.totKeK, { 
I ofNajles \ 
Subj. to Saroinia 
^ubj. to Austria 
Subj. to the 

Pope 
Absolute 
Despoiic 



Religitn. 

Rom. Catholic*. 
The tame. 

Tne same. 

The same. 
The same. 

The same* 

Th° same. 
The same. 

The same. 

The same. 
Mahometans. 



ITALY. 

ITALY is bounded on the north and north-west by the Alps, 
which separate it from Germany, Switzerland, and France; 
on the west it is separated from France by the river Var; every 
where else it is surrounded by the Mediterranean. It extends 
600 miles in length in the form of a boot, between 38 and 47 
deg. north lat. and about 400 miles in its greatest breadth, 
between 6 and 19 deg. east long, from London. It is divided 
into two parts by the Apennines, which run the whole length 
of it. 

Italy was anciently called by various names, especially by the 
poets, Satttrniay Al/fotiia, Oenotria ; and also Htsperia by the 
Greeks, because it lay west of them 

Before the days of Augustus, Italy north of the rivers 
Macra and RuhTcon was called Gallia C'itericr> or Cisalpina ; 
in later times, Tcgata^ from the use of the Roman toga, the 
inhabitants, after the Social war, being admitted to the right 
of citizens. It was divided into two parts, Cispadana and 
Trarispadaria, by the Padus% or Po, running through the middle 
of it. 

This river, called also by the poets Eridarius, is joined on 
the north, by the Tictnus 9 Tisino, issuing from the lake Verba- 
nuty Maggiorc, near which river Hannibal first defeated the 

Roman* 



The Divisions of Cisalpine Gaid. 



Romans under Scipio ; by the Addua, from the lake Larius, 
the lake of Como ; the Mincius from the lake Benacus, the 
lake of Guar da 9 &c. On the south by the Trebia, near which 
Hannibal defeated the Romans a second time under Sempro- 
nius ; by the Rhenus, Rheno, &c. In an island formed by 
the Rhenus, Antony, Lepidus, and Augustus met after 
the battle of Mutina, and divided the provinces of the Ro- 
man empire. 

The chief divisions of CISALPINE GAUL were, 

Liguria : — Towns, Genua, Genoa j Portus Herculis Monad) 
Monaco Nicaa, Nice. 

Taurini : — Augusta Taurinorum, Turin. 

Insubres : — Mediolanum, Milan j Ticinum, Pavia; near 
which Francis I. King of France was defeated and taken pri- 
soner by the Generals of Charles V. 1525. 

Cenomanni : — Brixia, Brescia ; Cremona ; Bedriftcum, near 
which Otho was defeated by the Generals of Vitellius ; Mantua, 
near which stood Andes, a Village, where Virgil was born. 

Euganei i—Tridentum, Trent, famous for a general council 
which began to be held there the 13th of December 1545, and 
lasted eighteen years, till the 2d of December 1563, with va~ 
rious intermissions ; Verona, on the Athesis or Adige, birth- 
place of Catullus, famous for the remains of an amphitheatre. 

Veneti : — Patavium, Padua, birth-place of Livy ; Aquileia, 
famouf for the obstinate resistance it made to Attila, king of the 
Huns, who took it A. D. 452. North of this is the river 2a- 
mavus; Forum Julii, Friuli. 

Histria : — Tergeste, Trieste. 

Lingones, Ravenna •, near which Odoacer, king of the He- 
ruli, was defeated by Theodoric, king of the Goths, A. D, 
493, and where that king kept his couu, as the Emperor Valen- 
ttnian had done before him. It is now a disagreeable town 
surrounded with marshes, about four miles from the sea^ 

Boji : Bononia, Bologna ; Mufina, Modena, where Deci- 
mus Brutus, being besieged by Antony, was relieved by the 
Consuls Hirtius and Pansa, and Octavius, afterwards called 
Augustus; Parma £ Placentia. 

The chief parts of ITALIA PROPRIA were, Etrurit> 
Umbria, Picenum, Latium, Campania, Samnium, Apulia, Cala~ 
bria, Lucania, Bruttii 5 besides some small states not included 
in any of these. 



I. ETRURIA, 



136 



TJie Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



L ETRURIA, bounded on the north by the river Macra, 
and on the south by the Tiber ; anciently divided into twelve 
parts, the rulers of which were called Lucumones. 

At the mouth of the Macra, Luna ; on the Auser, Luca, 
Lucca ; on the Amus, Arno, Pisa, Pisa; Florentia, Florence, 
the present capital of Tuscany ; north of which, FesuLe and 
Pistoria, Pistoja, near which Catiline was defeated ; Partus Her- 
culis Liburni, Leghorn : Volaterra, near which is a famous boil- 
ing lake ; Sena, Siena, where the Italian is now spoken in its 
greatest purity ; Arfetium, Arrezzo ; north of which, Tusci, 
the seat of the younger Pliny, near the source of the Tiber ; 
Cortona Perusia, where L. Antonius was starved out by Au- 
gustus •, near which LacusTrasimenus, where the Romans, under 
Flamminius, received a third overthrow from Hannibal-, Clusium, 
the city of Porsena ; R.u sella, on the Umbro : north-west of it 
Vetulonii, near the prom. Populonium, opposite to the island 
JFthalia, or llva, Elba, abounding in iron ; Cosa, near mount 
Argentarius ; Vulsinii on a lake of that name, situate among 
woody hills, Juvenal, iii. 191. Tarquinii ) whence king Tarquin ; 
Centum Cell*, Civita Vecchia ; Caere, the seat of Mezentius ; 
the inhabitants, Centes, for having hospitably entertained the 
Romans and Vestal Virgins, who fled thither when Rome was 
taken by the Gauls, obtained the freedom of Rome, except the 
right of voting. Hence, In Tabulas Centum referre, to deprive 
one of that right. — Veji % the people, Vejentes, taken by Camillus 
after a ten years' siege *, Falerii, the people, Falisci, near mount 
Soracte, also taken by Camillus ; Fescennia, whence Carmina 
Fescennina, a kind of ludicrous verses. 

II. UMBRIA, bounded on the north by the Rubicon, now 
called Pisatclla or Rugone ; — Arimtnum ; Rimini, on the Ritmk 
nus ; which town Cxsar first took possession of after crossing 
theRubicon; Pisaurum, Pesaro, on the Pisaurusj south of which 
the river Metaurus, Metro, where Hasdrubal was defeated and 
slain by the consuls Livy and Nero ; Urbtnum^ Urbino ; Sena- 
gallia, built by the Gnlli Senones ; Nuceria ; Gamer! n it m, the 
people, Cdmertes ; Spoletium, Spoletto ; whither water is still 
conveyed from a neighbouring mountain, called St. Francis, by 
an aqueduct of surprising height, being in one place 230 yards 
from the foundation of the lowest arch to the topof theaqueduct. 

Hannibal first attacked Spoletium after his victory at the 
Thrasymene lake, and was repulsed, Liv. xxii. 9. The fact 
is commemorated by an insc ription over one of its gates, still 
called from thence Porta di Fuga, 

s INTERAMNA, 



The chief Paris, of Italia Propria, 



137 



" INTERAMNA, now Term, the birth-place of Tacitus the 
historian, and of Tacitus the emperor; standing in a beautiful 
valley between two branches of the river Nar, now Nera; 
whence its ancient name {inter amnes, Varr» L. L. iv. 5.). 
The road from Loretto to Rome runs from.Spoletto to this 
town over the highest of the Apennines. Three miles from 
Terni, the river Vellnus, Velino, rushes down a precipice 300 
feet high, dashing with such violence against the rocky bottom, 
that a vast cloud of watery smoke is raised all around. Addison 
is of opinion that Virgil had this gulf in his eye, when he 
described the place in the middle of Italy, through which the 

Fury Alecto descended into Tartarus, JEn. vii. 563 —571 5 

; although the lake of Amsanctus, whence there was supposed to 
be a passage to the infernal regions, and where Virgil says this 
happened, lay in the country of the Hirpini ; Cic, div. i. 36. ; 
Plin. ii. 93. s. 95. 

About seven miles below Terni stood Narnia, now Narni, 
also on the Nar, whence it took its name, Martial. 7. 92, 
having been anciently called Neqiunum, Plin. hi. 14. s. 19.; 
Liv. x. 9. on the confines of the country of the Sabines ; near 
which are the remains of a magnificent aqueduct and bridge 
over the Nar, built by Augustus ; one of the arches of which 
is entire, above 100 feet high, and 150 feet wide. 

III. PICENUM, bounded on the north by the Msiss A sen- 
ium, Ascoii, the ancient capital, Flor. i. 19. on the river 
Truentus, now Tronto. 

Ancona, on the coast of the Adriatic, about fifteen miles 
from Senegallia, built by the Greeks, hence called Ancon 
Dorica, Juvenal, iv. 40. now a considerable place for trade, 
\ since it has been encouraged by the Popes, who have built a 
large mole to screen the ships in the harbour from the winds, 
which frequently blow from the opposite shore of the Adriatic 
with great violence. Near the mole stands a noble triumphal 
arch erected to Trajan, in gratitude for the improvements he 
made in this harbour at his own expence. The fluted Corin- 
thian pillars on the two sides of the arch are of the finest pro- 
portions, composed of Parian marble, still as white and shining 
as if it were fresh polished from the rock. 

At some distance from Ancona stands LORETTO, on an 
eminence about three miles from the sea; rendered famous by 
modem superstition. The small house in Nazareth of Judea, 
inhabited by the Virgin Mary, is supposed to have been car- 
ried by angels through the air, the 10th of August 1291, about 
a month after the taking of Ptolemais by the Infidels, first to 

v Dalmatia, 



138 The chief Parts of Italia Propria. 



Dalmatia, and then over the Adriatic to Loretto ; so called 
from Lauretta^ a noble lady, to whom the field belonged where 
it was first placed ; and whence, for particular reasons, it was 
removed to the eminence where it now stands. It is called the 
holy chapel, casa sancta> standing due east and west, at the far- 
ther end of a large church which has been built around it, of 
the most durable stone of Islria. There is an internal covering 
or case built around it of the finest marble, and ornamented 
with basso relievos ; about 50 feet long, thirty in breadth, and 
the same in height ; but the real house itself is not more than 
thirty-two feet in length, fourteen in breadth, and at the sides 
about eighteen in height j the centre of the roof is four or 
five feet higher. The walls of this little holy chapel appear to 
have been built of Italian bricks, although they are said to be 
composed of a kind of stone, formerly common in Palestine, 
but now not to be found. Between the walls of the ancient 
house and the marble case there is a small interval, where the 
pilgrims often crawl around and say their prayers. As the 
gates of the church are shut at noon, and the pilgrims who 
arrive after that time cannot get nearer, they impress so ardent 
kisses on the gates, that all the sculpture within reach of the 
mouths of these zealots is, in some degree, effaced. But pil- 
grimages to Loretto are not now so frequent with foreigners, 
or with Italians of distinction, as formerly, when it is said there 
have been sometimes to the number of 100,000 in one day's 
time ; for the same pilgrims are not allowed to remain there 
long. The profusion of riches in the treasury of this church, 
and the number of silver and golden lamps, candlesticks, 
goblets, crowns, crucifixes, lambs, or Agnus Dei's, &c. of 
pearls, gems, and precious stones of all kinds, is incredible *. 
The Turks have once and again attempted to plunder Loretto, 
but without success. It is surprising that this has never been 
effected, as the place is so near the sea, and badly fortified. 

South of Picenum were the VESTIN1 and Peligni. Their 
chief towns were, Corfiniu?n> called also Italica, because it 
was the chief city in the Italic or Marsic war, Strab. v. 241. ; 
and Su/vioy the birth-place of Ovid. 

The MARSI, a warlike people, Horat. cd. iii. 5. 9. their 
chief town MARBUBIUM, or Marruvtunty Virg. Mw. vii. 750. 
on the east side of the Lacus Fid inns, a lake of very transpa- 
rent water, ib. 759. which Julius C.usar attempted to drain, 
Sue/. 44. ; and alter him Claudius, Suet, CI. 20. ; Dio. lx. 
p. 672. who for eleven years employed 30,000 men to dig a 

* But this d«sciij>tion ic no longer applicable since the conquests of the French. 

passage 



2%e chief Parts of Italia Propria. 139 

passage through a mountain, Plin. xxxvi. 1 5. s. 24. fin. to carry 
the water into the Liris, Jack. Annal. xii. 56.; and when every 
thing was ready for letting it off, exhibited a splendid naval 
combat on the lake, ib. But this work did not answer the end 

intended, The lake is now called the lake of Ce/a?w, from a 

town near its north shore. It is forty- seven miles in circum- 
ference ; the breadth, in the largest part, ten miles, in the nar- 
rowest, four; its depth, twelve feet on an average. But all 
these dimensions have varied greatly. It is surrounded with a 
ridge of mountains, some of them the highest in Italy. On the 
west side of the lake was the grove of Angitia, the sister of 
Circe, Virg. JEn. vii. 759. and on the north the town Alba, the 
inhabitants of which were called A f benses> to distinguish them 
from those of Alba Longa in Latium, who were called Albani, 
Plin. iii. 12. s. 17. 

Sabini;- Cures, whence the Roman citizens were called 

Quirites : Reate, near which Vespasian was born ; Amiternum$ 
the birth-place of Sal lust ; Nomentum ; Crustumerium, the 
people Crustumini ; Fidena, the people, Fidenatesy 5 m. from 
Rome; Mons Sacer, 3 m. from Rome, on the other side of the 
Anioy whither the Plebeians made a secession under Sicinius s 
and were brought back by Menenius Agrippa ; at which time 
the Tribunes of the people were first created, A.U. 261. On 
the same side of the Anio with Rome, stood Antemna and 
Collatia, where lived Collatinus the husband of Lucretia. 

Several miles up the Anio, on the other side, north of Tibur, 
now Tivoti, was the VILLA of HORACE, which he calls 
Sabina y plur. sc. pradia, his Sabine farm, od. ii. 18. 14. ; Sabina 
vallisy ib. iii. I. 47. ; Ager Sabinus, Sat. ii. 7. 118.; Ardiri Sa- 
biniy sc. agriy od. iii. 4. 21. ; Monies et Arx % from its high situa- 
tion, Sat. ii. 6. 16. ; Latebra dulces y a sweet retreat, ep. i. 16. 

15. and describes, ep. i 16. 5. &c. near to the village 

Mandela, ep. i. 18. 105.; and to the temple of Lacuna^ id. i, 
10. 49. ; Plin. iii. 12. x. 17. watered by the rivulet Dtgentia, 
ep. i. 18. 104. probably issuing from the fountain of Blandusia, 
{Jons Blandusiusy) od. iii. 13. which was also the name of the 
farm, Vet. Scholiast, a copious spring, remarkable for its trans- 
parency and coldness, ib. and ep i. 6. 1 2. near which stood 
the house, Sat. ii. 6. 2. in a valley between mount Lucretilis 
and Ustlca, a little hill, gently rising and sloping like a person 
in a reclining posture, (cubans,) od. i. 17. i. and %\. et ibi Scho- 
liast. In this retired and winding vale (in reducta valle,) were 
pleasant walks finely shaded with trees, ib. and Sat. ii. 6 3. 
probably part of what is called the Sabine woody od. i. 22. 9, 

where, 



no 



The chief Parts of Italia Propria. 



where, wlille the poet one day strolled farther than he intended, 
or, according to the old Scholiast, beyond the limits of hi? 
farm, [ultra termtnuin,) a large wolf fled from him though 
unarmed, cd. i. 22. and another day a tree was near crushing 
him by its fall, ib. ii. 13. 12. his preservation from which, as 
from other dangers, he ascribes to the protection of heaven, 
ib. i. 17. 13. •, ii. 17. 27. j iii. 4. 27. 

In this villa Horace had a steward, (villicus,) ep. i. 14. and 
also, as it is thought, a female overseer, (villica,) perhaps the 
wife of the former, od. iii. 23. and eight slaves, Sat. ii. 7 .fin. 
Five families lived on the farm, the heads or masters of which 
(patres, sc. familiarum) used to go at certain times to Varia, a 
neighbouring town, to consult about the common affairs of 
that district, ep. i. 14. 2. 

IV. L ATIUM, supposed to be so called from Saturn lurking 
there when he fled from Jupiter, his quoniam latuisset tutus in 
oris, Virg. .zEn. viii. 323. and hence the people were named 
Latini ; or, according to others, from a king called Latinus. — 
This name was at first applied to a territory of very small ex- 
tent; but it was afterwards greatly enlarged. It was anciently 
inhabited by various tribes, the Aborigines, JEqui, Vclsci, Her- 
ntci, Rutuli, Aurunci or Ausones, Osci, &c 

ROMA, Rome, situate about twelve miles from the mouth 
of the Tiber ; called Septicollis, from being built on seven hills. 
Romulus built only on the Palatine. Tullus added the Cxlian 
mount; Ancus, the Janiculum and Aventine ; Servius, the Vp* 
minaly Quirinal, and Esquiline. Beside these, there were the 
Capitolifie or Tarpeian mount, on the side of which was the 
Tarpeian rock, from whence condemned criminals were thrown ; 
col/is Hortulorum ; and the Vatican mount, now the most re- 
markable place in Rome ; where are St. Peter's Church, the 
Pope's palace, called the Vatican, and the castle of St. Angelo. 
— The circumference of the city was about thirteen miles; 
according to Pliny, twenty ; and according to others, more. 
There is the same uncertainty about the number of its inha- 
bitants. Some make them amount to four millions. It was 
divided into fourteen regions. It had 644 towers on the walls, 
of which 300 remain, and -37 gates, the chief of which were, 
the Porta Capena, Carmentalis, Esquiftna, and Triumphalis. 
It li.nl seven aquxducts, to which Caligula added two more. 
These conveyed water from the distance of many miles. They 
were carried over vallics supported chiefly on brick arches 
reared at a prodigious expence. Some of them continue to 
supply Rome with water to this day. There were several 

1 t Ckacdf 



The chief Parts of Italia Propria. 141 

Cbaca, or common sewer?, for carrying off the filth of the 
city into the Tiber. The chief, called Cloaca Maxima, built 
by Tarquinius Superbus, was so large that a loaded wain 
could pass through it with ease. At the foot of the Capi- 
toline hill was the Forum, or public place ; and between the 
Palatine and Aventine hills, the Circus Maximus, a mile in 
circumference. Along the Tiber was the Campus Martins, 
where the Comitia were held, and where the youth performed 
their exercises. The monuments still remaining shew with 
what magnificence the temples, theatres, amphitheatres, therma 
or baths, and other public places were built. 

Modern Rome covers nearly the same space of ground it did 
in ancient times. The wall built by Belisarius, after he had 
defeated the Goths, is still standing, having been frequently- 
repaired ; it is about thirteen or fourteen miles in circuit, 
which is nearly the size that Rome was of in the days of Ves- 
pasian, Plin. iii. s. 9. The suburbs of ancient Rome are 
supposed to have extended a great way, but to have been 
inhabited only by people of inferior rank ; as there are no 
remains of palaces or magnificent buildings of any kind to be 
now seen near the walls, or indeed over the whole Campagna 
di Roma, which some authors assert was at one period peopled 
like a continued village. 

Some of the seven hills on which Rome was built, appear 
now but gentle swellings, owing to the intervals between them 
being greatly raised by the rubbish of ruined houses. Some 
have scarcely houses of any kind upon them, being entirely laid 
out in gardens and vineyards. It is thought that two thirds 
of the surface within the walls are in this situation, or covered 
with ruins. The number of the inhabitants at present is 
reckoned to be about 170,000, which, although greatly inferior 
to what Rome contained in the days of its ancient power, is 
more than it has been for the most part since that time. At 
particular periods, some of them net very remote, the number 
has been reduced to between thirty and forty thousand^ it 
1 has gradually encreased during the whole of this (the 18th) 
century. As it was less expensive to purchase new ground for 
building upon, than to clear the old ruins, great part of the 
modern city is built on what was the ancient Campus Martius > 
a large plain of a triangular shape ; two sides of the triangle 
being formed by the Tiber, and the base by the Capitol and 
the buildings, extending nearly three miles in a line parallel 
with it. Some of the principal streets are of considerable 
length, and perfectly straight. That called Corso is the most 

frequented. 



H2 



The chief Parts of Italia Propria. 



frequented. It runs from the Porto del Popolo, along the 
side of the Campus Martitu, next to the ancient city. The 
shops on each side are three or four feet higher than the street ; 
and there is a path for the conveniency of foot-passengers on 
a level with the shops. The palaces in this street range in a 
line with the other houses, without any court before them. 
The principal street in the higher part of the city is the Strada 
Felice, about a mile and a half in length, from Trinita del 
IVjonte to the church of St. John Lateran on the Pincean hill ; 
crossed by another straight street, called the Strada di Porta 
P'ta, because terminated at one end by that gate. The magni- 
ficence of the palaces, churches, fountains, and above all of 
the remains of antiquity, forms a striking contrast with the 
meanness of the rest of the city. 

St. Peter's church is reckoned one of the noblest buildings 
that ever existed in the world. It stands on the same place 
where the emperor Constantine built a church in honour of the 
apostles, a. 324. and dedicated it to St. Peter, because that 
apostle was said to have been buried near it. This church, 
although decorated at an enormous expence, and enriched 
by the most splendid donations from various princes, was 
in so ruinous a condition, a. 1450, that Pope Nicholas V. 
formed the design of rebuilding it from the foundation ; but 
death prevented him from executing his purpose. Julius II. 
employed Bramante Lazari, an eminent architect, to draw the 
plan. The work was continued under several of his successors. 
Paul III. gave the direction of it to MICHAEL ANGELO, 
a famous painter and statuary, as well as an architect, who 
improved on the plan of Bramante, chiefly by the addition of 
the dome, which is esteemed one of the boldest designs ever 
executed in architecture. The length of St. Peter's church 
on the outside is 730 feet; the breadth, 520; the height, 
from the pavement to the top of the cross, which crowns the 
cupola, 450 feet. The grand portico before the entrance is 
216 feet long, and 40 broad. The dome is raised on four 
pilasters, and is of the same diameter with the Pantheon, which 
is the most entire antique temple in Rome, now called the 
Rotunda, from its round figure, about 150 feet high, and of 
nearly the same breadth. The dome was reared by JonttS 
de la Porte, at the expence of Pope Stxtt/r V. The building 
of the church was finished under Paul V* by Charles Maderne. 
In the area before the portico stands an Egyptian obelisk ot 
granite, brought to Rome in the time of Caligula, Plin. xvi. 40. 
r. 76. about eighty feet high above the pedestal) with a gilt 
cross on the top, which being overthrown by the barbarians, 

10 lay 



The chief Parts of Italia Propria. 148 



lay long on the ground, and after various fruitless attempts 
to raise it, was at last set up in its present place, a. 1586, by 
Dominico Fontana, under the direction of Sextus V . who rose 
to be Pope from being a swine-herd, and is said to have done 
as much to embellish modern Rome, as Augustus did to adorn 
the ancient city. — On the right and left side of the obeiisk are 
two beautiful fountains. A description of the statues, basso 
relievos, columns, pictures, and other ornaments of this church, 
would fill volumes. 

On the place where the ancient Capitol stood is built a 
modern palace, called the Campidoglio, in the two wings of 
which the Confervators or iEdiles of the city have apartments ; 
and in the main body resides an Italian nobleman, appointed 
by the Pope, with the title of Senator of Rome. The approach 
to this palace is very noble, and worthy of the genius of 
Michael Angelo, who drew the plan. The Tarpeian rock, 
which is a continuation of that on which the Capitol stood, is, 
in that part whence criminals were thrown, now only 58 feet 
high •, the ground at the bottom, from evident marks, is thought 
to be 20 feet higher than it was in ancient times ; so that this 
precipice was then about 78 or 80 feet perpendicular. The 
ancient Roman forum is now the cow-market called Carnpo 
Vacclno, somewhat resembling what Virgil says it was in the 
time of Evander, jEn. viii. 360. ; so Tibull. ii. 5. Here are 
to be seen many remains of antiquity, which exhibit a melan- 
choly but interesting view of the devastation wrought by the 
united force of time, avarice, and bigotry. The chief remains 
are; those of the temple of Jupiter Stator and of Jupiter 
Tonansy built by Augustus, in gratitude for having narrowly- 
escaped death from a stroke of lightning ; the temple of Concord^ 
where Cicero assembled the senate upon the discovery of Cati- 
line's conspiracy ; the temple of Romulus and Remus, and 
that of Antoninus and Faustina, just by it, both converted 
into modern churches ; the ruins of the temple of Peace, built 
by Vespasian after the taking of Jerusalem, said to have been 
the finest temple in Rome ; &c. &c. 

The churches and palaces of modern Rome are crowded 
with pictures and ornaments of various kinds. There are 
said to be 30 palaces in the city, as full of pictures as the 
walls can bear. Of the villas near Rome, that called Pinciana 
belonging to the Borghese family, is the most remarkable. 

The river Tiberis, or Tiber, anciently Aibula, a little above 
Rome, is joined by the Anio, Teverone ; the Allia, remarkable 
for the defeat of the Romans by the Gauls, A. U. 364 ; and 
the Cretnera, famous for the slaughter of the Fabii. Farther 

up 



U4> 



The chief Parts of Italia Propria* 



up it is joined by the Nar, Clanis, and C/itiwwas, famous for 
its milk-white herds, whence victims were brought to Rome, 
Vtrg. G. ii. 146.; 5/7. viii. 45 1. ; Juvenal, xii. 13. The white 
colour of the cattle was ascribed to a peculiar quality in the 
water of the river, Plin. ii. 103. as it still is by the common 
people of the place ; for the breed of white cattle still remains 
in that country, some of them milk-white, but the greatest 
number of a whitish grey. ■ 

About 20 m. above Rome, near the Anio, flood TIBUR, 
now Tivo/i, on the brow of a hill, hence called supinum, by 
Horace, od. iii. 4. 23. ; by Juvenal, pronum, hi. 192. ; built by 
a colony from Argos, [Argeo pofttum colono^) Horat. od. ii. 
6. 5. from the worship of Hercules, called Hcrculeum by Pro- 
pertius, ii. 32. 5. at present a very poor town. In remote 
antiquity it was a populous and flourishing city, hence called 
superbum by Virgil, JEn. vii. 530. but appears to have been 
thinly inhabited even in the time of Augustus, hence called 
vacuum by Horace, ep. i. 7. 45. Its neighbourhood, however, 
from the wholesomeness of the air, was crowded with country 
seats. At the bottom of the eminence on which Tivoli stands, 
are the ruins of a magnificent villa built by the Emperor 
Adrian. Julius Csesar, Cassius, Augustus, Maecenas, and 
other illustrious Romans, had also villas here. But Tibur 
is rendered chiefly interesting from its being so often celebrated 
by Horace, whose farm is generally thought to have been near 
it. But it has been of late strongly asserted, that the villa of 
Horace was nine miles above it, at the side of a stream called 
Liccusa, formerly Dige/itia, in the country of the ancient Sa- 
bines. Those who hold this opinion say, that when Horace 
mentions Dige?it'ia or Lucrcfi/is, his own house and farm are 
to be understood •, but when he speaks of strolling about Tibur, 
as od. iv. 2. 30. that he alludes to the villa of Maecenas, the 
ruins of which are still to be seen on the south bank of the 
Anio, Moore's Italy. It appears, however, from the life of 
Horace by Suetonius, that he had a rural retreat both in the 
country of the Sabines and near Tibur {circa Tiburm v. 
Tiburtini luculum). 

The Anio, deriving its source from a part of the Apennines 
fifty miles above Tivoli, glides through a plain till it comes 
near that town, when it is confined for a short space between 
two hills, covered with groves. These were supposed to have 
been the residence of the nymph or Sibyl Albunea y to whom 
a temple was dedicated which is still standing. The river 
moving with augmented rapidity, as its channel is confined, 
at length rushes headlong over a lofty precipice •, whence pra- 

ccps 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 14S 



etpj Anio, Horat. i. 7. 13, the noise of its fall resounds through 
the hills and groves of Tivoli ; whence this place is called Domus 
Albunea resonantis, ih. 12. and the grove adjoining, Tiburni lucus^ 
from Tiburnus, Tibur s, or Tiburtus, the founder of Tibur, ib. 3. ; 
a liquid cloud arises from the foaming water, which afterwards: 
divides into numerous small cascades, waters several orchards 
(whence uda mobilibus pomaria rivis, ib. udum Tibur, iii. 29. 6. 
& uvidum, iv. 2. 30.), and having gained the plain, flows 
quietly for the rest of its course, till it loses itself in the Tiber. 

Three miles below Tivoli there is a kind of lake, impregnated 
with sulphur, called Solfatara, anciently lacus Albulus, or Al~> 
bunea, Virg. JEn. vii. 82. surrounded with a grove of the same 
name, where was an^oracle of Faun us, ib. The water of this 
lake has the singular quality of covering every thing it touches 
with a hard, white, stony matter. Certain concretions are 
formed on its surface, called Confetti di Tivoli, which have the 
appearance of floating islands. It empties itself by a whitish, 
muddy stream, called the Albula, into the Anio, emitting a 
vapour of a sulphureous smell as it flows, ib. 84. Fishes are 
found in the Anio both above and below Tivoli-, but none after 
it receives the Albula, till its junction with the Tiber. 

Strabo says, that the Albula flowed from several fountains? 
Its water was anciently famous for its medicinal qualities, 
Strab. v. p. 238. ; Plin. xxxi. 2. /. 6. Syet. Aug. 82. ; but it is 
not so at present. 

Near Tivoli is the villa Estense, belonging to the duke of 
Modena, built by Hippolitus of Este, Cardinal of Ferrara ; to 
whom Ariosto addressed his poem of Orlando Furioso. Here 
were constructed the first grand water-works in Europe. 

South-east of Tibur stood PRiENESTE, now Palestrina, 
25 m. from Rome in a lofty situation, hence called ahum by 
Virgil, JEn. vii. 682., and frigidum by Horace, od. iii. 4. 23. 
gelidum by Juvenal, iii. 190. anciently a place of great strength 
both from nature and art*, Veil. ii. 26. & 74. ; Cic. Cat. i. 3. 
where was a famous temple of Fortune; represented as double; 
hence called Prenestina sorores, Stat. Siiv. i. 3. 80. and an 
oracle, Strab. v. 238. ; Cic. Div. ii. 41.; Suet. Tib. 63. ; Pro- 
pert, ii. 32. The younger Marius being besieged here by 
Sulla perished in attempting to escape through a subterraneous 
passage, (per cuniculum,) Veil. ii. 27. 

South-west from Praeneste stood TUSCULUM, now called 
Frescati, from the coolness of the air, and fresh colour of the 
fields around; situate on the declivity of a hill 12 miles from 
Rome, hence called supernum by Horace, epod. i. 29. said to 
have been founded by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses and Circe, 
* Pransste was anci«ntly so powerful that it had eight towns subject to it, L 29. 

L hence 



146 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 



hence called Telegotri juga by Horace, od. iii. 29. 8. and Circaa, 
mcinia, epod. i. 30. Near Tusculum was a villa of Cicero's, 
called Tusculanum; also of Caesar, Cic. Orat. ii. 3.; ot Cras- 
sus, Id. Att. iv. 16. &c. But Tibur seems to have been the 
favourite residence of the ancient Romans. The moderns give 
the preference to Frescati. In its neighbourhood are some of 
the most magnificent villas in Italy. The villa Aldobrandini, 
called also Belvidere, is particularly remarkable. 

Above Tusculum, towards the Anio, was the lacus Regillus, 
where Posthumius, the dictator, defeated the Latins in a great 
battle, by the assistance, as it was supposed, of Castor and 
Pollux, Liv. ii. 20. and mount Algidus, where the Romans, 
being inclosed by the JEqui and Volsci, were delivered by Q. 
CincinnatuSy called to be dictator from the plough, Liv. iii. 26. 
also the towns Algidum, JEsula^ Pzdum, GABII*, Labi cum ; 
and, south of Tusculum, ALBA LONGA, at the foot of 
mount Albanus. On this mount were celebrated the Latin 
holidays, (Latin* feri&,} and sometimes an extraordinary 
triumph. From its form and component parts it is supposed 
formerly to have been a volcano. Pompey had a villa called 
Albanum in the Alban territory, Cic. Att. iv. 11. The Alban 
mount was covered with woods, whence Tumuli Albani atque 
luci, Cic. Mil. 31. At the foot of the mount is the Alban 
lake, Liv. v. 19. an oval piece of water of about seven or 
eight miles in circumference, surrounded with groves and 
trees of various verdure , on one of the extremities of this lake 
is a castle called Gondolfo, finely situated ; near it the villa Bar- 
barini, within the gardens of which are the ruins of an immense 
palace, built by the Emperor Domitian. About a mile from 
this, on the side of the lake, is the town of Albano ; at a small 
distance from it, in the garden of a convent of Capuchins, is one 
of the finest views in the world. The principal objects are, 
directly fronting the place, the lake, with the mountains and 
woods which surround it; on one hand is Frescati, with all its 
villas y on the other, the towns of Albano, la Riccia, and Gen- 
fano ; beyond these, the Campagna, or great plain around 
Rome, with St. Peter's church and the city of Rome in the 
middle ; the whole prospect being bounded by the hills of Ti- 
voli, the Apjnnines, and the Mediterranean. But the plea- 
sure arising from the sight of such beautiful scenes is diminished, 
by observing in so rich a country the poverty of by far the 
greatest part of the inhabitants, and their comparative small 
number, occasioned by tyranny and superstition. Moore s Italy, 

» G.iliii. called simpl'tccs by Juvenal, iii. 192. either because it was void of orna- 
ment, SebtHntt, ; and the inhabitants simple in their nunners ; or from their being $0 
simply imposed Oil hy Tanpiin. Liv. 'i. 53. Flor. ii. 7. 

A few 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 



147 



A few miles south of the Alban mount is the lake of Nemi 9 
anciently Speculum Diana, or Lacus Trivia, Virg. JEn. vii. 5 1 6. 
!yin£ in a very deep bottom, about four miies in circumference, 
supposed, like that of Albano, to have been formed in the 
cavity of a crater ; anciently surrounded with a wood sacred to 
Diana, ( Nemus Dianse,) in which was a temple of that god- 

i dess, near Aricia, Strab. v. p. 239. When the fury Alecto 
sounded the trumpet of war, this lake and the river Nar, with 

I the lake Vel'inus, are said to have been shaken by the sound, 
Virg. JEn. vii. 517. 

At the mouth of the Tiber stood Ostia, anciently the port of 
Rome * ; but the harbour is now choked up, and Civita Vec- 
chia is the Pope's chief port. 

South of Ostia, along the coast, was Laurentum ; and La* 
minium, built by ^Eneas, near the river Numicius, between 
which and the Tiber he first landed ; Ardea, cap. of the Ru- 
tuli, famous for the exile of Camillus, from whence he brought 
an army for the relief of his country ; Antium, a city of the 
Volsci, the people Antiates, with the beaks of whose ships the 
pulpit in the forum at Rome was adorned, from which orators 
used to address the people; hence called Rostra, and in English 
improperly Rostrum. At Antium was a celebrated temple of 
Fortune, Horat. od. 1.35. Two goddesses are supposed to 
have been worshipped there under that name, the one who sent 
prosperity, and the other who sent adversity, properly called 
Nemesis } hence we read of Fortuna in the plural, Suet. CaL 
57. •, Macrob. Sat. i. 23. as at Prseneste. 

Above Antium were Castrum Inai, Corioii, whence Coriola* 
nus got his name ; Satricum, and Suessa Pometia. 

East from Antium was Astura, at the mouth of a river of 
that name, and the prom, of Circeji, now Monte Circello, the 
abode of Circe, called an island by Virgil, JEn. iii. 386. be- 
cause on the north it is surrounded by marshes ; east of which 
is the grove of Feronia, on the river Ufens, joined by the Ama- 
senus ; north of it Paludes Pomptina, often attempted to be 
drained, but without success j north of this, U/ubra, Norba> 
Sulmo, and Anagnia. 

East of the Ufens was Anxur or Terraczna, where the Via 
Appia passed. For a considerable way from this travellers were 
drawn in a boat. The chief places on that road between Anxur 
and Rome were, Forum Appii, Tres Taberna, Lanuvium? 
and Aricia } south of this, Fundi, on the top of a lake of that 
name ; near which Ager Gacubus, famous for producing wine \ 

* The Emperor Ciaudius greatly improved Ostia by building two piers, {brachial 
which projected far into the sen, and at the end of them, a mole and a watch tower, 
{pharos,) Suet. Claud. 20. Juvenal, xii. 75. 

L 2 Amyci& ; 



U8 



Thc^incicnt Divisions of Italy. 



AmycU : the prom. Cajeta, so called from the nurse of ^Eneai 
being buried there ; Formic. 

Between Formice and Cajeta was a villa of Cicero's called 
Formianum ; near which he was assassinated by the orders of 
Antony, in the 64th year of his age, by the centurion Heren~ 
niusy and Popilius a tribune, whom he had formerly defended 
in a trial for his life, when accused of parricide. 

At the mouth of the Liris, Garigliano, a slow silent river,, 
surrounded with fertile fields (rura qua Liris quietd mordet 
aqna tacitumus amnis, Horat. od. i. 31. 7.), stood Mintukn/e, 
near which is a morass, where Marius concealed himself when 
he fled from Sylla *, up this river were Interamna> Fregella, 
Aquinum the birth-place of Juvenal, iii. 319. and Arp'inum, 
the people Arpinates, the birth-place of Marius and Cicero. 

On the confines of Campania, which were not exactly ascer- 
tained, stood Sifwessa, where Horace met his friends Plotius, 
Varius, and Virgil, Sat. i. 5. 40. Cales and Teanum; near which 
mount Masstcus and Ager Falernus y famous for producing wine. 

V. CAMPANIA ; — Its chief town was CAPUA, named 
either from Capys, a leader of the Samnites, who took it from 
the Tuscans*, or from its being situate in a plain, [a campestri 
agro,) Liv. iv. 37. Capua a campo dicta, Plin. iii. 5. anciently 
called Vulturnum, Liv. ib. near mount Tifata, -orum y Liv. xxvi. 
5. situate in the middle of a beautiful plain, about i\ miles 
from the Yulturnus. It once vied in magnificence with Rome 
and Carthage, Flor. i, 1 6. hence called altera Roma by Cicero, 
Phi/, xii. 3. So Statius, Sih. iii. 5. 76. The army of Hanni- 
bal is said to have been enervated by the luxuries of this place, 
Liv. xxiii. 18. (Adeo ut verum dictum sit> Capuam Annibali 
Cannas fuisse, Flor.u. 6.) The defection of Capua from the 
Romans to Hannibal occasioned its ruin. For being reduced 
by Q. Fulvius and Ap. Claudius the Consuls, in spite of all the 
efforts of Hannibal to save it, Liv. xxvi. 14. &c. it never again 
recovered its former prosperity. It now lies in ruins. There 
is a magnificent palace lately built for the King of Naples in the 
plain where it stood, called Casserta. 

New Capua is a small town of no importance; it Stands on 
the VukurttuSy Vulturno, nearly where Casilinum stood, about 
two miles from the place of ancient Capua. 

CASILINUM being besieged by Hannibal, endured such 
famine that a mouse was sold for 200 denarii, j£. 6 : 9 : 2. 
Strabo says this price was given for a medimnus or certain mea- 
sure of corn, v. 249. The seller perished, and the buyer lived, 

* Lucan nukes Capys a Trojjn; hence AfifflM DtrtUmii UmH Camfwma nlo*i. 

Pompey reached Capua, ii. 393- 

Plin. 



The Ancient Divisions qfltaly. 



149 



Tltn. viii. 57. s. 82. ; Val. Max. vii. 6.3. Hannibal seeing 
the besieged sowing turnips near the walls, expressed his asto- 
nishment that they should think of holding out. till the turnips 
should grow, Strab. v. 249. The town was defended only by 
540 natives of Prseneste, ib. Livy says 570 ; and that the half 
of them were destroyed by famine and the sword. At last 
those who survived were forced to surrender, and Hannibal 
granted them their lives, Liv. xxiii. 19. 

Near CasiTtnum was mount Calljcula, Liv. xxii. 15. and 
Campus Stellatis, divided by Caesar, together with the territory 
of Capua, (ager Campanus,) among 20,000 poor Roman citizens, 
Suet, Cas. 20. which Rullus a tribune had formerly attempted, 
but was prevented by Cicero then consul, Cic. in Rull. ii. 31. 

Several miles above Capua, on the Vulturnus, stood Vena- 
/rum, near the confines of Samnium, famous for producing oil, 
Horat. od. ii. 6. whence Venafranum is put for the finest oil, 
Juvenal^ v. 86. 

Near Venafrum were Rufra, Batulum, Celenna, and Abella, 
inconsiderable places, mentioned by Virgil, JEn. vii. 739. 

The country round Capua was so fertile that Cicero calls it 
Ager orbis terra pulcherrimus, in Rull. ii. 28. ; so Florus, 1.16. ; 
hence its common name Campania Felix, Plin. iii. 5. j-. 9. 

At the mouth of the Clanius was Liternum or Linternum, a 
Roman colony, Liv. xxxii. 29. xxxiv. 45. where Scipio Afri- 
canus, to avoid the vexations of the tribunes, lived in voluntary 

exile, Liv. xxxviii. 53. xxxix. 52. Above Casilinum, on the 

same river, was Acerra, in a flat situation, frequently incom- 
moded by inundations, Virg. G. ii. 225. ; Sil. viii. 536. j now 
Acerra y a neat city, walled round after the old manner. Large 
drains prevent the river from being so destructive as it was in 
ancient times. This is the native city of Punchinello, the fa- 
vourite comic character at Naples, as Harlequin Bergamasque 

is in other parts of Italy. South of Acerra was Atella, which, 

together with Calatia, and other places, revolted to Hannibal 
after the battle of Cannae, Liv. xxii. fin. ; Sil. xi. 14. 

Between the mouths of the Vulturnus and Clanius, or Liternus, 
was the Silva Gallinaria, Cic. Fam.ix.23. which Juvenal calls 
Gallinaria pinus, iii. 307. a frequent receptacle for robbers, Ib. 

South of this was CUMiE, or Cyme, sing, founded by a 
colony from Chalcis, a town of Euboea, hence called Eubotca, 
Virg. iEn. vi. 2. and Chalcidica arx, Ib. 17. Strabo calls it 
the most ancient of all the Grecian settlements in Italy, v. p. 
243. a retired place; hence quieta Cyme, Stat. Silv.iv. 3. 65. 
! at the foot of mount Misenus ; which is hence called Jugum 
suspectum Cumis, Juvenal, ix. 57. 

Here was a temple consecrated to Apollo and Diana ; and 

L 3 in 



150 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



in this temple was a hollow, dug out of the side of a rock, called 
the cave of the Sibyl, ib. 10. & 42. whence she is called gra- 
vida arcanis Cymes anus, Sil. xiii. 494. Cum&a Sibyla, Virg. 
ib. 98. Euboica Sibylla, Stat. Sih. i. 2. 177. Chalcidicum 
carmen, the verses of the Sibyl, ib. v. 3. 182. 

There was adjoining to the temple as usual, a grove, (Tri- 
via luc us,) v. 13. Sulla, having resigned the dictatorship, 

chose the neighbourhood of Cumie for his residence, Plutarch, 
in vita ejus. Near Cum?e was a villa of Cicero's, Cic. Att. x. 
4.; Fam. ix. 23. ; of Pompey, Id.' Att. iv. 10 ; of Varro, Cic. 
Acad. i. t. ; and of Catullus, Id. iv. 25. ; all called by the same 
name, Cumanum. 

The dialogue contained in the first book of Cicero's Quastio- 
nus Academics is represented to have been held in the villa of 
Varro; Cic. Acad. i. I.; and the second or fourth called Lu- 
CULLUS, in the villa of Hortensius at Bauli v. near Baiae, 
Ib. iv. 3. & 40. so called from the stalls which Hercules Ls said 
to have made there for the oxen of Geryon, Serv. in Virg. 
JEn. vii. 662. hence Herculei Bauli, S\\. xii. 156. where after- 
wards Agrippina was killed by order of her son Nero, Tacit. 
Ann. xiv. 4 — io> 

South-west of Cumse was the promontory, town, and har- 
bour of Misenum, so called from the trumpeter of J5L 
who was buried there, Virg. JEn. vi. 234. Stat. Silv. v. 3 167. 
where Augustus stationed a fleet, Suet. Aug. 49. opposite to the 
islands Prochyta, now Procida, and Inanme, now Ischia, sup- 
posed to have been disjoined by an earthquake, Plin. iii 6. s. 1 :. 
the latter called also JEnaria or Pithecusa, ib. and supposed 
to be placed over the giant Typhoeus, by the command of Ju- 
piter, Virg. JEn. ix. 716.* 

Ischia is a fertile island, and well peopled. It is surrounded 
with high rocks, and is hilly. In the centre there is a lofty 
mountain, called Epomeo, formerly a volcano. In 1301 there 
was an eruption, which made dreadful havock. There is on 
the side of the mountain a very hot spring, called La misericordia y 
where numbers of patients bathe. 

Procida is neither fertile nor agreeable. It was the birth-place, 
or at least the property of John of Procida, who, to revenge 
his countrymen for the usurpation and tyranny of the French 
under Charles of Anjou, planned their destruction in Sicily» 
which was effected on Easter Tuesday, 30th March 1282. 

• The ancient inhabitants, calif d C.er. J rj.on account of their fraud and pcrjuiy.are 
said to have been (hanged into apes by Jupiter, Ovid. Met.x'w. 91, &C and the island 
5$ said to have been tailed I'ithei u^c tiom the multitude of apes, [viSnxet, strni*. tound 
in it. Ov. it. HiH Phny says, Inaiimr, Jut.i C>r*;:j Pitlu i us.i, non ./ simiarum ( triSnumt) 
mult:tii<lint, tit a/itjui tnutimavert % itJ a Jiglinis duliorum, \ e. ojjicinis, in qui bus jijdi** 
dcltifiebant % fr< m pot tin' woik homes, where earthen casks or vessels were made, 
(*tr« twv K\ r cu i y ti!)»jv ) ') Plin. lii. 6. j.lZ. 

There 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



151 



There were several fine villas near Misenum, in one of 
-which, formerly the property of Lucullus, the Emperor Tibe- 
rius died, Tacit. Ann. vi. 50. — -Between Cumae and Misenum 
was the pains Acherusia, Plin. iii. 5. ; Strab. v. 243. 

After turning the promontory, first is BALE, famous for 
its hot baths and medicinal waters, hence called liquids, Horat. 
od. iii. 4. 24. or from the purity of its air, Vet. Scholiast, in 
locum ; surrounded with villas. 

Close by Baia was the Lucrine lake famous for producing 
oysters, Horat. epod. 2. 49. ;* Cic Att. iv. 10.* In place of this 
lake there is now a mount, raised by a violent earthquake, 
30th September 1538, called Monte Nova de Cinere, of a cir- 
cular form, four miles in circumference, and one thousand 
feet high, with a large cup or crater in the middle. There 
remains nothing of the lake but small muddy marshes, covered 
with reeds. Between the lake and the sea was a mound, eight 
stadia long, and of the breadth of a broad chariot wheel, called 
via Herculanea^ Cic. in RulL ii. 14. or Herculeum iter, Sil. xii. 
118. said to have been made by Hercules for driving along the 
oxen of Geryon, Strab. v. 245. ; Propert. iii. 18. f 

Near to the Lucrine lake was the LACUS AVERNUS, of 
unfathomable depth, whence Lucan, ii. 668. surrounded with 
thick woods, Virg. JEn. iii. 442. said to be called Avernus, 
(quasi Aornus, ex a priv. et ogvi$, avis,) because the stream aris^- 
ing from it was fatal to such birds as happened to fly over it J j 
which name was common also to other places of a similar na- 
ture, Lucret. vi. 740.; Plin. iv. i. ; but Strabo considers this 
as a fable, v. 244. and Virgil ascribes that quality to a certain 
cave near this lake through which he makes JEnezs and the 
Sibyl descend to the infernal regions, JEn. vi. 237. as he does 
Orpheus through a cave near cape Tenarus, G. iv. 467. for the 
Greeks and Romans had different places of descent. 

Augustus, by the advice of Agrippa, joined the Avernus with 
the Lucrine lake, cut down the wood around it, and connecting 
both lakes with the sea, formed a harbour, called PORTUS 
JULIUS, Suet. Aug. 16.; Virg. G. ii. 161. ox Partus Baiarum, 
Plin. iii. 5. for holding and exercising the ships which he pro- 
posed to lead against Sex. Pompey, Suet. ib. Dio, xlviii. 50,; but 
no vestiges now remain of Baise, nor of those magnificent villas 
that adorned this luxurious coast, where the wealthy proprietors, 
not contented with the land, used to rear edifices on the sea, 

* Hence called ostrea Gaurana^from Gaurus, an adjoining mountain, Juv. viii. 85. 

f Whence the continent or dry land adjoining is said to be neglecta tellus Alcida t 
slighted by Hercules, Stat. Sil-v. v. 3. 164. 

X This is net now the case. Numbers of water-fowl are found swimming on its 
surface, Sf>allanzani y vo\.\. p. n8. 

L 4 HoraU 



1 V2 



The Ancient Dnisions of Italy. 



Herat, cd. iii. I. gj. md drive that element back from its usual 

limits, lb. »i. 18. 20. 

There is a -mall bay about a league over between Baia and 
Pu.'cZ.'i, now Puzz.l: y in crossing uhich in i boat you see the 
ruin* called Ponte de CaliguL, from their being thought the re- 
mains of a bridge built here oy that emperor But they are by 
others, with more prob lb lity, thought to be the ruins of a mole 
built with W •• • Poi the bridge of Caligula was constructed 
with b< aUj in imitation of that of X rxes over the Hellespont, 

It , ( ... i ; . * Near to Puteoli were the Phlegrai campi or 

burning plains, where Jupiter overcame the giants, Strab v. 
243 now called Soljatcrra or Zolfatara, an half-extinct volcano, 
styled by the anciei ts the court of Vulcan ; of a circular form, 
covered with a marly clay as white as chalk, with various vent- 
holes emitting .: very hot vapour, which discolours paper and 
metal-. TUei placed over them collect condensed ^alts of va- 
rious kinds, and sulphur. — The ground quakes and resounds un- 
der the pressure of your feet, and by laying your ear close to it, 
you perceive the bubbling and hissing of boiling water. These 
nidden water* break out on the north side of the hills which sur- 
round this crater. The Solfatara has not emitted flames within 
the memory of man, but wet weather increases the quantity of 
its smoke. 

Near ria, was the town Clmmerium^ the inhabitants of which 
lived always in mines below ground, and never saw the light of 
the sun, Strab. ib. 244 ; Homer. Odyss. xi. 15. supposed to have 
been gigantic robbi-rs, who made caves their place of residence, 
•.l.i- repu itory of their plunder. — Also mount Gauros, 
now mmU Borbaro t fertile in vines, Stat. Si/v. iii. 5. 99. and in 
timber for ftp-building, 57/y.viii. 533. Puzzoli now stands on 
a snull peninsula, and contains about 1 0,000 inhabitants. Be- 
tween Puteoli and the lake Avernus was a villa of Cicero's, 
which he called AcADZMIA, in imitation of that at Athens, 
• > probably the same with what he calls Puteo- 
' Ift mv. 7.; Fam. v. 15.; Fat. i. 5 thirty stadia 

ROn PttteOHj /./. Acmd. nr. 31. and enjoying a view of that 
town, U 15. 1 /'/:,;. xxxi. 2 ./. 3.5 the ruins of which, of consi- 
>lfl extent, are till to be been.~-« The whole of this beau- 
ttou ' 1 of pleasure, and, atone period, the 

mobt populous spot in Italy, is now very thinly inhabited and 
t> control between the mcient opulence, and present poverty 
of id inhabitant,, „ still more .striking." Moore's Italy. 

• PuTtfiLi »u .nccmly oiled DiCKAftcafA, Fib,, in. 5. a— t. from tht 
■ *|*M /^ D.ca> S * SiU . iii y s . v. 3. ,69. DkmnkZ 

1 i NEAPOLIS, 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. \$% 



NE APOLIS, Naples, is situate on a gentle declivity, in the 
form of a great amphitheatre, at the top of a beautiful bay of 
that name, anciently Sinus Puteoianus, about thirty miles in 
circumference, and twelve in diameter *, named crater > from 
its supposed resemblance to a bowl. 

Naples was founded by a colony from Cumse, Veil, i. 4.; 
Plin. iii. 5.; and long retained the institutions of the Greeks, 
Strab. H. 1 Tacit. AnnaL xv. 33. It at first was called Parthe- 
nope, as it is said, from one of the Sirens buried there, ib. & 
Strab. v. 246. It is washed by the river Sebethus v. -os, Colu- 
mell, x. 134. now Sebeto or jiume delta Maddalena, over which, 
Virgil supposes a nymph of the same name to preside, AEn. vii. 
734. The Sebeto is now an insignificant brook, its supplies 
having been, as it is thought, either dried up or diverted by the 
eruptions of V esuvius. 

Strabo says, there were as fine hot waters and baths at Naples 
as at Baice, but fewer in number, v. p. 246. 

Naples is now the most populous city in Italy containing 
about 350,000 inhabitants, of whom above 30,000 called Laz- 
zaroni, from the proverbial poverty of Lazarus, have no dwell- 
ing houses in the city, but sleep under porticoes, piazzas, or any 
kind of shelter they can find. The nobility and clergy, who 
are very numerous at Naples, and through the kingdom, live 
in great splendour, and the body of the people are oppressed 
to support their expence. The city of Naples is commanded by 
a fortress built on an adjoining hill called St. Elmo. 

About two or three miles west of Naples is the mountain 
Pausilypus {HoLva-iKvKo^ grief- appeasing, from its chearing pros- 
pects,) now Pausilippo, on which is shewn the tomb of Virgil, 
still held in great veneration, as it was in ancient times, Plin. 
epist. iii. 7. *, called Templum Maroneum Stat. Silv. iv. 4. 52. 
It is however doubted whether this be the spot where he was 

buried. Near this was a villa called Pausilypum> where, in 

fish-ponds belonging to the Emperors, fishes are said to have 
lived above sixty years, Plin. ix. 53. s. 78. 

Through this mountain there is a subterraneous passage in 
the way to Puzzoli, called Crypta Neapolitana, Senec. ep. v. 
Sicoguf xgwrrTYj Strab* v. 246. now the grotto of Pausilippo, 89 feet 
high in the most elevated part, but not above 24 in the lowest; 
exactly 2414 feet, near half a mile in length, and 22 feet in 
breadth. People of fashion generally drive through this passage 
with torches, but the country people and foot passengers find 
their way without much difficulty, by the light which enters at 
the extremities, and at two holes pierced through the mountain 
near the middle of the grotto, which admit light from above. 

By 



1 i 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



By whom this grotto was first made is uncertain. In the time 
of Seneca it appears to have been open only for foot passengers, 
. . : -. Alphonso the First widened it for carriages, and since 
his reign it has been considerably heightened and levelled. 
There was anciently a similar subterraneous passage from the 
bin Avernu? to Cumce, Strab. ibid, which is now filled up with 
earrh. 

Two miles beyond the grotto of Pausilippo is a circular lake, 
about half a mile in diameter, called Lago d' Agnatic, on the 
| side of which, at a little distance, is the famous 
dtl Cam, about twelve feet long and from four to five 
broad, where so many dogs [canes) have been tortured and suf- 
focated to shew the effect of a vapour, which rises about a foot 
above the bottom of this little cave, and is destructive of animal 
life. A dog, having his head held in this vapour, is convulsed 
in a few minutes, and soon after falls to the earth motionless. If 
immediately exposed to the open air, he revives, but not, if kept 
a little time in the vapour.* 

About eight miles east from Naples is mount VESUVIUS, 
called also VeKBVUS, Sud. Tit, 8.*, Virg. G. ii. 224.*, Vesvius, 
Martial, iv. 44. or Vesbius, Sil. xvii.598. anciently surrounded 
with fertile fields, and itself clothed with the most beautiful 
verdure, except the top, which was wholly barren, and great 
part of it a plain, exhibiting marks of its having formerly been 
a volcano, Strab. v. p. 147. f 

Between Naples and Vesuvius were two considerable towns, 
} I E R C U L ANK U M, which Ovid calls Herculea urbs, Met. xv. 
711. and POMPEII v. Ri a, Flor. i. 16.; Plin. iii. 5.; Veil, 
n. |6. ; Senec. Nat. Q. vi. 1. & 25.; on the Sarnus, Sarno, a 
slow river, (mitij,) Silv. viii. 537. flowing through the country 
ol the S\ki: \>n s, lb. & Virg. JEn. vii. 738. 

On the 24th August {nono calendas Septembris) a. 79, under 
^ iwij ibout mid-day, happened a dreadful eruption of Ve- 
suvius, attended with an earthquake, which overwhelmed Her- 
CttklM nm and Pompeii, Senec. Nat. Q. vi. 1. & 26. The elder 
P v, 1 bo men commanded the Roman fleet atMisenum, going 
too near the mountain to examine more accurately the sudden 
•ppcarance, was suffocated, as it was thought, by the sulphu- 
; i«>r hi body was found three days after entire and 
unhurt, more like one asleep than dead, Plin. ep, vi. 16. The 
younger Pliny, nephew to the former, then a young man, and 

"jjl"**"^ '• rVrr *' |-< ■ , 'l«r >ui \ .i,\u.rs m different countries, particularly in 
/S/-' W *** s '* ,J,j| l, rute aniowh and man; [Sfiraeula vocamt, alii 

L ,.rUts, mtrlt/trmm >f>irii»m t*bali*tu { ) and is thought to allude tO this, 

» yj. 

t VtMim rWi in htkM •bout a mile ahovc the lurface of tht Ma ; and the circuit 

mk» Um (• about jo miltt. Sp*lUnt.j*i. 

10 his 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 155 



his mother, who had remained at Misenum, narrowly escaped 
perishing by the effects of the eruption and earthquake, lb. 20. 
Vesuvius has ever since continued at times, not only to emit 
fire and smoke, but also to discharge burning stones of immense 
weight to a prodigious height, (see p. 53.) and to pour forth a 
torrent of lava or liquid matter, which runs down the mountain 
sweeping every thing along with it. 

Herculaneum and Pompeia remained undiscovered till the 
present century. The former was first discovered in 17 13 by 
some labourers, who, in digging a well, happened to strike upon 
a statue on the benches of the theatre, and the latter almost 
forty years after. A great number of antiquities have been 
dug out from both, which are kept in a museum at Portici, a 
neighbouring town. The King of Naples caused engravings of 
the chief of them to be made and printed, and some years ago 
presented a copy of this splendid work to each of the principal 
universities in Europe. 

The mass which covers Herculaneum is about twenty-four 
feet deep, composed of dark grey stone, which is easily broken 
to pieces : That which covers Pompeia is not above twelve feet, 
so that the latter might be much more easily cleared than the 
former. 

Near the Sarnus stood Nuceria, now Nocera, an episcopal 
city, or rather so many distinct villages along the foot of the 
mountains, containing about 30,000 inhabitants. 

Beyond the Sarnus and Pompeia, on the middle of the bay, 
was Stabi^:, famous for its waters, Col. x. 133. and medicinal 
milk, Symmach vi. ep. 18. destroyed by Sulla in the social or 
Italic war, Plin.m, 5. and converted into a villa, lb. whither 
Pliny wished to go when he perished, Plin. ep. vi. 16. Beyond 
Stabiae was Surrentum, Surrento, now the seat of an arch- 
bishop near it *w-ere hills which produced excellent wine, Ovid. 
Met. xv. 710. ; Martial, xiii. 1 10. 

Near this was the promontory of Minerva, prom. Surrenfinum 
v. Athenaum, at the bottom of the bay, now Capo del/a Minerva, 
the southernmost point of Campania : three miles west from 
which is the island CAPREiE, famous for the retreat of Tibe- 
rius, during the seven last years of his life, Plutarch de exil. p. 
534.; Tacit. Ann. iv. 65.; eight miles from Surrentum, and forty 
miles in circumference, Plin.in. 6. s. 12. surrounded on all 
hands with steep rocks, and accessible only by one small beach, 
Suet. Tib. 11. anciently inhabited by the Teleboa, Virg. jEn. vii. 
735. a people from Acarnania, a division of Epire. There stood 
a pharos or watch-tower on this island, which was overturned 
by an earthquake a few days before the death of Tiberius, 
Suet. 74. 

A few 



136 



The Ancient Divisio)is of Italy. 



A few miles south of the cape of Minerva, at the bottom, of 
Pd tonus, arc three small desert rocky islands called 
S i < BJBj the abode of the Sirens, fabulous women or birds, 
who by their mu^ic or songs (voces, Hor. ep. i. 23.) were 
supposed to decoy mariners thither to be shipwrecked, Strab. 
i. 22. hence these islands are called Scopuli Sirenum, multo- 
rum csjil'us albi, Virg. JEn. v. 864.* 

North-cast from Naples there, is a ridge of woody hills, then 
an immense plain, in which stood NOLA, Si/, xii. 161. where 
MarcelllU repulsed Hannibal, and first gave the Romans hopes 
that he might be conquered, Liv. xxiii. 16.5 here also Augustus 
died, Suet. 1 01. 

The people of Nola ascribe the invention of bells to St. Pau- 
linus, a native of Bourdcaux, who died bishop of Nola in 431. 
But bells were in use long before, although not allowed to 
Christians, who are said to have made use of wooden rattles 
(sacra Hgna) to call their congregations together. It is sup- 
posed that Paulinus first introduced bells into churches. 

South of Campania, on the coast of the Tuscan sea, were 
the P1CI.N TIM, to the river Silarus, a territory of small 
extent, Pirn, hi. 5. T heir chief town was Salernum, now 
Salerno, remarkable in the lower ages for a medical school, the 
professors of which wrote a book called Schola Salernitana, 
and dedicated it to Robert Duke of Normandy, son to William 
the Conqueror of England, who was residing there in 11 00, 
under the care of the physicians, to be cured of a wound he 
; . ; ;'r< m a r >i 1 ned arrow in the wars of Palestine. 

The poison is said to have been sucked out by his wife Sybilla, 
at the hazard of her life. A similar story is also told of Eleanor, 
the wife of Edward the First. 

About ten miles north-west of Salerno stands AMALFI, 
a city not mentioned in ancient authors. It first acquired 
importance by commerce under the protection of the Greek 
rmpcror*, ami engrossed the trade of the Levant before the 
v |in to make any figure. The nautical or mariner's 

compass was invented, or at least perfected here, by Flavius 
Gioia or Blend ua in 1302. Amalfi flourished while it enjoyed 
liberty | but having fallen under the dominion of the Normans 
m 1 ico, it became exposed to the attacks of every power at 
variance with its new masters. The Pisans and Germans laid 
it a N it different timed. The pillage of the Pisans forms 
to intru sting epoch in the history of jurisprudence, for they 
tamed off the code of laws composed by the order of Justinian 

• BjnmJ^mt m^**, ptfen iht ciick of whins to the music of • 

fen, J>\imaL In. iy. 1 



(called 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 157 



(called the PANDECTS, from their embracing the whole 
circle of jurisprudence). This book had been brought to 
Amalfi from Greece as a curiosity by a merchant, but had 
obtained no authority in that place, where the Theodosian 
code was its force. Amalfi is now a poor place, containing 
not above 4oocH:rihabitants. 

VI. SAMNIUM, lying for the most part among the Apen- 
nines, and in no place bordering on the sea. Chief towns : 

BENEVENTUM, anciently called Maleventum> Liv. x. 15. 
from its being exposed to unhealthful winds, Procop. de Goth, 
i. 15. The Romans, when they settled a colony in this place, 
a. u. 485, from a motive of superstition, called it Beneventum t 
which they thought a more lucky name, Plin. iii. 1 1. j Liv. ix. 
27. The town is sand to have been founded by Diomedes 
after the Trojan war, Solin. 2. It is situate on the slope and 
at the point of a hill, between two narrow valleys, in one of 
which runs the river Sabatus, now Sabato 9 in the other Calor, 
now Caldre ; below the city they unite into one stream, and 
soon after join the Vulturnus. In no city of Italy, except 
Rome, are so many remains of ancient sculpture to be found 
as in Benevento. It is now subject to the Pope. A few 
miles from this, on the Via Appia, stood CAUDIUM, near 
which the Furc^e Caudin^:, now Forchia d'Arpaia, a narrow 
defile, where the Romans being blocked up by Pontius, general 
of the Samnites, were in token of subjection obliged to pass 
under the yoke, a. u. 433. 

Near Caudium is mount Taburnus^ fertile in olives, Virg. 

G.'ii. 38. The other towns of Samnium were Bovianum, 

Liv. ix. 31. x. 12. Tifernum and Treventum^ JEsernia> S#pi- 
tiurn, Alllfa, Teksia, Saticu!a> Compsa> &c. See Liv. ix. 31. 
x. 17. 39. 45. xxiv. 20. xl. 31. 

South of Samnium was the country of the HIRPINI, de- 
scended from the Samnites, watered by the Sabato and Calore. 
Their chief towns were Equus Tuttcus, which Horace describes, 
but could not express in verse, Sat. i. 5. 87. also mentioned 
by Cicero, Att. vi. 1. Triv~icum> Horat. ib. 79. Callifa, Liv. 
vili. 25. Herdonia, Liv. xxv. 21. xxvii. 1. Sil. viii. 568. now 
Qrdona. Some vestiges of the ancient town still remain. 

West from this is supposed to- be the valley of AMSANC- 
TUS, inclosed on both sides by high hills, thickly covered 
with copses of oak. In the lowest part of the dell, and close 
under one of the hills, is an oval pond, not above fifty feet in 
diameter, which boils up in several places with great force, in 
irregular fits, which are always preceded by a hissing sound. 



j 58 7V Ancient Divisions of Italy. 

r is spouted up three, four, or five feet, sometimes 

more, sometimes less; a large body of vapour is continually 
thrown out with a loud rumbling noise, emitting a most 
nrateOM and noxious smell. The stones on the rising ground 
that hangs over the pool are quite yellow, being stained with 
the fumes of su'phur and sal ammoniac. The water is insipid 
both as to taste and smell ; the clay at the edges is white, 
and used for rubbing scabby sheep, on which account the lake 
is farmed out at 100 ducats a year, Swinburne, On the hill 
above stood a temple dedicated to Mephitis, the goddess of bad 
smells Pltn. 'u. 03 x.95. hence the place is now called Moffetta. 
In this place, equi-distant from both seas, (Italia medio,) Virgil 
inmhi the turv Alecto descend to hell, Virg JEn. vii. 563.; it 
is aUo mentioned by Cicero, Div. i. 36. But what these au- 
thors say of Amsanctus does not exactly agree with the above 
description. 

North-east of Samnium, and bordering on the Adriatic, 
were the FRENTANI, another tribe of the Samnites, bounded 
on the south by the river Frento, which runs into the Adriatic, 
north of mount Garganus, and opposite to the islands of Dio- 
medes, from which river they had their name. Their chief 
towns were Buca, Ortotia, and Larinum on the river Tifernus. 

VII. APULIA, extending from the river Frento to Brun- 
BOa rod Tarentum. The north part of it was called Dau- 
ITiAj from Daunus, its king, Horat. od. iii. 30. U. the father- 
in-law of Diomedes, Plin, iii. 11. s. 1 also the name of a small 
river (pauper aqu.r), Horat. ib. now Carapelle : and the south 
Pur cut 1 \, from Peucetius, the brother of Oenotrus, ib. s. 16. 
who both came from Arcadia seventeen generations before the 
fro jan war, Dionyt* i. 1 1. 

The whole of Apulia is sometimes also called Japvgia, espe- 
cially by Greek writers, Polyb. iii. 88. and by the Poets ; thus 
mount GarganvJ, in the north of Apulia, is called Jiipyx by 
i.xi. 247. and the country around it Jap\g i ugri 9 
Si). fHL So Japyx Cantpus, the plain of Cannae, Sil. i. 50. 

iti. 708. But Strabo says, that all this country was called by 
thfl inhabitants Apulia, ?i. 283. and restricts the appellation of 
lapTgia to Calabria, vi. 282. which name, he informs us, was 
Japyx, the .son of Daedalus by a Cretan mother, 
>i\ \ in thai parr of Italy, lb. 279. 
The chief towns oi Apulia, now Puglia Piana or the Capita- 
MUM, ( 01 Afgyrippa, built by Diomed s, 

Pltn. in. ii. . 10. ; l':r y . /]•>;. w. 242. in the middle of a 
great pl.un, called at first Arga HippiUM, Slrab. vi. 283. (i.e. 

e quest re,} 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



159 



equestre,) from Argos the native city of Diomede being good for 
breeding horses, wnro£oTov ? Homer, aptum equis, Horat. od. 
1. 7. 9. north of the river Cerbalus, now Cervaro, near the foot of 
mount Garganus, now St. Angelo, which projects into the sea, 
Hadriacas exit in undas, Lucan. v. 380. forming a kind of penin- 
sula, vulgarly called the spur of the boot, south of the insula Dio- 
medis, Plin. iii. 26. s. 30. two in number, lb. & Strab. vi. 284. y 
Ptolemy says five iii. 1. the largest of which was called Trime- 
turn. Tacit. Ann. iv. 71. whence these islands are now named 
flsole di Tremiti, the islands of Tremiti. Nothing now remains 
of Arpi but some faint traces of its walls near Foggia, now the 
chief staple for corn and wool in these parts, so named from the 
vaults (fosse) below the principal streets and squares, in which 
the corn is buried and preserved sound from year to year. 

This country is fertile in corn, and abounds in rich pasture for 
sheep. But these natural advantages are counteracted by the pre- 
sent tyranny of the goverment. "In the famine of 1764, instead 
of encouraging the farmers of Puglia to throw a seasonable sup- 
ply of corn into Naples, by the offer of a good price and speedy 
payment, the ministry sent soldiers into the province to take it 
by force, and drive the owners before them, like beasts of bur- 
den, laden with their own property. Those that were unwil- 
ling to part with it by compulsion, and upon such hard terms, 
carried their corn up into the hills and buried it. If any were 
detected in these practices they were hanged." Swinburne. 

North of Arpi stood Teanum, called Apulum or Apulorum 5 
to distinguish it from Teanum Sidiclnum, a town of the Sidiclni s 
a people of Campania, Liv/ix. 20. xxii. 57. ; Plin. iii. 5. & 1 1.5 
Strab. v. 248. vi. 285. 

Above this, near the same river, was Gerion or Geronium, hiv. 
xxii. 18. and west of it, Luceria, now Lucera, on the confines of 
the Frentaniy a place of note, Cic. Plane. 69. in ancient times s 
Strab. vi. 284. hence called nobilis by Horace, od. iii. 15. 13. 

The sheep fed in the extensive plains of Apulia, between the 
Apennines and Hadriatic, have always been remarkable for pro- 
ducing fine wool, Horat. ib. Lana Apula laudatissima, Plin. viii. 
48. s. 73.; Velleribus primis Apulia, Parma secundis Nobilis, 
Martial, xiv. 155. And a tax imposed on sheep at present con- 
stitutes one of the chief branches of the revenue of the King 
of Naples. The sheep, as in ancient times, are driven from 
the plains of Apulia to pass the summer in the hilly country, 
Varr. R. R. ii 1. 16. & 2. 9. 

The river Cerbalus, or Cervaro, runs into a bay called Sinus 
Urius, from Uria, a town at the top of it, the situation of which 
k uncertain, now the bay of Manfredonia, from a town of that 

name 



160 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



name, built by kin^ Manfred, a. 1261, near the place where the 
ancient town Sipontum stood, built by Diomed, and named "Xrjmu; 
(Sipus, -until > Lu^an. v. 377. or indecl. S/7. viii. 634.) from 
thenumberof cuttle-fi->h(jv/>/>)ca^t out on the coast, Strab.v'i. 284. 
afterwards made a Rorm.n colony, Liv, xxxiv. 45. xxxix. 23.* 

A few miles south of the Cerbalus stood SalaPIA, a post of 
consequence in the second Punic war, Liv. xxiv. 20. xxxvi. 38. 
Piin. hi. 11. x. 16. Hannibal having cut orf Marcellus the 
consul by an ambuscade, affixed his seal to a forged letter, 
which he sent to the magistrates of Salapia, in hopes of thus 
gaining admittance into the place ; but intelligence of what had 
happened hnving been previously conveyed to the garrison, 
frustrated Lis purpose, Liv. xxvii. 30. Some ruino of this 
place are still to be seen near a long lake called Salapina palus, 
Lucan. v. 377. separated from the sea by a narrow neck of land, 
jiow cul into several ponds for making er It. The salt ia piled 
up in heaps, and carried of by boats to the ships, which the 
shallowness of the water prevents from coming nearer than a 
mile from the land to take in their cargoes. 

West of Salapia stood ASCULUM, now AscoR, often men- 
tioned in the war with Pyrrhus, called Asculum Apulum, to 
distinguish it from a town of the same name in Picenum. 

The AUFIDUS> now Ofanto % is the chief river in Apulia, 
called taurifermis by Horace, because it flows from two sources 
which embrace mount Vultur, and joining at the foot of it, 
runs with great noise and impetuosity, Herat, cd. iii. 30. 10. 
iv. 9. 2 & 14. 25. or perhaps in allusion to the custom of repre- 
senting rivers on coins by the figure of bulls, by genii with horns, 
minotaurs or animals with a human face and horns .f 

On the right hand side of this river stood CANUSIUM, 
now Cotiosa ; the inhabitants, Lanttsini, are called bilingues by 
Horace, Sat. i. 10. 30 because they spoke both Greek and 
Latin ; as was the case in many other towns of Greek extraction 
in that country. The Canusian bread has still the defect Horace 
mentions of being gritty or sandy (lapidosvs), Sat. i. 5. 91. 
which is imputed to the nature of their millstones, made of a 
soft concreted rock, which constitutes the greatest part of the 
coast •, or to their mode of separating the corn from the ear, 
by the trampling of a great number of mares, tied in a string 
by their tails, and whipped round and round. This operation is 
performed in Calabria, or the Te rra di Otranto, by a pair of 
oxen, who drag between them a very heavy rough stoue, that 

* Situate it the foot of a mountain, (tmUU* tf/onsiluj,) l.ucan. v. 377. 
f The water of the AufTdus is said to have t»cen for some time bloovij after the 
battle of Cannx, Flor. ii. 4. 

breaks 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy* 



161 



' breaks the sheaves, and shakes out the grain; Swinburne, These 
methods are nearly the same with those used by the ancients^ 
Plin. xviii. 30.; Col. ii. 21. 5 Varr. i. 52. * 

About four miles down the Aufidus was the village of 
CANNJE, famous for the fourth and greatest victory obtained 
by Hannibal over the Romans, under Terentius Varro and 
Paulus iEmelius, a. u. 536. Liv. xxii. 43 — 50. in the plains 
of Diomede, Id. xxv. 12.; SiL viii. 242. through which a brook 
ran, called Vergellus, which Hannibal crossed by making a 
bridge of the dead bodies of the Romans, Flor. ii. 6. ; Val, Max. 
ix. 2. ext. 2. The Romans and Carthaginians were encamped 
on the south of the Aufidus which the Romans first crossed, 
and then Hannibal ; so that the battle was fought on the north 
side of the river, in a plain, still called " the Field of Blood" 
(Pezzo di Sangue). There has been some dispute about what 
Livy says concerning the position of the two armies, u that the 
Romans looked to the south, and the Carthaginians to the 
north." But the difficulty is said to be solved by examining the 
situation of the place and the course of the river, which, after 
running due east for some time, here makes a sudden turn to 
the south, and describes a very large semicircle. 

The Romans were much incommoded by the dust dri- 
ven upon their faces by a south-east wind, (called Vulturnus^) 
frequent in that hot parched country, {siticulosa Apulia, Horat, 
epod. iii. 16.) 

A number of the Romans fled from the battle to Canusium^ 
where they were received with great hospitality. Liv. Ib. 
52. The chief command in that place was conferred on P. 
Scipio, afterwards called Africanus, then a very young man, 
and Ap. Claudius. Scipio being informed that some young 
noblemen, giving up all for lost, were meditating to leave Italy, 
went to the house where they were assembled ; having got ad- 
mission, he drew his sword, and declared that he would treat 
as enemies such of them as did not swear not to desert their 
country; upon which they all complied, lb. 53. SiL x, 
416, &c. 

Canusium being greatly favoured by the Romans for its fide- 
lity, afterwards became a great city *, but suffered a sad reverse 
on the overthrow of the Roman empire, being cruelly ravaged, 
repeatedly, by the Goths, Saracens, and Normans. 

On the south side of the Aufidus, for twelve miles above 
Canusium, the country is now bare and disagreeable. Then 
there is a range of mountains, some of them shaded with trees, 

* The Canusian sheep were remarkable for the fineness of their wool, yuver.aL 
vi. 149. Plin. viii, 48. Martial, xiv. 155. 

M ^ others 



162 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



others rugged ; and beyond them VENUSIA, now Venos*, 
which stands upon a high level of nine miles in circumference, 
surrounded on every side by precipices. The nature of the soil 
shews it to have been raised by subterranean fires. There is here 
a solfatara or forum Vulcam, resembling that of Puzzuoli, in its 

colour, sulphureous productions, and internal rumblings 

Varro fled to Venusia with part of his army after the defeat at 
Cannse, and was treated with the same hospitality as those at 
Canusium, lb. 54. 

Venusia was equally favoured by the Romans with Canusium. 
They are both now inconsiderable places ; but many more rem- 
nants of antiquity are found at the latter than the former. The 
piece of antiquity, on which the inhabitants of Venosa plume 
themselves most, is a marble bust, placed on a column in the 
great square of that town. This they shew as the effigy of their 
fellow-citizen Horace, but it is not thought genuine. There 
is a fountain at some distance from the town, which some hold 
to be that of Bandusia, celebrated Herat, od. iii. 13. * 

Venusia seems to have been on the confines of Lucania, 
whence Horace says of himself, Lucanus an Appulus, anceps, 
Sat. ii. 1. 34. 

Near Venusia is mount VULTUR, which has every mark 
of having been formerly a volcano. Part of it extended into 
Lucania, hence in Vulture Apulo, on the Apulian part of it, 
and Altricis extra limen Apulia, may denote in Peucetia, beyond 
the limits of Daunian Apulia, in which Horace was born, He- 
rat, cd. iii. 4. 9. 

In the south part of Apulia, called Peucetia, were Achercn- 
tia, on the top of a hill ; Bantia, with its forests (saltus Ban- 
ditti), and Ferentum, lying low {humile), all three not far 
from Venusia, Horat. ib. 

On the sea-shore stood Barium, now Bari, remarkable for 
the abundance and delicacy of its fish (piscosum), Hor. Sat. 
i. 5. 97. Bari became a place of consequence under the Greek 
emperors. It supported a siege for four years against Robert 
Guiscard the son of Tancred the Norman, first Duke of Pu- 
glia, a. 1067. At last it was obliged to capitulate upon the 
defeat of a souadron sent by the Emperor of Constantinople 
to its relief, lc afterwards underwent various turns of fortune. 

South of Barium stood EGNAT1A or Gnatia, the last 
stage mentioned by Horace in his journey to Brundusium, 
Sat. i. 5. 97. very ill supplied with water {limpbis iratis extruc- 
ta), which afterwards proved its destruction. The pretended 

* Venusina digna lucerna y sc. vhia t worthy ot being Lsiicd by the ttUTCS of Horace ( 

composed by lamp. light, "Juvenal, '1.5 1. 

miracle 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 



163 



miracle shewn at this place, of melting incense without fire, 
which Horace ridicules, lb. and Pliny mentions, ii. 107. j-. in. 
is still exhibited, although under a different form, at Naples, 
when the blood of Januarius, the tutelar saint of that city, 
contained in a glass vial, is believed to melt in the hand of a 
priest. 

Near Gnatia is supposed to have been the Matinian mount 
or plain contiguous to the sea, hence Litttts Matinum, Horat. 
od. i. 28. 3. abounding in thyme and flowers fit for bees, lb, 
iv. 2. 27. ; Lucan. ix. 185. Some place it in Calabria, Scholi- 
ast, in Horat, 

VIII. CALABRIA, called also Messapia, from a leader of 
the Greeks who settled there, Plin, iii. 11. s. 16. and before 
that Peucetia, lb. or Japygia, see p. 158. whence a north-west 
wind, favourable for such as sailed to Greece, was called 
Japyxy -ygis, Horat. od. i. 3. 4. because it blew from Calabria 
or Apulia : — forming a peninsula, commonly called the heel 
of the boot ; the south part of which was called Salentina, 
Strab. vi. 282. or Salentini campi, where Idomeneus from Crete 
settled, Virg. jEn. iii. 400. The breadth of the peninsula from 
Tarentum is about twenty-five miles. Plin. iii. n. s. \6. 

The chief towns of Calabria were, BRUNDUSIUM, now 
Brundisi, from which the Romans usually crossed in their way 
to Greece, and landed at Dyrrachium in lllyricum, Plin. iii. ri. 
founded by a colony from Crete, Lucan. ii. 610. v. 406. said to 
have been named from the resemblance of its harbour to the 
head of a stag (brunda denoting a deer's head in the old 
Messapian language, Isidor. xv. i. ; Strabo makes it /3gevTe<nov, 
vi. 282;)j* hence called Curvum Brundusium, Lucan. v. 406. 
This harbour was the best in the Adriatic, and one of the finest 
in the world. It is double ; the outer port is formed by two 
promontories, which gradually diverge from each other like an 
angle, as they advance into the sea. Between the capes lies a 
small island anciently called Pharos, because it has a light-house 
on it to direct mariners in the night-time, like the Pharos of 
Alexandria in Egypt, Mela. ii. 7. now called the Island of St, 
Andrew. This is probably what Livy calls the promontory of 
Brundusium, x. 2. f Within this island, which secures the 
whole road from the fury of the waves, large ships may ride at 

* Brundusium was founded by some Cretans, who fled from Crete with Theseus, 
Lucan.W. 610. Hence its houses are called Minoia tecta, from Minos, the king of 
that country, lb. v. 406. It afterwards became a colony of the Romans, who always 
celebrated the anniversary of their settlement, (Natalis colonics firundusina^ Cic> 
Sext. 63. Att. iv. 1. 

f But some imagine it is here put for the Japygian promontory. 

M 2 anchor, 



» fj 1 The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 

anchor, Luean. ii. 616, &c. At the bottom of the bay the 
hills recede in a semicircular shape, to leave room for the 
inner haven, which, as it were, clasps the city in its arms, or 
rather incircles it in the figure above mentioned. It is very 
deep, and extends in length i\ miles, in breadth 1200 feet 
in the widest part. The hills and the town shelter it on every 
side. The harbour is thought to have been originally produced 
by an earthquake. Julius Cresar, attempting to shut up Pompey 
and his fleet in this place, drove piles into the narrow neck of 
land between the two ridges of hills, and threw earth, trees, and 
ruins of houses into the channel which communicates with 
the two havens, Cas. B. C. i. 25. and had nearly accomplished 
the blockade, when Pompey sailed out and escaped to Greece. 
lb. 28. ; Dio. xli. 12. In the 15th century the prince of Ta- 
rento sunk some ships in the middle of this passage, to prevent 
his enemies from entering the port, and thereby provided a 
resting-place for sea-weeds and sand, which soon accumulated, 
choked up the mouth, and rendered it impracticable for any 
vessels whatsoever. In 1752 the evil was increased, so as to 
hinder even the waves from beating through ; and all commu- 
nication was cut off, except in violent easterly winds or rainy 
seasons, when an extraordinary quantity of fresh water raised 
the level. From that period the port became a fetid green 
lake, full of infection and noxious insects ; no fish but eel 
could live in it, nor any boats ply except canoes made of a 
single tree. The low grounds at each end were overflowed and 
converted into marshes, the vapours of which created every 
summer a real pestilence ; and, in the course of a very few- 
years, swept off, or drove away, the largest portion of the 
inhabitants. From the number of 1 3, 000 they were reduced 
in 1766 to 5000. In 1775 above 1500 died during the au- 
tumn. In former times the air of Brundisi was esteemed so 
wholesome and balsamic, that the convents of Naples used to 
send their consumptive friars to this city for the recovery of 
their health*. Upon an application of the inhabitants for re- 
lief, an attempt has lately been made to open the port afresh, 
which has already been attended with some degree of suc- 
cess. The workmen in cleaning the channel have found 
bom? 1 medals and seals, and have drawn up many of the 
piles that were driven in by Cxsar's men. They are small 
oaks stripped of their bark, and are still as fresh as if they 
had been cut only a month, though buried above eighteen 
centuries, seven feet under the sand. Swinburne. — Little re- 

• Cicero complains bitterly of tho thickness of lue .iix of Uumdusium, even in hi* 
Mm* t {Lo(i frrm+it*! hit rr.jiert ia:e ftrj'.-t erjj,) All. XI. 31. 

1 1 mains 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



165 



mains of ancient Brundusium, but broken pillars, ruins of 
aqueducts, coins, &c. In 1456 great part of the city was 
destroyed by an earthquake. 

There was a shorter passage to Greece from HYDRUN- 
TUM vel Hydrus, -untis, now Otranto, to Appollonia or On- 
cum, in Epire. But as Hydrus was fifty miles farther south 
than Brundusium, and the passage from it not so certain, the 
'latter was preferred, Plin. hi. 1 1. Otranto at present is but 
a small town ; it stands on a hill, and contains only 3000 in- 
habitants. Its little harbour is not so bad, but it might induce 
more people to settle here, as no place on the coast lies so com- 
modious for traffic with Greece. The Adriatic is here but 
sixty miles wide, Pliny says 50. •, iii. 1 1. 5 and in a clear day 
the snowy tops of the Acroceraunian mountains in Epire may 
be distinctly seen.* 

Between Brundusium and Hydrus stood Lupia v. -ia, a Ro- 
man colony ; near which is the modern city Lecce, now 
the capital of this country, a town of considerable extent, but 
thinly inhabited, containing not above 13,000, about twenty- 
four miles distant from Brundisi. 

About eight miles south of Hydruntum was Castrum vel 
Arx Minerva, now Castro, where was a temple of Minerva, 
seen a great way out at sea, Virg. Ain. iii. 531. called also 
Minervium, Veil. i. 15. and south of this Promontorium Japy- 
GIUM vel Salentinum (uxgtx. Ioi7rvyict), Strab. vi. 28 1 . ; Plin.uu 
II.; now the cape of Santa Maria de Leuca, from Leuca, a 
small town near the Cape, Lucan. v. 375. 

On most maps of Italy, a branch of the Apennines is made to 
extend through Calabria to this cape, but improperly. Through 
the whole length of the peninsula there is not a mountain of 
consequence, whence Virgil says Humilem que videmus Ita- 
liam, JEn. iii. 522. Without rivers, and almost without 
rivulets, this country is surprisingly fertile, owing, as it is sup- 
posed, to the vapours which arise from subterraneous lakes or 
reservoirs of water. The existence of these is proved by the 
shallowness of the wells, and by the pools, which appear 
wherever the level is low. All the rain that falls is swallowed, 
up, before it can reach the sea, by large cracks in the rocks, 
called Vora}rgini or Abysses. Swinburne A 

Between the Japygian and Lacinian promontories flows up 
the Sinus Tarentinus, or gulf of Tarentum, the breadth of which 
between the two capes, is 100 miles, Plin/ui. 11. 

* Pyrrhus is said to have thought of making a bridge between the two countries 
over this part of the sea, and after him Varro the lieutenant of Pompey in the war 
against the pirates, Plin.nl 11, j. 16. 

M 3 The 



loG 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 



The first place of note on the west side of Calabria, thirty- 
two miles from the Cape, is Callipolis, now Gallipoli y which 
stands on a rocky island, joined to the continent by a bridge, 
containing about 6000 inhabitants, favourably situated for 
commerce, but never properly encouraged by government. Its 
chief articles of trade are oil and cotton. The people of this 
town are in easy circumstances; but the inhabitants of the 
country are grievously oppressed by feudal tyranny. 

About nine miles north of Gallipoli was Neretum v. Nert- 
ton, now Nardoy containing about 8000 inhabitants. The 
breadth of the peninsula from Nardo to Otranto is about thirty- 
five miles. 

On the north-east corner of the Gulf stood TARENTUM, 
now Tarento, called also Taras, -antis, from Taras its founder, 
Pausan. x. 10. the son of Neptune, lb. its tutelar deity 
[custos)> hence said to be sacred to him, Herat, od. i. 28, 29. 
as Soracte to Apollo, Virg. JEn. xi. 785. Tarentum was 
afterwards seized upon, and in a manner founded anew, by 
Phalantus, the Lacedaemonian, Horat. od.\i.6.\\. and a 
colony of his countrymen, called Parthenii^ from the peculiar 
circumstances of their birth. Justin, iii. 4. Strab. vi. 278. — 
hence called Lacedemomum Tarentum^ Horat. od. iii. 5. fin. ; 
Ovid. Met. xv. 50. ; and Oebalia> from Oeba/us, a king of La- 
cedaemon, the father of Tyndarus, and grandfather of Helen, 
Virg. G. iv. 125. 

Tarentum flourished long as an opulent state before Rome 
became conspicuous. It owed its prosperity to the cultivation 
of commerce, Po/yb. x. 1. Phalantus new modelled the 
government upon an aristocratical plan, in imitation of Lace- 
daemon. But most of the nobles having perished in a war with 
the Japyges, Diodor. xi. 52. democracy was re-established, 
Aristotel. politic, v. 3. Under this form of government the 
inhabitants of Tarentum became very powerful ; they are said 
to have amounted to 300,000. Thirteen considerable cities 
acknowledged their dominion. Their fleet was the greatest in 
those seas ; and they kept in constant pay an army of 30,000 
foot, and 3000 horse. Straboadds 1000 commanders of horse 
[l7T7rugx 0i )y 2 8o. The Tarentines embraced the philosophy 
of Pythagoras, particularly Archytas, who long governed that 
city, and was as distinguished tor his knowledge in astronomy 
as in politics. He seems to have perished by shipwreck near 
the bottom of the Adriatic [Ulyricis undis), Horat. od. i. 28. 
22. on the Matinian shore, lb. 3. Increase of riches produced 
at Tarentum luxury anil effeminacy of m oral s , Juvcv.al. vi. 296. 
hence it is called molle, Horat. Sat. ii. 4. 34. and jmbelxe, 

u 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 167 



Id. ep. i. 7» 45- There were more public festivals than days 
in the year j hence the bravery of the citizens degenerated, and 
it became necessary to employ foreign generals and mercenary 
troops to fight their battles. Thus being attacked by the Ro- 
mans, they implored the assistance of Pyrrhus, king of Epire, 
Liv. epit. xii. as they had formerly asked that of his proge- 
nitor Alexander, Liv. viii. 24. 

In the second Punic war Hannibal took Tarentum by stra- 
tagem, Liv. xxv. 8 — 11. aided by the treachery of some 
of the citizens, Polyb. viii. 19. &c. ; it was retaken by Fabius 
Maximus in a similar manner, Liv. xxvii. 17. & 18. The 
Tarentines were deprived of their liberty, and received a 
Roman colony, Strab. ib. 281.; Veil. i. 15. After the over- 
throw of the Roman empire, this city snared the same fate 
with the rest of Italy. - 

The city stood upon a peninsula, and the citadel projected 
into the sea, being joined to the city by a narrow neck of land. 
On the east the sea flows up into a bay called Mare Piccohy or 
the Little Sea; on the west is the open sea called Mare Grande. 
When Hannibal got possession of the town by stratagem, the 
Romans fled into the citadel, and thus continued masters of 
the port, which communicated with the little sea, and of the 
Tarentine fleet. To remedy that inconvenience Hannibal 
caused the gallies to be dragged by carriages through the city 
into the open sea, or Mare Grande, Liv. xxv. 11. 5 Polyb. viii. 
29. ; Sil. 12. 441. 

The present town is confined to the place of the old citadel, 
which is now an island, the isthmus having been cut through, 
and joined to the continent on the north side by a long bridge 
of seven arches, through which the tide flows with great im- 
petuosity. At each arch is fixed a frame for hanging nets to 
intercept fish as they run up to the little sea with the flow, or 
fall back with the ebb ; and upon this bridge is carried the 
aqueduct that supplies the town with water, brought from the 
distance of twelve miles. Scarce any vestiges of the ancient 
city remain. Of all the temples, gymnasia, theatres, and other 
monuments of its opulence, not a single column exists. Even 
in the time of Strabo the size of the city was much diminished, 
and confined in a great measure to the mouth of the port and 
the citadel, vi. 278. The number of inhabitants at present is 
computed at i8,coo, who live mostly by fishing 5 and, as 
far as their poverty will permit, copy the soft indolent manners 
of their forefathers. Of all the places in Italy, Tarentum 
and Tibur are most celebrated by Horace for their pleasant 
situation, Vet. SchoL in ep. i. 16. 11. 

M 4 Near 



168 



Tfic Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



Near Tarentum flowed the river Galesus, famous for the 
sheep feci on its bank?, covered with skins (pell'it*), Horat. ib. 
to preserve their fleeces, Farr. R. R. ii. 2. 18 ; Columell. vii. 
4. 4. & 5. as was the custom in other places, lb. and still is in 
Spain. These sheep were of a delicate nature and treated 
with particular attention, Col. ibid. 2. & 3. They were often 
bathed in the river Galesus, Martial, ii. 43. iv. 28. which is 
supposed to have had the virtue of softening their wool, Id. v. 
38. 2. as the Clitumnus, to render it white, Virg. G. ii. 146. ; 
Pl'ui. xxxi. 2. There is a difference of opinion among the 
moderns about what was the ancient Galesus. Some suppose 
it a brook called Ccrvcro, which runs into the bay called Mare 
Piccolo or Little Sea, at the north-east corner, about five miles 
from Tarentum, the waters of which are strongly tinged with 
the chalky or marly particles of the soil it runs over, hence 
thought to be called albus, white, by Martial, xii. 64. 3. and 
niger, black, by Virgil, G. iv. 126., from the thick pine groves 
that then shaded its banks, as Propertius, speaking of Virgil, 
says, Tu canis umbrosi subter pifieta Gales i Thyriin et attritis 
Daphnin arundinibus, Thou singest on thy worn or smooth 
reeds, &c. ii. 34. 68. The ground along this rivulet is now 
a wild heath, unless where it is covered with tufts of aromatic 
shrubs or clumps of Carob trees. The Tarentines give the 
name of Galesus to a stream which rises in a delicious vale, 
called Citrezze, only about 300 yards from the sea, and runs 
into the same bay witli the Cervero, a mile nearer Tarento. 
This stream is beautifully shaded and deep, which answers to 
Virgil's epithet of black ; and that of Martial may be supposed 
to allude to the whiteness of the sheep which fed on its banks, 
for Strabo says that the Apulian wool was softer than the Ta- 
rentine, but less bright in the colour (Xa[X7rgx >jttov), vi. 284. 
The only difficulty arises from the shortness of its course, how 
so trifling a rill could be deemed a river, and called Eurotas 
from the river of Lacedxmon, Pulyb. viii. 28. or how numerous 
flocks could wander on its banks, and be washed in its waters. 
D'Ativille and others give the name of Galesus to a river that 
discharges itself into the gulf of Marc Grande, four miles west 
of Tarento. 

The delicate race of sheep so famous for their wool, and 
which the ancients reared with so much care, is now almost 
extinct. Various attempts were made at different times, to 
preserve and restore them ; but the introduction of silk worms 
from the east by King Roger in 1130, proved a fatal check to 
the demand for fine wool, and the heavy load of taxes imposed 
upon this commodity by succeeding princes, completed the 
destruction of the finer breed. 

The 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



The purple dye of Tarentum was very much celebrated. It 
was procured from two sorts of shell-fish, the Murex and the 
Purpura, PHn. ix. 25. s. 41. & 36. s. €0. From the former a 
dark colour was obtained, the latter gave a brighter tint 
approaching to scarlet. The murex generally remains fastened 
to rocks and stones ; the purpura being a fish of prey, is by 
nature a rover, and one of the most voracious inhabitants o£ 
the deep. As the colour of the murex could not stand alone, « 
a certain proportion of purpura juice was mixed with it. We 
read of fleeces being dyed upon the backs of the sheep, but 
remain in the dark as to the method and advantages of that 
process. See Swinburne, section xxxi. 

The country round Tarentum was famous for producing oil 
and honey, Horat. od. ii. 6. 15. as it still is, and Aulon for 
producing wine, Horat. ib. 18. and wool, Martial, xiii. 125. ; 
but the wine of Tarento is not now held in much estimation. 
Some make Aulon a mountain, as the old Scholiast on Horace, 
others a vale. The ancient geographers do not mention it. 

South-east from Tarentum stood RUDLE, the birth-place 
of ENNIUS, Sil. xii. 397. the first eminent poet at Rome, the 
friend of the great Scipio Africanus, Ovid. Art. Ann. iii. 409. 
Hence Horace, by a metonymy, calls the the poems of Ennius 
in praise of Scipio, Calabr^: Pierides, the Calabrian Muses, 
od. iv. 8. 20. and Cicero calls Ennius Rudius homo, Arch. 10. 

On the road between Tarentum and Brundusium, near mid- 
way, stood Uria, Strab. vi. 282. founded by a colony of Cre- 
tans, Herodot. vii. 170. called Uria Messapia, to distinguish it 
from a town of the same name in Apulia, Plin. now Oria, 
romantically situated upon three hills in the middle of a large 
plain, fertile in corn, oil, and cotton. The lands here are cul- 
. tivated at the joint expence of the proprietor and tenant, who 
halve the profits between them. 

South of Uria stood Manduria, taken by Fabius Maximus, 
Liv. xxvii. 15. where now stands Casalnuova, the inhabitants 
of which are noted for eating dog's flesh. Near this is a re- 
markable well, in which the water always remains at the same 
height, and is not altered, whether it be filled with rubbish or 
empty, Plin. ii. 103. ; Swinburne, i. sect. 28. 

North of Uria is a fine modern town called Francavilla or 
Freetown, from the first inhabitants being exempted from taxes 
for ten years, by Philip of Anjou, prince of Tarento, a. 13 10. 
Here, as at Bari, horse flesh is said to be publicly sold in the 

market. Near this terminates the south-east extremity of 

the Apennines. 



IX. LU- 



170 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



IX. LUCANIA, extending from the gulf of Tarentum t<* 
the Tuscan sea, and forming the entrance of the foot of the 
boot: one part of it is now called Basilicata, from the Greek 
emperor Basil II. and the other Calabria Citra, which name 
was given it by the Greek Emperors, to perpetuate the memory 
of ancient Calabria, which they had lost. 

Lucania extended on the Tuscan sea, from the river Silarus 
to the Laus, and on the Tarentine gulf, from the river Bra- 
Aanus to the Sibaris, or to the town Thurii, Strab. vi. 254. j 
Plin. iii. 5. Some extend it farther. 

The chief towns on the Tarentine gulf were, first, after 
crossing the river Bradanus, south-west, METAPONTUM v. 
-us, said to have been founded by the Pylians that sailed from 
Troy with Nestor, Strab. vi. 264. the abode of Pythagoras, 
during the last years of his life, Liv. i. 18.; Justin, xx. 4. near 
the mouth of the river Casuentum, Plin. iii. 11. s. 15. now Ba- 
siento, where Augustus and Antony had an interview, which 
was brought about through the mediation of Octavia, Appian. 
Civ. Bell. v. 726. ; Dio. xlviii. Jin. Some pillars of coarse 
marble of the ancient Doric order, in two rows at the distance 
of eighty feet, ten in one row, and six in the other, are all the 
vestiges which now remain of Metapontum. It stood on the 
skirts of a plain twenty- five miles long, anciently remarkable 
for its fertility, now covered with marshes, and almost uninha- 
bited. Hannibal made this city his head quarters for several 
winters ; on which account, after the retreat of the Cartha- 
ginians, it was punished by the Romans with the loss of its 
liberty. 

Between the rivers Ac'iris, now Agri, and Siris, now Sinn?, 
a little from the sea, stood Heraclea or Heraclia, founded by the 
Tarentines, Strab. vi. 264. ; Liv. viii. 24.*, Diodor. xii. 36.; the 
place where the deputies of the Grecian states in that country 
used to assemble, to consult about their common interests, 
Strab. vi. 280. as those of the states of Gracia Propria did at 
Delphi. 

As the citizens of Heraclea enjoyed all the privileges of 
Roman citizens, [cum civitas esset ttquissimo jure et Jtrdcre,) 
Archias the preceptor of Cicero got himself inrolled a citizen 
of it, Cm* Arch. 4. 

At the mouth of the Siris was a town of the same name, 
the port of Heraclea, Strab. vi. 264. which Pliny makes the 
same with Heraclea, iii. 1 1. Some heaps of rubbish near the 
banks of the Agri, about three miles from the sea, are supposed 
to fix the situation of Heraclea. 

On a peninsula formed by the rivers SibXris, now CosciUy 

and 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy* 171 



and Crathis, now Crater, stood the city SIBARIS, Plin. iii. 
11. founded by the Achagans, Strab. vi. 263. one of the most 
ancient Grsecian settlements in Italy. It became so powerful 
that it ruled over four neighbouring nations, and twenty-five 
cities, and could bring into the field 300,000 men. The walls 
of the capital enclosed a space of six miles and a half, and its 
suburbs extended near seven miles along the Crathis, Ibid. 
The Sybarites were remarkable for their luxury and effeminacy, 
Juvenal, vi. 295. JElian.i. 19. ix. 24. xiv. 20. hence Sybaritica 
mensa, a sumptuous table, which proved their ruin, Ibid. iii. 
43. ; for the people of Croton, under Milo, having defeated 
them with great slaughter, b. C. 572.; Diodor. xii. 9. over- 
whelmed their city by turning the river upon it, which they 
effected in seventy days. This destruction was foretold by the 
priestess of the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and ascribed to their 
having violated the temple of Juno, JElian. iii. 43. A few 
who escaped the slaughter, and attempted to restore their city, 
were cut to pieces by a colony of Athenians and other Greeks, 
who, having removed the city to another place at a small dis- 
tance, called it THURII, v. -ium, from a fountain of that 
name,- Diodor. xii. 10. The Thurians flourished long as an 
independent state ; but being subjected by the Lucanians, and 
oppressed by the Tarentines, they applied to the Romans for 
protection, who sent thither a colony, and called the town 
CoPiiE, Ibid, but the ancient name prevailed, Cic. Att. iii. 15. 
ix. 19. Thurii was the last city to which Charondas of 
Catana, JElian. iii. 17. the famous legislator, prescribed laws, 
and where he died. Having made it capital for any citizen to 
appear in the assembly of the people with a sword, and being 
reminded one day that he had inadvertently brought one, he 
immediately plunged it into his breast, and thus sealed his 
decree with his own blood, Val. Max. vi. 5. ext. 4. Diodorus 
makes Charondas a native of Thurii, and recounts his laws, 
xii. 11 — 20. At Thurii Herodotus resided during the last 
years of his life, Strab. xiv. p. 656. and also for some time 
Lysias the orator. Augustus Caesar was nicknamed Thurinus, 
in his childhood, either from the origin of his family, or from 
his father's having performed some successful exploits in that 
country, Suet. Aug. 7. 

The plains where these illustrious cities stood are now deso- 
late. The rivers not being properly confined overflow their 
banks, and instead of fertilising the fields as formerly, leave 
behind them black pools and stinking swamps, which poison 
the whole circumjacent region. The ancients believed that the 
Crathis made the hair of those that drank of it white and soft ; 

the 



172 



Hie Ancient Divisions of Italy, 



the Sibaris, black, hard, and curled, Plin. xxxi. 2. /. io. 
Strabo says, the Crathis made the hair of those that bathed in 
it yellow or white; and that the Sibaris made those horses that 
drank of it apt to be frightened, vi. p. 263. The Sibarites 
are said to have taught their horses to dance to a particular 
tune. 

The first town of Lucania on the Tuscan sea, south of the 
SlLAKUS, Virg. G. iii. 146.; 5/7. v hi. 581. or Siler, Lucan. 

ii. 426. was PiESTUM, called by the Greeks, Posidonia^ Plin. 

iii. 5. s. 10. thirty miles from Salernum, founded by a colony 
of Dorians, afterwards augmented by the Sibarites, on the Sinus 
PastanuS) now the gulf of Salerno, famous for its rose-bushes, 
which produce roses twice a year, in spring and autumn ; hence 
biferique rosaria P<esti> Virg. G. iv. 1 19. •, Ovid. Pont. ii. 4. 28. 
The ancient walls of Paestum are still standing, almost entire, 
about three miles in circumference, and parts of several temples 
and public buildings, much admired by judges in architecture. 

East from Psestum is mount ALBURNUS, a chain of very 
high mountains ; through a huge chasm in which flows the 
river Tandger or Tanagrus, now Negro. This river rises among 
the Apennines, and having passed the fertile vale of Diano, 
near twenty miles in length, loses itself in the ground by 
several horizontal apertures, through which it oozes, as 
through a sieve, whence the place is called La Criva, a 
sieve. After running below a hill for two miles (Pliny says 
twenty, ii. 103.), it breaks forth again in a spacious cavern, 
called la Pertosa, with dreadful noise, rolling before it huge 
stones and broken trunks of trees. From being a limpid stream 
its colour is changed to a muddy white. Then it winds charm- 
ingly through thickets of trees and open meadows, under 
lofty rocks and impending groves of oak, (per Alburnum ilici- 
bus virentem, Virg. G. iii. 146.) This beautiful vale attends 
it to the gulf of Pesto. In summer its waters are greatly di- 
minished, hence called siccus by Virgil, lb. 151. 

South of this is the river HALES, v. HeUs y Cic. Fam. 
vii. 20. ; Att. xvi. 7. ; and near it, the town VELIA, Elea, or 
He/ia y founded by part of the same colony of Phocenses^ that 
built Marseilles, Strab. vi. priftc. the city of ZENO, the philo- 
sopher, called Eleates, Cic, Tusc. ii. 22. ; Nat. D. iii. 33. to 
distinguish him from Zctio the founder of the stoics, born at 
Citttum or Citium, a town in the island Cyprus. 

Near Velia was a lake, {focus Velinus,) Cic. Att. iv. 15.; 
its harbour (portus Velinus), Virg. JEn. vi. 366. was on a 
small bay of the same name, opposite to two islands called 
Oenotrides, from the Oenotri, the ancient inhabitants of this 

part 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



part of Italy, namely, Pontia and Iscia ; and south of these 
Pandateria v. -taria, places of banishment for illustrious Ro- 
mans^ Suet. Tib. 53. & 54.5 Cat. 15.*, Tacit. Annal. I. 53. 
xiv. 63. On the south extremity of the bay was the harbour 
and promontory of Palinitrus, said to have been named from 
the pilot of iEneas, Virg. JEn. vi. 380. who was drowned 
near it, lb. v. fin. 

South of the prom. Palinttrus was the bay called Latjsintjs, 
now the gulf of Po/icastro, or Scalea, from two adjoining 
towns. Into the top of it runs the Melpes, now Melfa, near 
which was the town Buxentum, called by the Greeks Pyxus, 
Strab. vi. ink. a Roman colony, Liv. xxxiv. 45. xxxix. 23. and 
ten miles south of it, Blanda, Id. xxiv. 20. Then the river 
Laus, the southern boundary of Lucania, on which, a little 
above the sea, stood a town of the same name, a colony from 
Sibaris, Strab. vi. init. 

The interior towns of Lucania were Attnum, on the 

river Tanager v. -grus now Negro, near the place where that 
river sinks under ground, (in Atinate campo, Plin. ii. 103. 
S. 106.) ; Aternum, on the Silarus ; Buczno or Bulcino, on the 
game river j not far from it, Marsico ; north of it, Potentia, now 
Potenza. — Towards the Tarentine gulf, Grumentum, Liv. 
xxiii. 27. Nerulum, Id. ix. 20. Lagaria, said to have been 
founded by Epeus, the framer of the Trojan horse, and a 
colony of Phocenses, Strab. vi. 263. 

X. BRUTTII. — The part of Italy south of the rivers Sibaris 
and Laus, was called, from the name of the people that inha- 
bited it, BRUTTII, Liv. xxvii. 16. 25. & 53. or ager Brut- 
TIUS, Sallust. Cat. 42. and Bruttia tellus, Sil. xvi. i. but not 
Bruttium ; now Calabria Citra. 

The towns near the Tuscan sea, south of the river Laus y 

were CerilU v. -z, Sil. viii. 580. Several miles south of 

this, and at some distance from the sea, Pandosia, on the 
river Acheron j in which river Alexander king of Epire, who 
came to the assistance of the Tarentines, perished b. C. 324* 
and so fulfilled the prediction of the oracle of Jupiter at 
Dodona, (sortes Dodonxi Jovis eventu affirm-avit,) by which he 
had been deceived, Liv.v'm. 24. ; Strab. v. 256. Near Pan- 
dosia, on the south, was CONSENTIA, which Strabo calls 
the capital of Bruttii, lb. and where the body of Alexander, 
after being dreadfully mangled by the enemy, was buried, Lin* 
ibid, now Cosenza ; the inhabitants were called Consentini, Cic. 
Fin. i. 3. 

South-west of this was Terim on the Terinsean gulf, now 



174 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



the gulf of 5/. Euphemia, about forty miles square, Strab. ib. 
Plin. iii. 5. near the river OcxnUrns. South of it Temesa, or 
Tewsa, a Roman colony, Liv, xxxiv. 45. and Lametia on the 
small river Latnelvs, whence the same bay is called Sinus 
Lametinus ; also Vibonensis, Cic. Att. xvi. 6. from VIBO, a iown 
on the south side of it, lb. iii. 3. anciently called Hippo, sir- 
named Valentia % by the Romans, Strab. vi. 256. ; Plin* iii. 5. 
now Monte Leone. 

In this bay are three small islands called Ithacesle, from 
Ulysses having built a watch-tower on one of them, Plin. iii. 7. 
/. 13. At die bottom of the bay on the south, was Portus 
Herculis s and a place called ad Tropaa^ Strab. ibid, now Trcpea, 
South of this promontory is the river Metaurus s now Marro, at 
the mouth of which was Portus Orestis, and Mcdenm or Medma. 

South of this was the promontory, or, according to Pliny, 
the town SCYLL^EUM, and near it the river Cratais -wJr/J 
said to have been the mother of SCYLLA, Plin. iii. 5. a 
female monster, supposed by the poets to be confined in a dark 
cave under this promontory, as it is thought, and to draw ships 
upon the rocks, that she might devour those on board. This 
monster, in the uppermost part exhibited the appearance of a 
beautiful virgin down to the waist ; in the lowest part, a Pristis 
or huge fish with a forked tail, {cauda bifida)) like that of a 
dolphin ; and from the middle (ex utero) the heads of dogs or 
wolves burst forth howling, Virg. JEn. iii. 424. the noise of 
which animals, Justin says, the frightened mariners imagined 
they heard amidst the dashing of the waves at the foot of the 
rock, iv. I. * 

Modern Travellers inform us, that here, when a tempest 
rages, the noise of the billows driven into the broken cavities 
is truly dreadful ; and at the distance of two miles, even when 
there is scarcely any wind, a murmur and noise is heard like a 
confused barking of dogs, Spallat:zar,i, vol. iv. p. 170. 

On both sides of this rock stood the town of SCILLA, 
which was destroyed in the terrible earthquake on the 5th of 
February 1783. A considerable part of the inhabitants, who 
to save themselves from the falling houses at night, repaired to 
the beach, were in a moment swept into eternity by an inun- 
dation of the sea, to the number of 2743. This earthquake 
proved fatal almost to the whole province. Near 40,000 per- 
sons perished in the southern part of Italy and opposite coast of 
Sicily, by repeated shocks on different days of the months of 
February Mid March. 8w$nburt$i f ii. fid* 60. 

• By means of these sea-dogs (car.es marini vel tttrultt) the is said to have torn iu 
piece* ihe manner* of UIvjscs, Virg* Set, vL 77. 

14 Next 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



175 



Next to Scylleum is the promontory CiENYS, opposite to 
the Sicilian promontory PELORUS, at the distance of twelve 
stadia, or a mile and a half, Pirn, tst Strab. ibid. Near this 
was Posidonium, a town or temple of Neptune, and a pillar 
called Columna Rhegia by Pliny, and Rhegina by Strabo 
(TrjyiW (mjAis), twelve miles and a half from Rhegium, lb. 
where the straits are narrowest, about six stadia, not quite a 
mile over, Sirab. Ib. 

RHEGIUM, now Rheggio, a very ancient city, founded by 
a colony from Chalcis in Eubsea, Strab. ib. said to have been 
named from the disjunction of Sicily from the continent by an 
earthquake, (interfuso mari avulsa,) Plin. iii. 8. s. 14. So Virgil, 
JEn. iii. 414. (a rumpendo, Festus, ano ts payrjvai, Strabo, vi. 
258.) mentioned in the voyage of the apostle Paul, Acts, xxviii. 
13. 324 miles south-east from Capua. The country around 
Rheggio is delightful, and the views on every side equal to 
those at Naples. The plains towards the Apennines are covered 
with orange, citron, olive, mulberry, palm trees, &c. under 
whose shade vast quantities of vegetables of all sorts grow, be- 
ing refreshed by numerous meandering streams. The hills that 
skirt the great chain of mountains abound with chesnut trees, 
producing very large and sweet fruit, which the inhabitants 
dry, grind, knead into a paste, and use in place of bread. 
The Faro, (/return Siculum,) lined with villages and towns, 
seems a noble river, winding between two bold shores. At 
Rheggio it becomes considerably broader. Wherever a hole 
is made in the sands, though within a foot of the sea, fresh 
water bubbles up. 

Rhegium was the birth-place of Ibycus, famous for his amo- 
rous verses, Cic. Tusc. iv. 33. who having fallen in among rob- 
bers, and being just about to be murdered by them, observing a 
flock of cranes flying over his head, declared that these birds 
would be the avengers of his death, whence Statius calls him, 
volucrum precator, Silv. v. 3. 152. Afterwards, while the rob- 
bers, were sitting in the market-place of Rhegium, a number 
of cranes happened to fly over that place, whereupon some of 
the robbers said in jest, Behold the avengers of Ibycus. This being 
overheard raised suspicion. They were therefore apprehended, 
and being put to the rack, confessed the crime, and were exe- 
cuted, Suidas ; hence the proverb Ibycigrues, when a criminal is 
unexpectedly detected. Thus Ausonius, Ibycus ut periit, vindepc 
fuit aliivolans Grus, Eidyll. de histor. 12. — Near Rhegium is a 
cape of the same name. 

About six miles and a half east from Rhegium is the promon- 
tory LEUCOPETRA, so named from its white stone, Strabo, 

vi. 259. 



He 



The Ancient Divisions of Ilahj. 



vi. 259. now Capo dcW Armi t whither Cicero was driven bac.< 
by cross winds, when he attempted to sail from Syracuse for 
Athens after the death of Cxsar, Cic. Phil, i. 3. and whence, 
having received favourable news from Rome, he returned to 
the city, Att. xvi. 7. Here the ridge of the Apennines ter- 
minates and sinks into the sea, and is supposed to rise again at 
Taurcmemum now Taormina y in an oblique line on the Sicilian 
ehorc, Lucan. ii. 437. 

West from this is the promontory of Hercules, now Caps 
de Spartivento, the most southern point of Italy •, then, on the 
Ionian sea y at a little distance, the promontory Zephyrium y so 
named, because it had a harbour exposed to the west winds, 
(Zepbyri), Strab. vi. 259. near which was the city LOCRI, 
hence called Locri Epizephyriiy lb. and Plin. iii. 5. to distin- 
guish it (or the inhabitants, who were also called Locri v. Lo~ 
crenses) from the Locri Ozola in Greece, by a colony of whom 
it was founded, soon after the foundation of Croton and Sy- 
racuse, Strab. ib. or rather from the Locri Epicnemidiiy or, as 
Virgil calls them, Naryciiy from Naryx y -ycis, one of their 
towns, JEn. iii 399., hence Ovid calls this city Narycia, Met. 
xv. 705. It stood on the brow of a hill called Esopis, Strab. 
ib. where, as it is thought, the small town Geracc now stands. 
The Locri resided three or four years on the promontory be- 
fore they founded their city. They were assisted in building it 
by the Syracusans. It stood at the distance of 600 stadia, 
about 75 miles from Rhegium. The Locri are said to have 
been the first people in the world that used written laws, 
which ZALEUCUS composed for them from the laws of the 
Cretans, Lacedaemonians, and Athenians. Zaleucus annexed a 
certain penalty to each law, which before his time had been 
left to the discretion of the judges. These laws were few and 
simple, but rigidly observed. This Strabo commends, and 
adds, in the words of Plato, that litigations and crimes abound 
where there are most laws, as diseases do where there are many 
physicians, vi. 260. Diodorus says that Zaleucus was a native 
of Locri, and a disciple of Pythagoras. In the preface to his 
laws he first of all recommends to his countrymen a firm belief 
in the existence and providence of the gods ; that they are not 
pleased with the sacrifices of the wicked, but with the just and 
virtuous actions ol the good, Diodcr. xii. 20. It w.is ordained 
that any one who had a new law to propose, should appear in the 
assembly of the people with a rope about Ins neck, to be strangled 
immediately if his proposal should be rejected. This law Dio- 
dorus ascribes to Charoiulas, xii. 17. The punishment decreed 
by Zaleucus against adultery was the loss oi both eyes j to which, 

when 



The Ancient Divisions of * Italy. < 177 

when his own son had subjected himself, and all the citizens, 
out of respect for the father, wished to exempt the son, Za» 
leucus, that he might at the same, time maintain the authority of 
the law, and pay some regard to the intercession of the people, 
first caused one of his own eyes to be put out, and then one of 
his sons, JElian. xiii. 24. ; Val Max. vi. 5. ext. 3. 

The Locrians formed an alliance with the tyrants of Syra- 
cuse, and received into their city the younger Dionysius, when 
expelled by Dion. He repaid their hospitality with ingratitude, 
by insulting their virgins, Justin, xxi. 2. for which, after his 
departure, they took dreadful vengeance on his wife and daugh- 
ters, whom he left behind him, Strab. ib. In the war with 
Pyrrhus the Locrians joined the Romans ; on which account, 
that king, in his return from Sicily to Tarentum, having taken 
their town, pillaged the temple of Proserpine of its treasures. 

But his fleet being soon after overtaken by a storm, all the 
ships which carried the sacred money were driven on their coasts. 
Pyrrhus, therefore, considering this as a judgment from hea- 
ven for his impiety, ordered the money to be restored. But 
it was observed that none of his undertakings ever afterwards 
prospered, Liv, xxix. 18. 

After the battle of Cannse the Locrians revolted to Hannibal, 
Liv. xxii. 61. xxiii. 30. But although in these passages they 
are said to have revolted (defecisse), yet they seem not to have 
admitted a Carthaginian garrison, till constrained by Amilcar, 
who had surprised a great number of the citizens, unarmed, 
without the walls, id. xxiv. 1. They were attacked a few years 
after by the Consul Crispinus, without success, xxvii. 27. The 
town was defended by two citadels. One of these being taken 
by a party of Romans sent thither by Scipio, partly through 
treachery and partly by force, the other citadel was vigorously 
defended by Amilcar and the Carthaginians, to whose support 
Hannibal came in person with part of his army. The populace 
in the city, which lay between the two citadels, had declared 
for the Romans. Scipio being informed of this critical state 
of affairs at Locri, sailed thither with his fleet from Messana. 
Upon this Hannibal withdrew his army, and the garrison soon 
made their escape after him, Liv. xxix. 6. & 7. 

The Locrians being grievously oppressed by Pleminius, whom 
Scipio left as governor of the town, sent ambassadorstocomplain 
to the senate, Ib. 16. who restored to them their liberty and 
laws. The Roman garrison was withdrawn : Pleminius and 
his associates were punished, Ib.21. The temple of Proserpine 
being again pillaged, the senate, always attentive to every thing 
that concerned religion, gave orders that the money, if found, 

N should 



178 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



should be restored \ if not, that the loss should be made up, 
Liv. xxxi. 12. 

There are several rivers mentioned near Locri, about which 
the moderns are not agreed ; ButhrotuSy Liv. xxix. 7. the 
Halexy running through a deep valley, Strab. vi. 260. and the 
Sagra, near which 10,000 Locrians and Rhegians defeated 
130,000 (Wotoniatte, lb. 26 1.; Cic. Nat. D. ii. 2. 

Near this stood Caulon, or Caulonia, in a lofty situation, 
whence Caulonis akces, Virg. JEn. iii. 553., founded by a 
colony of Achaeans, and destroyed by the Campani, allies of 
the Romans, in the war with Pyrrhus, Pausan. vi. 3. hence 
Pliny speaks of vestigia eppidi Caulonis, iii. 10. s. 15. and 
Strabo says it was deserted, lb. Its site is now occupied by 
CastelvLterc, three miles from the sea. 

North-east of this are Consilinum castrum, and the prom. Con- 
eintum, Plin. ib. ; Ovid. Met. xv. 704. now cape di Stilo> which, 
with cape Spartivento, forms the bay of Locri. It also, with 
the Lacinian promontory, forms the Sinus Scylacius, or Scyla- 
cian bay ; on the middle of which stood Scylacium v. -eum y or 
Scylktium, now Squi/Iace, founded by a colony from Athens, 
Plin. iii. 10. s. 15. on the verge of a rocky mountain, sloping 
to the east, about three miles from the sea, called Navifragum 
by Virgil, iii. 553. As there are here no hidden rocks or ap- 
parent dangers to the approach of vessels, it is supposed Virgil 
confounds it with the promontory Scyllacaeum on the Tuscan 
sea. But this is not consistent with the usual exactness of that 
poet. Others explain the epithet from the first houses of the 
place being built with the fragments of the ships of Ulysses 
wrecked on this coast, Scrv. in he. Scylacium was the birth- 
place of Cassiodorus, a statesman of great abilities under Theo- 
doric, and a respectable writer, who died A. D. 562, aged 100. 
North of this was a town and port called Castra H.innibalis> 
where the breadth of Italy is the least, it being not above 
twenty miles from thence to the Ter'mcan bay on the Tuscan 
sea, Plin. ib. Here Dionysius attempted to build a wall across 
the Isthmus, to secure to himself the country south of it, lb. 
but the Lucanians, with whom he was then at war, prevented 
it, St nib. vi. 261. 

In this country, when any fray happens, if one of the com- 
batants run away and lock himself up in his house for safety, 
and liis adversary beat for entrance with his foot, it is understood 
that he is incensed beyond measure, and means to give no quar- 
ter so when an ollieer beats violently at the door of a debtor, 
it is considered as the last summons, without any farther hope 
of mercy. Hence may be explained the meaning of Horace, 

to Od. 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



179 



Od. i. 4. 13. — The young Calabrian peasants are still trained in 
the same hardy manner as the masculine offspring of the rustic 
soldiers of the ancient Romans, and after the labour of the 
day always bring home a faggot of wood to their mother, be- 
fore they presume to pass the threshold, Id. iii. 6\ 37. The 
mothers and wives of sailors also express the same marks of 
longing for the return of their sons and husbands, which that 
poet so beautifully describes, Od. iv. 5. 9. 

There are several streams of rivers which run into the gulf 
of Squillace, making bold breaks in the hills. Pliny mentions 
Carcines, Crotalus, Semirus, Arocha, Targines, iii. 10. There 
are in it three promontories, which Strabo calls Japygum pro- 
montoriay vi. 261. 58. 

Then follows the promontorium L ACINIUM, now Cape della 
Colonne, which, with the promontory of Salentum or St. Maria 
di Leuca> forms the mouth of the Tarentine gulf, 70 miles 
wide, some say 100, Plin. iii. 11. Pliny extends the bay to 
the Acroceraunian mountains in Epire 75 miles, including also 
the Adriatic, Ibid, but what is below the Salentine promontory 
properly belongs to the Ionian sea. 

• East from this promontory is a small island supposed to be 
the island of Calypso, Plin. iii. 10. j-. 15. which Homer calls 
Ogygia, Odyss. H. 244. now a barren rock ; and south of it 
the island of Castor and Pollux {insula Dioscuron), ten miles 
from land ; and some others, Plin. ibid, which now do not 
appear, or are so small as to be unworthy of notice. 

On the Lacinian promontory stood a famous temple of Juno r 
hence called Diva Lacinia, Virg. JEn. iii. 552. where Pliny 
says the ashes remained immoveable on the altar in the open 
air, even although it blew a storm, ii. 107.5 so Livy, xxiv. 3. $ 
Val. Max. i. 8. ext. 18. 

This temple was revered by all the nations around, Liv, 
xxiv. 3. and therefore enriched with many valuable presents, 
Strab. vi. 261. It was surrounded with a thick grove and fine 
'pastures, which produced a great revenue, Liv. ib. Hannibal 
is said first to have violated this temple at his departure from 
Italy, by slaying in it a number of Italians who refused to ac- 
company him to Africa, Id. xxx. 20. 

O. Fulvius Flaccus, the censor, wishing to cover a temple 
at Rome, which he had vowed to Fortune, with marble tiles 
or flags, unroofed one half of the temple of Lacinian Juno for 
this purpose ; but the senate being informed of it, ordered the 
tiles to be restored. They were therefore carried back, but no 
artist could be found to replace them properly, Liv. xliih 3. 

N 2 Six 



ISO 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



Six miles from this temple, Liv. xxiv. i. Strabo says i$q 
stadia from Lacinium, vi. 262. stood the city of CROTON, or 
Croto, now Cotrone, founded by a body of Achseans in their re- 
turn from the Trojan war, on the river E-.arus, Strab. vi. 262.* 
Near it was also another river called Neathus> because the ships of 
the Achaeans, when they landed to explore the country, arc ^aid 
to have been burnt by the Trojan women accompanying them, 
that they might not be again forced to sea, Ib. as the ships of 
iEneas were burnt for a similar reason by the matrons in his 
fleet, JEn. v. 654. &c. 

The inhabitants of Croton seem to have paid great attention 
to athletic exercises, as at one Olympiad all the victors, seven 
in number, were natives of that city, Strab. ib. and hence it 
was said, •* that the last of the Crotonia/es was the fir^t of the 
Greeks." The vigour of the men and the beauty of the women 
were ascribed to the influence of the climate, Ibid. The glory 
of Croton was greatly increased by the school of Pythagoras, 
who resided long in that place, lb. Justin says twenty years, 
xx. 4. The effects of his instructions were astonishing. 
He chiefly recommended to the youth frugality and hardiness, 
the love of knowledge and of virtue, lb. MILO, the most 
famous athleta we read of, was one of his scholars. "Wonder- 
ful instances of his strength are recorded, Pausan. vi. 14. In 
a meeting of philosophers, when by the failure of a pillar the 
edifice threatened to fall, Milo is said to have supported it, and 
saved them all, Strab. vi. 263. No one could move him from 
his place, Plin. vii. 20. nor force a pomegranate from his hand, 
(prater amicamj) ./Elian, ii. 24. He was six times a victor at 
the Olympic games, Diodor. xii. 9. Confidence in his strength, 
however, proved fatal to him, Juvenal, x. 10.; for travelling 
alone through a wood, he perceived a tree cleft with wedges ; 
attempting with his hands and feet to tear it asunder, the wedges 
fell out, and the tree closing upon him, he could not extricate 
himself. Thus he became the prey of wild beasts, Strab. 
ib. ; Val. Max. ix. 12. ext. 9. ; Gel/, xv. 16.; Ovid, in Hilda 
611. Pausanias says, of wolves, which abounded in that 
country, Ibid. 

Under Milo, Croton was in its most flourishing state. Its 
walls inclosed a circumference of twelve miles, Liv. xxiv. 3. 
Of all the colonies sent out from Greece, it alone assisted the 
mother country when invaded by the Persians. The loss sus- 
tained in the battle against the Sybarites, and the consecpaences 

* Ovid says it was founded by one Myscclos, a naative of Argos, Met. xv. iy. 
who named it from one Crote OK Croton, the entertainer of Herculej, who was buried 
there, lb. 30. fc jj. 

of 



The Ancient Divisions of Italy, 



181 



of success, proved fatal to Croton. Riches introduced luxury, 
which by degrees contaminated the virtue of its inhabitants. 
Not long after they were defeated by the Locrians, who were 
less corrupt, with nearly the same inequality of numbers with 
which they had prevailed against the Sybarites, there being 
only 15,000 Locrians against 120,000 Crotonians, Justin. 
xx. 3. This stroke, however, restored them to their former 
virtue, and enabled them to make a brave, though unsuccessful 
resistance, against Dionysius of Syracuse, lb. 5. who took their 
citadel by stratagem,- Liv. xxiv. 3. They suffered much in the 
war with Pyrrhus ; so that in the time of Hannibal they could 
not muster above 20,000 men, Liv. xxiii. 30. and scarcely 
one half of the city was inhabited, lb. xxiv. 3. It was there- 
fore easily taken by the Bruttii^ who were in alliance with 
Hannibal ; but the citadel was defended by the nobles of the 
place, who, as was the case at that time in all the states of 
Italy, for what reason it is not said, favoured the Romans, and 
the populace the Carthagians, lb. 2. The Crotoniates being 
hard pressed, at last agreed to retire to Locri, and the city 
was given to the Bruttii, lb. 3. 

Croton never made any figure after the second Punic war. 
The Greeks, however, recovered possession of it, and a Ro- 
man colony was sent thither, Liv. xxxiv. 45. It is now an in- 
considerable place. The Esaro, which anciently flowed through 
the centre of the town, Liv. xxiv. 3. now runs in a low stony 
bed, at a distance, north of the gates. In summer the climate 
is said to be unhealthy. It has very little commerce j its prin- 
cipal commodities are cheese and corn. 

At a few miles distance from Croton stood Petilia, or Pete- 
lia, founded by Philoctetes, from Melibcca, a city in Thessaly 
^at the foot of mount Ossa, Strab. vi. 254. on a rugged moun- 
tain now Strorigoli, said by Strabo to belong to Lucania, lb. 
but by Pliny, to the Bruttii, who joins with it mount Clibanus, 
iii. 10. The inhabitants signalized their fidelity to the Ro- 
mans in the war with Hannibal, Liv. xxiii. 20." nor did they 
surrender, till after having endured a siege of several months, 
they were forced to submit by famine, lb. 30. In a valley near 
this place Marcellus, the illustrious rival of Hannibal, was cut 
off by an ambuscade, Liv. xxvii. 28. 

The south part of Italy was anciently called MAGNA 
GR^ECIA, Plin. iii. 5. ; Strab. vi. 253. ; Ovid. Fast, iv. 64. ; 
Polyb.ii. 39. or Major, Liv. xxxi. 7. ; Justin, xx. 2. also ve- 
tus et magna, (vuXulu 7.0L1 pzy&iX^) Polyb.m. 118. But this 
name had fallen into disuse in the time of Cicero, Orat. ii. 37. 

N 3 iii. 34. 



182 



Tlic Ancient Divisions of Italy. 



iii. 34. How much of Italy it comprehended is uncertain. 

Seneca says the whole coast of the Tuscan sea was called by 
that name, ad Helv. 6. and Strabo extends it also to Sicily, 
Ibid. Servius on Virgil says that Italy was called jxeyoAq 'EXKag, 
because all the cities lrom Tarentum to Cumse were founded 
by the Greeks. Livy seems to restrict it to the coast between 
Tarentum and Locri, xxii. 61. but mentions also the coast of the 
Tuscan sea, viii. 27. and makes the coast of the lower sea pos- 
sessed by the Greeks to extend from Thurii to Naples and Gum*, 
IX. 19. He always distinguishes the Grecian states from 
their Italian neighbours, Ibid ; thus the people of Croton and 
Locri, from the Bruttii, Ibid. & xxiii. 30. xxiv. 1. & 2. the peo- 
ple of Tarentum and Heraclea, from the Messapii and Lurani, 
viii. 24. &c. When Gracia Magna therefore is mentioned, 
the Grecian states in Italy only are to be understood, Cic. 
ibid. ; Ptolemai.m. 1. Livy calls Greece Proper Gr.ecia Ul- 
terior, vii. 26. and a slave in Plautus calls the country of the 
Greeks in Italy Giuecia Exotica, Menach. ii. 1. 12. in allu- 
sion to the custom of the Greeks calling the people of all other 
nations except their own, Barbarians. The epithet Magna is 
supposed to have been given it by the Romans on account of 
its vicinity, Scaliger. in Fest. Pliny says, that a small part of 
Italy was called Grxcia Magna, on account of the fertility of its 
soil and the excellence of its climate, iii. 5. ; and Festus says, 
Italy (in general) was called Major Gracia, because there were 
in it many and great states that came from Greece. Perhaps the 
name originated from these states being superior in power and 
extent to their mother countries. 

Strabo says, that in his time, except the cities Tarentum, 
Rhegium, and Naples, all the rest had assumed foreign cus- 
toms or become barbarous (exj88j8ap/3ae»<r$ai), Ibid. Cicero 
mentions these as Greek cities, and adds Locri and Heraclea, 
pro. Arch. 5. 

Augustus divided Italy into eleven parts or regions, Plin. 
iii. 5. /. 6. Jin. 19. s. 23. But this division was not regard- 
ed after his death ; only the name of Gallia Cisalpina was ge- 
nerally discontinued, and that of Italy extended nearly to its 
present limits. 

Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the Forum, called MILLI- 
AR1UM AUKEUM, where all the public ways terminated. 
The miles, however, were not reckoned from it, but from the 
gates of the city, along all the roads to the limits of the em- 
pire, and marked on stones , hence lapis, a stone, is put for a 

mile. 



The PvhUc Ways through Italy. 1 %% 

mile. Af smaller distances there were stones for travellers to 
rest on, and to assist those who alighted to mount their horses, 
for the ancient Romans did not use stirrups. From the prin- 
cipal ways there were cross-roads [diverticula), which led to 
some less noted place, to a country villa, or the like j whence 
redire ex diverticula in viam, to return from a digression to the 
principal subject. * 

The public ways were named either from the persons who 
first laid them out, or from the places to which they led. The 
chief of them were, 

Via APPIA, begun by Appius Claudius, the Censor, a. XL 
441. ; Liv. ix. 29. ; Diodor. xx. 36. ; called Regina viarum, 
Stat. Si/v. ii. 2. 12. extending from the porta Capena, first to 
Capua, and from thence through Samnium and Apulia to 
Brundusium, Strab. v. 233. about 360 miles, Id. vi. 283. 
Appius carried it no farther than Capua, above 130 miles, Fron- 
tin.princ.de aqu&d. : and indeed it is hardly credible that he could 
have carried it so far during the course of one censorship, al- 
though he continued in office beyond the usual time of eigh- 
teen months, Liv. ix. 33. By whom, or at what time it was 
completed is uncertain. The chief towns and stages (man- 
stones) between Rome and Brundusium were, Aricia, Forum 
Appii, Tarrac'ina, Fundi, Minturna, Sinuessa, Capua; Caudium, 
Beneventum, Equotuticum, Herdonia, Canusium, Barium, Egnatia, 
BRUNDUSIUM. Between Forum Appii and Terracina, 
there was, along the road, a canal or ditch, through the palus 
Pontina, v. Pomptina (ox palus Satura, Virg. j^En. vii. 801.), 
on which travellers used to sail in a boat drawn by a mule, 
Horat. Sat. i. 5. 9. — 25. chiefly in the night-time, Strab. v, 
233. That part of the Appian way is now quite impassable, 
from the augmentation of this marsh, the exhalations of which 
are so noxious, that it is dangerous to sleep near it a single 
night. Travellers, therefore, are now obliged to make a cir- 
cuit by Casa Nuova and Piperno, up towards the foot of the 
Apennines. Several parts of the Via Appia still remain entire. 
It is covered with broad stones so artfully joined, that they 

appear like one stone. There was another way which led to 

Brundusium, called Via Minucia or Numicia, Horat. Ep. 1. 
18. 20. but by what places it passed is uncertain. The old Scho- 
liast says, it went through the country of the Sabines. 

Via FLAMINIA, extending through Etruria and Umbria 
to Arimmum; made by C. Flaminius the Censor, a. U. 533, 
Liv»Epit. xx. ; Strabo says, by Flaminius the consul, v. 218. 
the colleague of M. iEmilius Lepidus, a. U. 566, Liv. xxxviih 

* A diverticula refcetatur fabula^ Juveyal, XV. 7a. 

N 4 42. 



184 



The Public Ways through Italy. 



42. repaired by Augustus Suet. Aug. 30.; Dio. liii. 22. This 
road was extended by ^Emilius Lcpidus, the consul above men- 
tioned, from Ariminum to Bcnonia, and from thence to Aqui- 
leia, neat the foot of the Alps, whence it was called Via 
./EMILIA, St fab. ib. but Pliny gives a diiTerent account, 
xxxix. 2. There was another Via tEMILIA, through Pisx 
and Luna to Sabata, and from thence to Dertona in Liguria, 
made by ^Emilius Scaurus, who dug a navigable canal from 
Placentia to Parma, Strabi, ibid. * 

Via AURELIA went along the coast of Etruria, Cic. Cat. 
ii. 4. and farther from the sea •, Via CASSIA, in the middle 
between the Via Aurelia and Flamima, Cic. Phil. xii. 9. ; when 
or by whom they were made is uncertain, 

There were other roads in Etruria near the Via Flaminia, or 
falling into it, as, Via Clodia, v. Claudia, Ovid. Pont. i. 8. 
Annia, Augusta, Cornelia, Ciminia, &c. known only 
from inscriptions. There was a road which led from Cremona 
to Mantua and Verona, called Via Posthumia, mentioned by 
Tacitus, Hist. iii. 21. 

Of the roads south of the Tiber the most noted, next to the 
Via Appia, were, the Via VALERIA, leading from Tibur to 
the country of the Marsi, and to Corflniiim, the capital of the 
Peligni, Strab. v. 237. & 238. and the Via LATINA, running 
in the middle between the two former, and falling into the 
Via Appia, at Casinum y or rather Casillnum, Strab, ib. often 
mentioned by Livy, ii. 39. x. 36. xxii. 12. xxvi. 8. 

The way by which the Sabines brought their salt from the 
sea over the bridge of the Anio, was called Via SALARIA, 
Festus. Liv. vii. 9. ; Tacit. Hist. iii. 82. beginning from the 
porta CoJiina, and not of great length, Strab. v. 228. 

There is a Via Campana^ mentioned by Suetonius, Aug. 94. 
the direction of which is uncertain. 

The principal ways named from the towns to which they 
led were, Via NoMENTANA, to Nomentum, called also Ficul- 
NENSISj Liv. iii. 52.; Suet. Ner. 48. falling into the Via Salaria, 
Strab. ib. — TlBURTINA, to Tibur, where the Via Valeria 
began; CoLLATINA, to Collatia ; Pr.ENESTINA, to Pr&nestc ; 
Labicana, or Lavk ana, to Labicum, Liv. iv. 41. 5 Gabina, 
to (iabiiy Liv. ii. it.; ArdeatTna, to Ardea, Festus; Lau- 
RENTINA, to Laurcntum \ and Ostiensis, to Ostia, Plin. Ep. 
ii. 17. 

All these roads were made and repaired at the public ex- 
pence, Liv. ix. 43. ; Suet, Aug. 30. 

• Then wraj n ro«d through the country of the Alhhrtgety nude by Cn. Domiiitu 
Alicnobarbus ; hence called Via DmHla t Glc Pottt 4. 

Modern 



Modem Divisions of Italy* 



185 



Modern Divisions of Italy. 



Subdivisions. 

Savoy 

Piedmont 

Milan 

Mantua 

Parma 

Modena 

Venice 

Genoa 

Lucca 

Tuscany 

St. Marino 

Campagna di Roma ^ 

Ancona 
Urbino 

St. Peter's Patrimony 

Ombria 

Romania 

Bologna 

Ferrara 

Naples < 



Chief Towns. 

Chamberry 
TURIN, Nice 
Milan, Pavia, Cremona 
Mantua 

Parma, Placentia 

Modena, Mirandola 

VENICE, Padua, Verona, Aquileia 

Genoa 

Lucca 

Florence, Sienna, Pisa, Leghorn 
St. Marino 

ROME, Tivoli, Frescati, Ostia>l 

Albano 
Ancona, Loretto 
Urbino, Pesaro 
Viterbo, Clvita Vaccina 
Spoletto, Perugia 
Ravenna, Rimini 
Bologna 
Ferrara 

NAPLES, Capua, Amalphi, Be. 
nevento, Salerno, Rheggio, Ta 
rento, Brundisi, Otranto 



To nuhom subject* 

Sardinia. 

Austria. 

Duchy. 

Austria. 

Sardinia. 
Spain. 
Austria. 
Republic. 



The Pope. 



King of Naples. 



ANCIENT HISTORY of ITALY. 

ITALY was anciently possessed by various tribes ; the north of 
it by the Gauls, and the south by different colonies from 
Greece. Its first inhabitants were the Aborigines ; their first 
king was JANUS. In his time SATURN having been ex- 
pelled from Crete by his son Jupiter, after wandering through 
different countries, came into Italy ; where he was hospitably 
entertained by Janus, and assumed into a share of the kingdom. 
The just government and wise institutions of Saturn, gave oc- 
casion to the fable of the Golden age. From him the country 
was called SATURNIA, and that part of it where he chiefly 
resided LATIUM, Virg. JEn. viii. 320. &c. ; Ovid. Fast. 1. 
235. ; Dzonys. i. 36. & 38. 

The AEnotriy Ausones or Aurunci, Ligures, Osci, Pelasgi, 
Sabini, Samnites, Umbri, &c. came into Italy at different times, 
Dionys. i. 10, 11, 12, &c. Dionysius makes the JEnotri the 
same with the Aborigines, and to come from Arcadia, lb. 60. 
He says they were called Aborigines, from their inhabiting the 
mountains, (goto t>j$ h tqi$ o$eviv ojxvjo-sw?,) Ib. 13. but they 

seem 



186 



Ancient History of Italy. 



seem to have derived their name rather from their being (he 
original inhabitants of the place, lb. 10. They were afterwards 
called Italians, from Italus, one of their kings, 1 2. 

About sixty years before the Trojan war, EVANDER, the 
son of Carmcnta, a prophetess, brought into Latium a colony 
of Arcadians ; and by the permission of FAUNUS, the son of 
PicuSy and grandson of Saturn, Virg. JEn. vii. 48. then king of 
the Aborigines, built a small village on a hill near the Tiber 
which he called Pallantium, from the name of his native city 
Palanteum, whence that place was afterwards called PALA- 
TIUM or the Palatine mount. Evander introduced into Italy 
the knowledge of letters, of musical instruments, and of several 
other useful arts, Dionys. i. 31. — 34. 

In the time of Evander HERCULES came into Italy after 
his conquest of Geryon in Spain, and left behind him a number 
of his followers, both of Trojan and Grecian extraction, who 
settled on the Capitoline hill, then called Mons. Saturnius. One 
CACUS, a noted robber in the neighbourhood, having carried 
off by stealth some oxen from Hercules, was slain by him, 
Dionys. 1.34. — 45. j Liv. i. 7. 5 Ovid. Fast. i. v. 645. which 
gave rise to the fictions of the poets, Virg. JEn. viii. 193. &c. 

After the destruction of Troy, ANTENOR, with a multitude 
of Heneti from Paphlagonia, settled at the top of the Hadriatic 
gulf, and built Patavium y now Padua, Liv. i. 1. 5 Virg. JEn. i. 
242. ULYSSES is likewise said, in his wanderings, to have 
come into Italy, and to have resided for some time at Circeji 
the city of Circe, by whom he had a son called Telegonus, who 
founded Tusculum, Ovid. Fast. iv. 69. This Telegonus going 
to Ithaca to see Ulysses, was shipwrecked on that coast. Not 
knowing where he was, he began to plunder the inhabitants ; 
and when Ulysses and Telamachus his son came out to repel 
the invaders, Telegonus ignorantly in the scuffle slew his father, 
as Oedipus did Lams, Ovid. Fast. i. 1. 114. whence Tusculum 
from its lofty situation, is called Telegoni juga parricida, Horat. 
Od. iii. 29. 8. 

About the same time, DIOMEDES, the son of Tydeus and 
king of iEtolia, another of the Grecian heroes in the war 
against Troy, unwilling to return to his native country, on 
account or the infidelity of his wife JEgiale, passed over into 
Apulia, and married the daughter of Daunus, king of that 
country, which was called Daunia, after his name. Diomed 
built several cities, particularly ARPI, called also Argos Hipp'tum, 
Argyripa or Atgyrippa, Ovid. Met. 14. 456.; Fast. iv. 76. ; 
Virg. ALvl. xi. 246. ; Plin. iii. II* Xi 16. 2. 



Ancient History of Italy. 



187 



In the time of Atys king of Lydia, one of the descendants 
of Hercules, a considerable number of Lydians, forced by 
famine to leave their country, set sail from Smyrna under the 
conduct of Tyrrhenus, the king's son, and landed in Umbria, 
Herodot. i. 94. Crossing the Apennines they are said to have 
built twelve cities, one of them called Tarquinii from Tarcon, 
a distinguished chief among them. The whole country was 
called TYRRHENIA, afterwards Thuscia or ETRURIA, Strab. 
v. 219. 

But the most famous of all those foreigners who came into 
Italy was jENEAS, the son of Anchises and V enus, descended 
from the royal family of Troy. 

DARDANUS, the son of Jupiter by Electra, the daughter 
of Atlas, was the founder of the Trojan nation, and conse- 
quently of the Romans. Dionysius says he was a native of 
Arcadia, i. 61. Strabo, of Samothracia, vn.jin. Virgil of Italy, 
ASn. iii. 167. Having removed into Asia, he married Batea, 
the daughter of Teucer, king of Phrygia, and built a city called 
Dardania, and afterwards TROJA, Dionys. ibid. From Dar- 
danus the Trojans were called Dardamda. His descendants 
and successors were, 1. Erichthonius : 2. Tros, whence Troja, 
the city Troy, and Trees, the Trojans % 3. Ilus, from whom 
Troy was called Ilium ; 4. Laomedon ; and 6. Priamus, the 
last king of Troy. 

The great grandfather of JSneas was Asaracus, the son of 
Tros and brother of Ilus : his grandfather was Capys, the 
father of Anchises. PRIAM having refused to restore Helena, 
the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, whom his son Paris had 
carried off, was attacked by the united forces of all the states 
of Greece, commanded by Agamemnon, the brother of Menelaus, 
and king of Mycena. Troy underwent a siege of ten years, 
being defended chiefly by the valour of HECTOR, the son of 
Priam. At last Hector was slain by ACHILLES, the bravest of 
the Greeks, who himself also soon after was killed by the treachery 
of Paris. Troy is said to have been taken by a stratagem of 
the Greeks, suggested by Ulysses, the king of Ithaca. They 
reared a large wooden image in the form of a horse, and in- 
closed in it a number of armed men. This they pretended to 
be a vow to pacify the wrath of the goddess Minerva, for an 
image of that goddess which Ulysses and Diomedes had stolen 
from her temple in the citadel of Troy. The Trojans, deceived 
by the false information of SINON, a pretended deserter from 
the Greeks, brought the horse into the city, and, as on sacred 
occasions, devoted themselves to festivity. The armed men 



188 



Ancient History of Italy. 



being let out of the horse by Sinon, opened the gates, and 
admitted their companions. They fell upon the city. Priam 
was slain by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, and most of the citizens 
were put to the sword, or reduced to captivity. JEncas made his 
escape amidst the flames, carrying his father Anck'nes on his back, 
who held the sacred things and household-gods in his hands. 
Ascanius or ///////, the son of ./Eneas, ran by his father's side, 
having his left hand linked in his father's right. Creusa, the 
wife of jEneas, followed behind; but by some accident mis-ing 
her way, was lost ; nor could she be found, although ./Eneas 
returned to search for her. — This is the account of Virgil, who, 
though he embellishes facts, yet seldom relates any thing for 
which there is not some foundation in history. He indeed 
supposes some events to have happened in the time of his hero, 
which took place at a different period. But in other respects 
the facts recorded in the JEneid are found tahave a wonderful 
agreement with the accounts of ancient historians. * 

./Eneas having collected his friends, and such as had escaped 
from the flames of Troy, and from the Greeks, took possession 
of strong places on mount Ida. Great numbers afterwards 
flocked to him ; so that the Greeks finding it impracticable to 
reduce them, granted them permission to depart in safety to 
whatever place they pleased. ./Eneas, having built a fleet, in 
the harbour of Antaudros, a town at the foot of mount Ida, 
Virg. JEn. iii. 6. sailed with twenty ships, lb. i. 381. first to 
Thrace, where he founded a city called after his name, JEnea, 
or Enna, or JEneada, Virg. iEn. iii. 18 ; and from thence to 
Delos, then to Crete. Being obliged to leave Crete by a pes- 
tilence, he sailed round Peloponnesus, and having escaped from 
a storm, touched upon two small islands called Strcpkudes, in 
the Ionian sea (the abode of the harpies, Virg. JEn. iii. 210.), 
then lie passed by Zacynthus, Dul'ichium, Same or Cephalenia, 
and Ithaca. He landed in Epire, first at Actium, where was 
a temple of Apolle, lb. 275.; next at Buthrotum, where he found 
Androtnuche, the wife of Hector, married to Helenus, one of 
the sons of Priam, who governed that country, as guardian 
to Molossus the son of Pyrrhus, her former husband, who was 
slain by Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, for depriving him 
of Hermionc, the daughter of Mcnelaus and Helena, who had 
been betrothed to him, and whom Pyrrhus, deserting Andro- 



• The principal particulars contained in the first part of the narration of Virgil are 
briefly recounted by Ovid, ALt. xiii. 6:3. — 724 ; the Lttcr part, ib. xiv. 75. &e. 

1 1 mache, 



Ancient History of Italy. 



18$ 



rnache, had married, lb. 325. &c; Pausan. ii. 23. Helenus 
being endued with the gift of prophecy, foretold to JEneas 
what was to befal him, and gave him directions concerning 
his voyage, Dionys. i. 51. TEneas having sailed past the Ce- 
rannian mountains crossed over into Italy. He offered up 
sacrifices to Juno in her temple on the Japygian or Valentine 
promontory, lb. 547. but staid only a short time there from an 
apprehension of the Greeks, who then possessed those parts* 
396. & 550. Having therefore cruised along the bay of Taren- 
tum, and the coast of the Bruttii, and having passed the Fretum 
Siculum, without entering it, he landed on the country of the 
Cyclops in Sicily, near the foot of mount iEtna, lb. 569.; then 
having taking up Achemenides, who had been left there three 
months before by Ulysses, lb. 645. from fear of Polyphemus, a 
gigantic cyclops, he set sail again, v. 666. and having cruised 
along the east and south coasts of Sicily, he next entered the 
port of Drepanutn, on the west side of the island, north of Lily-, 
bautriy 707. at the foot of mount Eryx. Here he lost his father 
Anchises. Having departed from Sicily (at which time the 
subject of the iEneid properly begins, i. 34.) he was driven by 
a storm on the coast of Africa, near Carthage. - 

This city, according to Virgil, had lately been built by a 
colony from Tyre, under the conduct of DIDO, the widow of 
Sichausy whom Pygmaliotiy her brother, the king of Tyre, from 
envy of his riches, had slain. Virg. JEn. i. 340. Dido received 
JEneas with great hospitality, and falling in love with him, 
wished him to share with her the government of Carthage ; 
but he, bent on sailing for Italy, to which he is said to have 
been urged by many intimations of the gods, left her ; upon 
which she, in despair, slew herself. 

Virgil supposes Dido contemporary with .^Eneas, whereas 
others make her two or three ages posterior to him. This is 
one of the few anachronisms which the poet, for the sake of 
embellishment, has admitted into the ^Eneid. 

After sailing from Carthage, iEneas was compelled, by force 
of weather, to make for Sicily. He again landed at Drepanum % 
the city of Acestes, where he celebrated various games in honour 
of his father, Virg. JEn. v. Here he left such of his companions 
as were aged and infirm, and founded a city for them, lb. 755. 
called after the name of his friend, Acesta, lb. 718. JEgesta, 
Dionys. i. 52. or Segesta, Cic. Verr. iv. 33. and built a tem- 
ple to Venus on the top of mount Eryx, Virg. ib. 759. Diony- 
sius says of mount Elymus, i. 53. 

From hence iEneas sailed for Italy. He first landed at Cum#, 
where he consulted the oracle of the Sibyl ; and accompanied 



190 



Ancient History of Italy. 



by her, according to Virgil, visited the infernal regions to pro- 
cure an interview with his father. Having left Cumx, he at last 
landed at Laurentvm, near the mouth of the Tiber. 

LATINUS, the son of Faunus, was then king of the Abori- 
gines. Hearing of the arrival of foreigners, he at first deter- 
mined to repel them by force ; but changing his mind, he 
made an alliance with ^Eneas, and ratified it by giving him 
his only daughter, Lavinia, in marriage. ^Eneas built a city 
near the place where he had landed, which he called Lavinium, 
from the name of his wife, Dionys. i. 57. — 61. about two 
years after the destruction of Troy, lb. 63. before Christ, t 183. 
But Virgil supposes ^Eneas to have spent seven years in his 
voyages, JF.n. i. Jin. v. 626. 

TURNUS, king of the Rutuli> to whom Lavinia had been 
betrothed before the arrival of iEneas, taking it amiss that a 
foreigner was preferred to him, made war on Latinus and 
iEneas A battle was fought, in which both Latinus and Tur- 
nus fell, Dionys. i. 64. Livy says that only Latinus was slain, i. 2. 
Both agree that iEneas gained the victory, and succeeded to the 
crown of his father-in-law. But he, too, about four years after, 
fell in battle, fighting against Mezcntius, king of the Tuscans, to 
whom Turnus or his descendants had applied for assistance.* 

Virgil gives quite a different account of this matter. He 
supposes almost all the different states and petty kings of Italy 
to form a combination against iEneas, who was supported by no 
alliance but that of Evander. King Latinus is represented as an 
old man, incapable of taking any personal concern in the war. 
After various engagements, in which many on both sides fell, 
the chief of whom, on the side of Turnus, were Jllczentius, and 
his son Laususy and an illustrious female warrior, CAMILLA; 
on the side of iEneas, Nisus and Eurya/us, and Pal/us, the son of 
Evander •, it was at last determined that iEneas and Turnus 
should decide their differences in single combat : Turnus falls, 
and JEnezs obtains Lavinia as the prize of his victory. 

After the death of iKneas, ASCANIUS or IULUSf, his son, 
succeeded. Livyis uncertain whetherhe wasbornol Crassa QlJLu- 
vinia, but says, that by reason of his youth he was unfit for 
the government, and that therefore Lavinia ruled during his 
minority, i. 3.5 but Dionysius takes no notice of this. He 
relates that Abcanius, upon his accession to the throne, being 
besieged by Mezentius, sent proposals for an accommoda- 

* Dionysius relates that the body of JEneas could not he found, and that he was 
thought to have been drowned in the river Numicius. After his death he was wor- 
shipped as a god i whence he is said uquit uJcrj missus^ Juvenal, rf. 6j. and called 
INDIGES, ft//, SH.viiL 39. Ovid. Met.xiv. 607. 

f Hence called Ascanius linotriinij, Ov. M. 14. 609. 

tion ; 



Ancient History of Baty. 



191 



tion; but provoked by the intolerable terms which were offered 
him, among the rest, that all the wine produced in Latium 
should be annually sent into Etruria ; having consecrated the 
fruit of the vine to Jupiter (whence the festival, Vinalia, Ovid. 
Fast. iv. 877.) he made a vigorous sally in the night-time ; 
routed the enemy, and forced Mezentius in his turn to sue for 
peace, which was "granted him, Dionys. i. 65. 

Ascanius built anew city, called ALBA LONGA*, to which 
he transferred the seat of government, about thirty years after 
the foundation of Lavinium, lb. 66. 

The Alban kings after Ascanius, for 400 years, Strab. r. 
p. 229. were, 1. Sylvius, which became a family name to all 
his successors; 2. Latinus ; 3. Alba ; 4. Atys ; 5. Capys ; 6. Ca- 
petus ; 7. Tiberlnus, who being drowned in crossing the Al- 
bula, gave the name of Tiberis to that river; 8. Agrippa s 
9. Romulus Sylvius ; 10. Aventinus, who gave the name to the 
mountain, being buried there; and 1 1. Proca, Liv. i. 3. Some 
of these kings are differently named by Ovid, Met. xiv. 609. &c. 

Dionysius says, that Sylvius was not the son of Ascanius, 
but his brother by Lavinia, who brought him forth in a wood 
(whence his name, Quod Sylvis fuit ortus in altis. Ovid. Fast. 
Iv- 41.) in the cottage of a faithful servant, who had privately 
carried her thither, lest she should suffer, injury from her step- 
son: that the son of Ascanius was called IULUS, who, claim- 
ing the crown after his father's death, was set aside by the 
suffrages of the people ; but as a compensation for the loss was 
invested with the sacred office of high priest, in several respects 
superior to that of king ; which priesthood continued hereditary 
in the Iulian family, who were the descendants of this lulus, to 
the time of Dionysius. From that family Julius Csesar and 
Augustus wished it to be believed that they were descended 
(which pretension Lucan calls Fabula Troja, iii. 212. after 
Dionysius, i. 70.); and the frequent allusions of the poets and 
historians of that time to their divine origin, cannot be properly 
understood without some acquaintance with their lineage, Ovid* 
Fast. iv. 25. Sec. 

FOUNDATION of ROME, and its Government by Kings. 

PROCA had two sons, Nutmtor and Amulius. To Numi- 
tor, the elder, he left the crown, to the other, his treasures. 

* It is said to have been called ALBA from a white sow, found by the Trojans 
cpon their first landing in Italy, with a litter of 30 young, Virg. JEn. iii. 389. xiii. 
4Z. & 81. Juvenal, xii. J2. which circumstance had been predicted to iEneas, Virg* 
th. and was reckoned a aaost favourable omen, Juvenal, ib, Varro de re rust, ii, 4. 

Br 



192 



History of the Kings of Rome. 



By means of these AMULIUS supplanted his brother, and 
reigned in his stead. To deprive Numitor of all hopes of off- 
spring, he caused his sons to be put to death, and made his 
daught-T Rhea Sylvia, or Ilia *, a vestal virgin. She, however, 
became with child, Ovid. Fast. iii. 21. and to palliate her of- 
fence, gave out that it was by Mars, the god of war. She 
brought forth male twins, whom Amuhus ordered to be thrown 
into the running water, and herself to be cast into prison, 
or as some say, to be put to death, Dionys. i. 79. Provi- 
dentially, (forte quadam divinitus,) says Livy, i. 4. the Tiber 
had overflowed its banks; so that subsiding it left the vessel in 
which the infants were exposed on dry ground. It is said that 
a she-wolf coming that way gave them suck, and that Fatistnlus, 
the keeper of the king's flock, found her licking them with her 
tongue. By him they were carried to his cottage, to be nursed 
by his wife Laurentia, and were brought up by him as his own 
children. 

ROMULUS and REMUS, for so they were afterwards 
named, being thus miraculously preserved, when they grew up, 
are said to have discovered marks of their being sprung from a 
nobler origin than was thought. Instead of loitering among 
the folds, they used to traverse the forests in hunting, and not 
only to encounter wild beasts, but also to attack robbers loaded 
with booty, and to divide the prey among the shepherds. In 
one of these excursions Remus was taken and brought before 
Amulius. He was chiefly charged with having carried off 
plunder from the lands of Numitor. He was therefore given 
up to Numitor to be punished. In the mean time Faustulus, 
who had hitherto passed as their father, alarmed at the danger 
of Remus, discovered to Romulus the secret of their birth ; 
and from certain circumstances, Numitor almost recognized 
Remus for his grand-son. In short, Amulius is slain, and 
Numitor restored to the throne. 

Romulus and Remus resolved to build a city in those places 
where they had been brought up. Not only their former 
companions, but also a number of Albans and others joined 
them. To determine which of them should found and govern 
the new city, they had recourse to omens. A dispute having 
arisen about this matter, and in consequence a scuffle, Remus 
was slain. The common story is, that he was killed by Ro- 
mulus, for having in derision leapt over his new walls; or by 
one Celer, who had the charge ct building the walls, Dionys. 
i. 87. *, Liv. 1.6.; Ovid. Fast. iv. 837. 

• From whom Romulus h oil lot Iliaiu:;, Mrf. xiv. Xa j. which name if 
also given to < ■. the cup-bearer of Jupiter, as bciug the bi other of Iliu>, and 

born ;it Troy or I I'm in, //•. x. 160. 

ROME 



History of the Kings of Rome, 19$ 

ROME was founded about 753 years before the birth of 
Christ. After the city was built, as Dionysius informs us, Ro- 
mulus assembled the people ro settle their form of government. 
He himself was unanimously elected King. The people were 
divided into three tribes, and each tribe into ten curia or pa- 
rishes. The chief of a tribe was called Tribuntjs, a tribune? 
and of a curia, Curio. The land was also divided into thirty 
equal parts, to answer to the number of curia. These parts 
were distributed by lot. A certain portion, however, was first 
exempted, sufficient to defray the expences of sacred rites and 
temples, and also for public exigencies. The people, in point 
of rank, was divided into two orders, Patricians, or nobility ; 
and Plebeians, or common people ; connected together as pa- 
trons and clients. It was ordained that the Patricians should 
perform sacred things, and take care of the state ; that the 
Plebeians should cultivate the ground, and exercise mechanic 
trades or handicrafts, Dionys. ii. 9. A third order was after- 
wards added, called Equites or Knights. From each tribe 
were raised a thousand foot soldiers and an hundred horse. 
These were called a legion. An hundred senators were chosen 
to form the public council ; each tribe, and each curia, no- 
minated three, which made ninety-nine. Romulus completed 
the number by nominating a president. 

Particular attention was paid to sacred rites. The most im- 
portant were performed by the King himself, He acted as 
priest, judge, and general. He was distinguished by a parti- 
cular dress called toga pratexta, (a white woollen robe, fringed 
with purple,) and twelve officers, called factors, who went be- 
fore him, carrying each on his shoulder a bundle of rods, with 
an axe stuck in the middle of them. The senate consulted about 
the things which the King laid before it. Senators were distin- 
guished by a broad stripe of purple on the breast of their tunic. 
The people alone, in their assemblies, called Comitia, had the 
power of enacting laws, choosing magistrates, and declaring 
war. The army was under the command of the King. The 
chief officers of the foot were called tribunes, and under them 
centurions, or commanders of hundreds ; of the cavalry, pra- 
fects, and under them decurions, or commanders of tens. Ro- 
mulus chose 300 choice men to guard his person, whom he 
called Celeres, and their commander Prafect of the Celeres^ 
Dionys. ii. 3. — 15. This was the origin of the equestrian 
order. 

To encrease the number of citizens, Romulus opened an 
asylum or sanctuary, where fugitives of every kind from all quar- 
ters might be secure. To procure wives for his subjects, he 

O sent 



194 



History of the Kings of Home. 



sent ambassadors round the neighbouring states to request an 
alliance; but his proposals were every where rejected with dis- 
dain. Romulus therefore by a decree of the senate ordered 
a festival to be proclaimed in honour of Neptune, and pre- 
pared to celebrate the games with all possible magnificence. 
Many came from the neighbouring towns, with their wives and 
children, to see not only the games, but aho the new city. 
"While the minds of these strangers were intent on the spec- 
tacle, the Roman youth, upon a signal given, carried off the 
virgins, as Dionysius says, to the number of 683, /. ii. c. 30. 
The parents fled home in trepidation. 

A fierce war ensued. If all the states had united their 
forces together, Rome would have been ruined. But their re- 
sentment was too violent to brook delay. The Caninenses 9 
therefore, alone, made an inroad on the Roman territory. 
Romulus marched against them, routed them in battle, and 
having slain their King Acron> presented his spoils, called spo- 
il a ophnciy to Jupiter, to whom he built a temple under the 
name of Jupiter Feretrius, which was the first temple built 
at Rome. This was the origin of the barbarous custom of 
triumphs. * 

Romulus was next attacked by the Antemiiatesy and then by 
the Crustuminiy both of whom he likewise easily conquered ; 
and instead of destroying the captives, according to the savage 
custom of that age, he admitted them into the freedom of the 
city ; which usage proved one of the chief foundations ot the 
Roman greatness. 

The last and most dangerous war was from TATIUS, king 
of the Sabincs ; who, having led his army to Rome, got pos- 
session of the capitol, by the treachery of Turpeia, the daugh- 
ter of Sp. Tarpcius who commanded it. Several fierce combats 
took place between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, mostly 
with equal success. At last, when the armies of both nations 
were drawn up and prepared for a decisive engagement, the 
Sabine women, whose wrongs had occasioned the war, rushed 
in between them, in the garb of suppliants, imploring their pa- 
rents and husbands to drop their resentment, and not stain them- 
selves by mutual slaughter. The generals and armies on both 
sides were moved. A conference ensued; and they not only con- 
cluded an alliance, but united the two states into one. It was 
agreed that Romulus and Tatius should reign jointly, and with 

• Th< Sf»,li.t 0/>im.i, or the spoils f" the ••, in i 1 t t'v > n.-mv shin l>v the concr.»l 
erf the Romans, wire only twi e obtained aticrwauls, i by A. Cornelius Costus, who 
■lew l.ar Tolumnius, King of the Vegentes, a. u. «nJ i. by M. Claudius 

Jvlarcellus, who slew Viridomaur , Kin^ Qflhc Caul:, a. u. 

equal 



History of the Kings of Home. 



195 



equal authority; that Rome should be the seat of government, 
but that the people of both nations should be called Quirites, 
from Cures, the capital of Tatius, Liv. i. 13. The number 
of the senators was doubled, or at least much encreased, by 
the addition of new members from the Sabines. The Cailan 
and Quirinal hills were added to the city. Dionysius makes 
this agreement between these two states to have been the effect 
of an embassy of the women to their parents, ii. 45, &c. 

Some years after, Tatius being slain in a tumult at Lavi- 
nium, Romulus again became sole sovereign, 

The Fidinates were next subdued, and a colony sent to their 
city. The Vejenies, taking up arms to avenge their cause 
were also defeated, and obliged to sue for peace. 

Romulus, elated with these successes, began to grow inso- 
lent. He soon after disappeared, being torn to pieces, as it 
was said, by the senators. It was, however, commonly be- 
lieved, says Livy, that he had been translated to heaven ; and 
this persuasion was confirmed by the solemn declaration of one 
Julius Proculus, who said that he had seen him ascend to the 
setherial regions, Liv. i. 16. Romulus reigned thirty-seven 
years, and, according to Dionysius, was only eighteen years of 
age when he began to reign, ii. 56. He was worshipped as a 
god after his death, under the name of Ouirinus, Ovid. Fast, 
ii. 475. and his wife Hersi/ia y as a goddess, called Hora, Id. 
Met. iv. v. ult. 

After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum for 
a year. NUMA POMP1LIUS, from Cures, a city of the 
Sabines, a man remarkable for his justice and religion, was 
chosen by the senate and people to succeed. He was inaugu- 
rated after taking the omens ; for after Romulus it became a 
custom that no one ever entered on an office without consult- 
ing the auspices, or taking omens from the flight of birds. 

Numa endeavoured to soften the ferocity of the Romans by 
a sense of religion, and by laws. 

For this purpo e he lived in peace with his neighbours during 
the whole of his reign. He built a temple to Janus y which 
should be shut in time of peace, and open in time of war. Ic 
was only once shut from the time of Numa to the time of 
Augustus, at the end of the first Punic war. 

Besides the general bodies of priests, the Pontifices, who had 
the chief direction of sacred things, the Augurs, who explain- 
ed omens, &c, Numa instituted certain priests to particular 
deities ; one to Jupiter, called Flamen Dialis ; to Mars, FJa- 
men Martialis ; and to Romulus, Flamen Quirinales ; four 

O 2 priestesses^ 



196 History of the Kings of Borne. 



priestesses, to Vesta, called Vestal Virgins, who should keep 
the sacred fire always burning, Sec. A round shield (ancile) 
having, as was supposed, fallen from heaven, Numa ordered 
eleven other shields to be made like it, that it might not be 
stolen, and appointed twelve priests, called Sa/ii, sacred to 
Mars, to take care of them ; because the preservation of this 
shield was considered as a pledge of the perpetuity of the 
empire. 

To impress the minds of the people with a veneration for 
his institutions, Numa gave out that he made them all by the 
direction of the goddess Egeria> whom Livy calls his wife, 
L 21. and used frequently to retire to a certain grove, as if to 
hold interviews with her, and with the muses, (Cama/h?,) to 
whom the grove was consecrated. To shew of what im- 
portance he thought the observance of truth and fidelity, he 
built a temple to FAITH. 

Numa divided the year into twelve lunar months ; and to 
make it agree with the course of the sun, appointed that every 
second year an additional month, called mentis INTERCA- 
L AR1S, should be inserted at the end of the year, consisting of 
more or fewer days, at the pleasure of the Pontifices. The year 
of Romulus had only ten months, and began with March. 

Numa also divided the days into fasti and nefasti. On the 
latter no court of justice nor assembly of the people could be 
held. 

Numa reigned forty-three years, and died in the eighty-third 
year of his age, Liv. i. 18. — 22. ; Dionys. ii. 57. & ad fin. 

TULLUS IIOSTILIUS was chosen by the people to suc- 
ceed. The senate ratified their choice. Tullus was not only 
unlike the former king, but even more fond of war than Ro- 
mulus. His first war was with the Albans. When the ar- 
mies of both states were ready to engage, it was agreed that the 
public fortune should be determined by three champions on 
each side. There happened to be three twin-brothers in each 
army. The Romans are said to have been called Horatii y and 
the Albans Curiatii. They fought in presence of both armies. 
Two of the Romans fell; the three Albans were wounded. 
The surviving Roman was unhurt. He, therefore, to separate 
the Curiatii, betook himself to flight. They followed as their 
itrength allowed. The Roman, looking back, perceived them 
following him at a considerable distance from each other, and 
one of them not far off. He suddenly turned and dispatched 
him ; so likewise the next, and then the third. Thus the 
Albans were subjected to the Romans. 

11 IIORATIUS, 



History of the Kings of Rome, 297 



HOR ATIUS, returning to the city in triumph, bearing the 
spoils of the Curiatiiy was met by his sister, who had been 
betrothed to one of them. She observing on her brother's 
shoulder the robe of her lover, which she herself had wrought, 
tearing her hair, and beating her breast, screamed aloud, 
calling upon the deceased by name. The fierce youth, pro- 
voked at the lamentation of his sister upon his victory, and 
amidst so great public joy, stabbed her with his sword. For 
this atrocious deed he was tried and condemned by two judges 
(duumviri) appointed by the King. Horatius appealed from 
this sentence to the people, who, at the intercession of his father, 
acquitted him, rather from an admiration of his bravery than 
from the justice of his cause. He was, however, appointed to 
make certain expiations, and obliged to pass, as it were, under 
a yoke # , like a vanquished enemy, with his head covered. 

Mettus FuffethtSy the dictator of the Albans, did not long 
quietly submit to the sovereignty of Rome. He secretly insti- 
gated the Fidenates and Vejentes to revolt, by a promise of 
coming over to them when they should join battle ; but he 
wanted resolution to perform his promise. Having brought 
his forces to the assistance of Tullus, according to treaty, when 
the fight was about to begin, he drew off his army towards 
some eminences adjoining, and waited there to see which side 
would have the advantage, resolving to join the victors. Tullus 
perceiving this, with great presence of mind told his men, that 
the Albans were leading round by his order, to attack the 
Fidenates from behind. This was pronounced so loudly, that 
the enemy also might hear it. The consequence was, that the 
Romans boldly advanced, and the Fidenates^ thinking them- 
selves betrayed, were defeated. Mettus, having brought down 
his army, congratulated Tullus on his victory. Tullus appear- 
ing to take this in good part, ordered the Albans to join their 
camp to that of the Romans. Next day he summoned both 
armies to an assembly, to which the soldiers always came with- 
out arms. The Albans, eager to hear the Roman king de- 
claim, stood next his tribunal. On a sudden the assembly was 
surrounded with armed men. Dionysius says, that the bravest 

* The military yoke [jugum) was made of three spears, two fixed in the ground 
and one across The jugum of Horatius was composed of two altars, and a beam 
placed over the way across them, called Sororium Tigillum, the Sister's beam. 
It was standing in the time of Livy and Dionysius, having been always repaired 
at tne public expence, and certain sacred rites were annually performed at it. 
Dionys, iii. ai.; Liv.'i. z6. In memory of those illustrious youths, a law was made, 
and observed during the existence of the republic, th:>t if any one had three male 
children at a birth, they should be supported by the public to the age of puberty. 
Dionys. ib, 

O 3 of 



198 



History of (he Kings of Home. 



of the Roman soldi* rs had been ordered to bring their swords, 
cone tied under their garments, iii. 27. Tullus laid open the 
treachery of the Alban king. Mcttus being convicted, was 
instantly tied to two carriages, and hi> body torn in pieces, 
Virg. JEn. viii. 642. the only instance, says Livy, in which 
the Roman- ever violated the laws of humanity in their punish- 
ments, i. 28. The city of Alba was destroyed, after it had 
stood 400 years, Liv, i. 29.; Virg. JEn. i. 276. Dion y si US' says, 
487 years, iii. 31. and all the inhabitants brought to Rome. 
The chief men were admitted into the senate, ten turma of 
< 'kites, or 300 horsemen, were also chosen from the Albans, and 
a proportional number of foot soldiers distributed among the 
legions. Mount Cctlius was added to the city, Liv. i. 30. 
which Dionysius says had been added upon tl e ad mission of 
the Sabincs, ii. 50. but mentions its being included within the 
pomtriiun, or wall surrounding the city, by Tullus, iii. 1. 

In confidence of so great an addition of strength, Tullus, on 
account of some grounds of offence, declared war on the 
Sabines, who were at that time, says Livy, i. 30. the most 
powerful state in Italy, next to the Etrurians: tor it wa- only 
a part of that nation which had removed to Rome under Ta« 
thliu A bloody battle was fought, in which the Sabincs were 
vanquished. 

After this, according to Dionysius, Tullus was engaged in 
war with the Latins for five years, but never came to a general 
action \ the two nations only making inroads upon the territo- 
ries of each other. At last pi ace was agrw d on. 

Tullus, in consequence or a lingering distemper, became 
very religious in the hitter part of his life. Being struck with 
lightning, he was burnt with his house and f.unily, by the 
anger of Jupiter, who, as it was thought, was offended at his 
improper w orship, JLiv. i. 31. or on account of his former 
neglect of religion, Dionys.\\\. 55. Some say he perished by 
treason, lb. Tullus reigned thirty-two years. 

ANCUS MARCIUS,the grandson of Numa, by his daugh- 
ter succeeded, being chosen by the people, and his election 
Wad Confirmed bv the senate Ancuswas neither so warlike as 
Romulus, nor so pacific as Numa, but of a disposition between 
the two II 1 r< stored the public sacred rites, as they had been 
in tituted by Numa. B ang attacked by the Latins, he pro- 
el limed, war against them in a certain form, by means ol priests, 
called Feciales, which form posterity observed, JLiv. i. 32. He 
took several towns of the I.. tin-, and transported their inha- 
bitants to Rome. Meant Aventine was added to the city for 
;!ieir reception. The Jameulum also was added on the north 



History of the Kings of Rome. 



299 



of the Tiber, a wooden bridge [pons sublicius) being then for the 
first time made over that river ; this mount was added, not for 
want of room, but lest at any time it should serve as a fortress 
to the enemy. As an additional security to the city, Ancus 
dug a ditch round the wall through all the level grounds. It 
was called Fossa Ouiritium, Seeing clandestine crimes were 
committed from the number of inhabitants, he built a prison 
adjoining to the Forum or public place, for the terror of male- 
factors. Ancus extended the Roman territory to the Tuscan 
sea, and built Ojtia, at the mouth of the Tiber, to serve as a 
port for Rome. Salt pits were made around it. 

In the reign of Ancus, one Lucumo removed to Rome from 
Tarquinii, a city of Etruria. He was not a native of that place, 
but originally from Corinth, whence his father Demarcltus, who 
had acquired great riches by trade, was obliged to fly on ac- 
count of a sedition. Lucumo^ the heir of his father's fortune, 
married Tatiaquil, a woman of family and of high spirit j who, 
seeing her husband not respected by the nobles of the place, as 
being the son of an exile and a merchant, prevailed on him to 
go and settle at Rome, where merit alone made distinction 
(omnis ex virtute nobilitas). There he called himself LUCIUS 
TARQUINIUS *. His being a stranger, and his wealth, at- 
tracted the notice of the Romans, and he made so good use of 
his fortune, that he not only gained the affection of the citizens, 
but likewise became a favourite at court, to such a degree, that 
Ancus, in his will, left him guardian to his children. Ancus 
reigned twenty-four years. 

Tarquinius used every art to get himself appointed successor. 
On the day of the election, he sent away the sons of Ancus, 
who were now near the age of puberty, to hunt. In a 
studied speech, he set forth his claims to the crown with so 
much address, that the people unanimously conferred it on him. 
To strengthen his interest he chose an hundred new senators f. 

Tarquin 

* [Lucius, instead of Lucumo, as prenomen, and Tarquinius, as nomsn or name ? 
according to the custom of the Romans, Dionys. iii. 48.) Livy s.iys, i. 34. he called 
himself Tarquinius Priscus; but Priscus seems to have been added as a sirname {cognomen) 
in after times, to distinguish him from Tarquinius Superbus, Dionys. tv. 41. 

+ They were called Patres minorum gentium; those created before, Pa- 
tres majorum gentium. They were called Patres or Fathers, from their 
age, or paternal care of the state. Sallust. Cat. 6. Livy says, from respect, (ccte ex 
honored i. 8. 7 he number of the senators now was 300, and was not increased till the 
time of Sylla. 

Tarquinius, judging that there were too few cavalry in the Roman army, also 
doubled the number of the Equites, Liv. i. 36. 

He is said likewise to have added two to the number of vestal virgins, and 
to have devised the punishment of burying alive such of them as should violate 

O 4 their 



200 



History of the Kings of Borne, 



Tarquin was engaged in several wars ; first with the Latins, 
whom he completely subdued, taking several of their towns ; 
next with the Vejentes and Tuscans, whom he vanquished in 
different battles ; and then with the Sabines, whom he forced, 
by repeated defeats, to hue for peace. 

The son of a captive, called SERVIUS TULLIUS, had, 
by his merit, so ingratiated himself with the king, that he 
gave him his daughter in marriage, Dionys. iii. 72. iv. 1. This 
roused the jealousy of the sons of Ancus, who had all along 
thought themselves unjustly deprived of their right by the 
fraud of their guardian. They therefore engaged two as- 
sassins lo kill him. One of these wounded him mortally in 
the vestibule of the palace. Tanaquil, the queen, however, 
after his body was carried in, having sent for Servius, and 
caused the gates of the palace to be shut, called out to the 
people from one of the windows, that the king was not 
dead, but stunned by the sudden stroke ; that he had come to 
himself, and that she hoped they would see him soon : In 
the mean time, that he desired them to obey Servius Tullius, 
who would administer justice to them, and perform every 
other part of the regal office. Thus Servius, under pretext 
of acting for another, established his own interest. The 
king's death being then made public, and a lamentation for 
him raised in the palace, Servius, surrounded with a strong 
guard, was the first who assumed the kingdom by the authority 
of the senate, without the consent of the people, Liv. i. 41. ; 
Dionys. iv. 8. & 40. 

The sons of Ancus, hearing that the king was alive, and 
that the assassins had been seized and punished, sought for 
safety by flight. Tarquin reigned thirty-eight years. 

Soon after the death of Tarquin, the Vejentes and other 
Tuscans made war on the Romans. Servius defeated them in 
a pitched battle with great bravery and conduct. Being now 
secure of the affections both of the patricians and plebeians, he 

their vow of chastity, Dionys. iii. 67. The number of vestals was now six, and was 
never afterwaids increased. 

Tarquin greatly adorned the city. He surrounded it with a wall of hewn stone. 
Tlie former wall w.?s built of rough stones. He laid out a place for games and spec- 
tacles, called, from its circular figure, Circus, and from its extent, Maximus, be- 
tween the Avcntinc aud Palatine hills. He dried the lower grounds by making 
cloaca: or drains to carry of the warer into the Tiber, and prepared an area lar 
builJini' a temple to Jupiter in the Capitol, Liv. i. 38.; Dionys. 67. — 69. 

T*rquin is said to have introduced from the Tuscans the triumphal and con- 
sular ornaments, the dress of the magistrates, the /jj^j, scturcs> &C. Strttio, v. 



History of the Kings of Rome. 



20% 



proceeded to the important work of dividing the citizens into 
different ranks, according to their fortune. Having; obliged 
every one to declare to him, upon oath, the value of his estate, 
he divided all the citizens into six CLASSES, and each class 
into a certain number of Centuries. There was the greatest 
number of centuries in the first class, which consisted of the 
richest citizens ; and in the lowest class, which was the most 
numerous, there was but one century. When the people gave 
their votes, divided into classes and centuries, the assembly was 
called Comitia centuriata. Here the vote of each citizen 
was not of equal force, as formerly, in the Comitia Curiata, or 
the assemblies by curia ; but every thing was determined by a 
majority of centuries, Dionys. iv. 20. ; Liv. i. 43. Thus the 
chief power was vested in the nobility and most wealthy citizens. 
But these also bore taxes and all public burdens in proportion ; 
so that this arrangement seemed to be as much calculated for 
the advantage of the poor as of the rich. The numbering of 
the people, and taking a valuation of their fortunes, was called 
the CENSUS. It was appointed to be made at the end of 
every five years ; and concluded with a purifying sacrifice, 
called LUSTRUM ; which word is often put for the space of 
five years. The census, however, was not always regularly made 
at the end of every five years. 

The number of citizens enrolled at the first census was 80,000. 
To contain that multitude the city was enlarged-, the Quirinal, 
Viminal, and Esquiline hills, were added. 

Servius divided the city into four regions or wards, the in- 
habitants of which were called city tribes ; and the Roman ter- 
ritory into fifteen parts, called rustic or country tribes. Some 
make the number greater, Dionys, iv. 15. 

The institution of the census has justly been considered as 
the basis of the republic, and continued to be observed during 
the existence of liberty. It seems, however, to have been chief! j 
calculated to favour the interest of the patricians, by connecting 
power with wealth, and to promote the military character of 
the Romans. In fact, the account given by Livy and Diony- 
sius, of the distribution of the citizens into classes and centuries, 
has very much the appearance of a military muster. And 
anciently the people always went armed, and in martial order, 
to hold these assemblies. 

Servius, to attach to himself Lucius and Aruns Tarquinius % 
the two sons, or grandsons, of the late king, (it is uncertain 
which,) had given to them, in marriage, his two daugh- 
ters. 



202 



History of the Kings of Rome. 



ters *• But hearing that expressions were still dropped by- 
Lucius, the elderof the young Tarquins, that he (Servius) reigned 
without the order of the people, having previously conciliated 
the affections of the multitude, by distributing among them 
the lands taken from the enemy, he called an assembly, where 
his title to the crown was confirmed with the greatest unani- 
mity, Liv. i. 41. Dionysius relates this matter differently, 
iv. 8.— 13. 

The daughters of Servius, and their husbands, were of quite 
different dispositions. The elder Tullia was mild and unassum- 
ing ; the younger, violent and ambitious. So Lucius Tar- 
quinius was bold and aspiring his brother Aruns, the reverse. 
The younger Tullia therefore despising him, admired Lucius 
her sister's husband, whom she quickly inspired with senti- 
ments similar to her own. Having both of them dispatched 
their consorts, they married one another ; the king rather 
not hindering, than approving their union f . As one crime 
leads to a second, they now conspired the destruction of Ser- 
vius. For this purpose Tarquin formed a strong party among 
the senators, many of whom were offended at the distribution 
of the public lands among the people, of which they themselves 
had been deprived. When the plot seemed ripe tor execution, 
Tarquin, attended by a guard of armed men, rushed into the 
forum, drest in the royal robes ; and having placed himself on 
the king's seat, before the senate-house, ordered the senators to 
be summoned by a herald to attend on king Tarquin. Most of 
them came, impelled by different motives. Tarquin began a 
speech, filled with invectives against Servius. He was inter- 
rupted by the sudden entrance of the king with his attendants-, 
•who, seeing his throne. invaded, attempted to pull the usurper 
from his seat. But Tarquin being in the vigour of life, pushed 
the old man over the steps. The king's officers and attendants 
fled. Servius himself, feebly returning home, was slain by 
those whom Tarquin had sent after him. 

It is said that Tullia, having hastened to the forum, was the 
first to salute her husband king ; and in her return drove her 
carriage over the dead body of her father lying in the street ; 
whence that street was called Vicus SceUratuSy or the wicked 

* They were called Tullia ma'y.i , or th • elder Tulli.i, and Tullia minor, or the youncer 
Tullia, nctord'ni; to the custom of th-- Romans \s!u> al\va\> named lh<- dtfUghtOI s from 
tne itOMCHy or nam.- of the father. If there were more than two, they were denomi- 
nated according to their a«e, Tullia Tertia, Tullia quatta, 01 more softly, auaitiUm t kc. 

f I. ivy makes the younger Tullia Tullia minor) to have been married to Lucius 
Tairmimua, Lrv. i. 46. t. 13ut some read here Tullia major, 

16 street, 



History of the Kings of Rome. 



203 



street, Diotiys. iv. 39.; Llv. i. 48.; Ovid. Fast. vi. 587. &c. 
Servius reigned forty-four years, Liv. ib. > Dionysius says forty 
years, Ib. 40. * 

L. TAROUINIUS, having obtained the sovereignty by 
force, exercised it tyrannically ; whence he was sirnamed 
SUPERBUS, the Proud, Dionys. iv. 41. but Livy ascribes that 
appellation chiefly to his refusing Servius the honours of a fune- 
ral, i. 49. He put to death the chief of the senators, whom he 
supposed to have been attached to Servius. He himself alone 
judged in all capital causes, without the advice or assistance 
of assessors ; so that he could put to death, banish, or deprive 
of their effects, such as he thought proper. In this manner, 
having greatly diminished the number of the senators, he chose 
none in the room of those who were slain, that the smallness of 
their number might render the order contemptible. He made 
war and peace, concluded treaties and alliances, or broke them, 
and managed all state-affairs, according to his own pleasure, 
without the consent of the senate or people. Conceiving him- 
self to be an object of hatred, he never went abroad without 
being surrounded by a guard of armed men. He was at par- 
ticular pains to conciliate to himself the nation of the Latins. 
Having by the most refined artifice crushed one TURNUS, 
a bold and virtuous patriot, who perceived and opposed his 
designs, he got himself to be created chief of the Latin state, 
and incorporated the Latin troops with the Roman. He first 
began a war with the Volsci, which was not terminated for more 
than 200 years after his time. He took from them Suessa Po- 
tnetia, the spoils of which he set apart for building a temple to 
Jupiter in the Capitol. He reduced the city Gabii by means of 
Sextus, the youngest of his sons ; or, according to Dionysius, 
the eldest, who went over to the enemy, pretending that he 
had been cruelly treated by his father, and in proof of his 
veracity shewed the marks of the blows which he said he had 
received. He acted his part so artfully, that at last he was 
entrusted by the Gabians with the chief direction of the war. 
He now sent a trusty person to his father for instructions. 
Tarquin, without speaking a word, led the messenger into the 
garden, and there, having with his staff struck off the heads of 
the highest poppies, dismissed him. Sextus, being informed of 
what had passed, easily perceived his father's meaning ; and by 
various methods cut off or removed out of the way the leading 
men, always taking care to divide their effects among the 

* He is called by Juvenal, Ultimus Regum Bonorum, viii. 260. 

people. 



204- History of the Kings of Home, 

people. Thus Gnbii, deprived of its protectors, was delivered 
into the hands of Tarquin. 

After this, Tarquin made peace with the JEqui y and renewed 
a league with the Tuscans. He next set about finishing the 
temple of Jupiter on the Tarpeian mount, which the former 
Tarquin had vowed, Diotiys. iv. 59. For this purpose he sent for 
artificers from all parts of Etruria, and employed day-labourers 
(opet\e) from among the common people, who were also con- 
strained to mnke seats in the Circus^ and to dig below ground a 
large common sewer [cloaca maxima) for carrying off the filth 
of the city ; to which two works Livy says the magnificence of 
his time could scarcely produce any thing equal, i. 56. 

The appearance of a snake in the palace, which was ac- 
counted a prodigy, induced Tarquin to send his two eldest 
sons, Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle of Delphi. They 
were attended by L. Junius, the king's nephew by his sister, 
who was sirnamed BRUTUS, from his apparent stupidity ; 
which character he assumed to preserve himself from the 
tyrant's cruelty, to which his brother, a brave youth, had fallen 
a sacrifice. Being carried to Delphi by the princes, to serve as 
a sport to them rather than as a companion, he is said to have 
presented to Apollo a golden rod, inclosed in a staff of cornel- 
wood, a fit emblem of his own genius. The princes having 
executed their father's orders, took it into their head to consult 
the oracle, which of them should be king at Rome. The priestess 
answered, " He shall possess the supreme command at Rome ivho 
shall first salute his mother." Whereupon Brutus, as if falling 
by chance, kissed the ground, because the earth is the common 
mother of all mankind. 

The princes, upon their return, found their countrymen 
engaged in a war with the Rutuli, and besieging their capital 
j4rdea> which was only about sixteen miles from Rome. 
While the army was encamped before this place, the princes 
used sometimes to pass the time in feasting with one another. 
While they were one day drinking at the tent of Sextus, where 
also COLLATINUS supped, the discourse happened to turn 
on the virtue and beauty of their wives. Collatinus said, they 
might soon determine that, and immediately go and see how 
much his LUCRETIA excelled the rest. Being heated with 
wine, the proposal struck them. Taking horse, therefore, 
without delay they posted to Rome, where they arrived in 
the dusk of the evening. From thence they went to Collatia, 
where they found J^ucrctia, not like the King's daughters-in- 
law, spending her time in feasting and luxury, but, though 



History of the Kings of Rome, 



late at night, working at wool, in the midst of her maids ; 
this incident is beautifully described by Ovid, Fast. ii. 741. 
Thus the dispute about female virtue was determined in favour 
of Lucretia, and the princes returned from their nocturnal frolic 
to the camp. 

Sextus Tarouinius had conceived a criminal passion for 
Lucretia. Her beauty and celebrated chastity incited him. A 
few days after, he went secretly to Collatia, without the know- 
ledge of Collatinus, and by the basest artifice accomplished his 
purpose. Lucretia, overwhelmed with grief at her misfortune, 
dispatched a messenger to Rome for her father, and to Ardea 
for her husband, to come instantly, each with a faithful friend ; 
for that a shocking affair had happened. Spuritjs Lucretius 
came with P. VALERIUS, and Collatinus with L. Junius 
BRUTUS, with whom he happened to be returning to Rome, 
when he was met by his wife's messenger. They found Lu- 
cretia sitting disconsolate in her bed-chamber. At the sight 
of her friends she burst into tears. When her husband asked 
her, If all was well? " No, she says ; for what can be well with 
her who has lost her honour. The traces of a stranger are in your 
bed, Collatinus. But my body only is violated ; my mind is guilt- 
less. Death shall attest it. Give me your right hands and your 
promise, that the adulterer shall not escape with impunity. It is 
Sextus Tarquinius, who, last night, coming as an enemy in the 
guise of a friend, has, by violence and arms, carried from hence a 
conquest fatal to me, and to himself, if you are men." They all 
gave her their promise, and tried to console her by laying the 
blame upon the author of the crime, and by representing to her, 
that there could be no fault where there was no intention, 
" Do you, says she, consider what is due to him : I, though I acquit 
<( myself of guilt, will not free myself from punishment, nor shall any 
immodest woman hereafter live by the example of Lucretia" With 
these words she plunged a knife, which she had concealed 
under her robe, to her heart, and fell down expiring. Her hus- 
band and father exclaimed. Brutus, while they were engaged 
in grief, pulling the knife from the wound of Lucretia, and 
holding it up before him as it dropped with blood, " By this 
Mood, says he, most pure, before it was polluted by royal villainy, 
by this blood I swear, and I call heaven to witness my oath, that I 
shall henceforth pursue Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, his wicked 
wife, and all their race, with fire, sword, and all other means in 
my power ; nor shall I suffer them, nor any other, to reign at Rome" 
He then delivers the knite to Collatinus, Lucretius, and Valerius, 
who were astonished at this wonderful change of character. 



206 



History oj the Kings of Home. 



They all took the oath required; and turning their grief into 
resentment, concerted measures with Brutus for exterminating 
the regal government. The body of Lucretia bein,; exposed in 
the forum, inflamed the people of Col la ti a with indignation. 
The bravest of the youth fly to arms. Brutus, having placed 
a sufficient guard at the gates, to prevent any intelligence from 
being carried to Tarqu'm, hastens to Rome. There having 
summoned an assembly of the people, which he had a right to 
do, as being commander of the Celercs, or king's body guards, 
he made a speech that indicated a very superior degree of un- 
derstanding to what he was, till then, thought to possess. By 
a pathetic representation of the fate of Lucretia, and by enu- 
merating the various acts of tyranny committed by Tarquin, 
he so inflamed the multitude, that they deposed Lucius Tar- 
quinius from being king, and decreed banishment against him- 
self, his wife, and family. Brutus having armed a body of 
young men, who voluntarily offered themselves, marched to 
the camp at Ardea, to incite the army there against the King; 
leaving the command of the city to Lucretius, who had alreadv 
been appointed prefect of it by Tarquin. During this com- 
motion Tullia fled from the palace, loaded with execrations 
wherever she went. 

The King, alarmed with the news of what had happened, 
was advancing to Rome with a chosen band to quell the sedition. 
Brutus, apprised of his coming, turned out of the way, that 
he might not meet him. They both arrived much about the 
same time, by different routes, Brutus at Ardea, and Tarquin 
at Rome. The gates were shut against Tarquin, and exile 
denounced against him. Brutus was joyfully received in the 
camp as the deliverer of his country, and the King's t^ons were 
expelled. Two of them, Titus and Aruns> followed their father, 
and went into exile to Care, a city of Etruria. Stxtus, having 
gone to Gabii, of which his father had made him king, Dionys* 
iv. 58. was slain on account of his former cruelties, Liv. i. 60. 

Tarquin reigned 25 years. The r^gal government continued 
244 ye. ns. 

The account given of this memorable event is taken chiefly 
from Livy. Dionysius differs in some particulars, but agrees 
in all the important facts. 



HISTORY 



History of the Roman Republic. 



207 



HISTORY of the ROMAN REPUBLIC. 

After the expulsion of Tarquin, two supreme magistrates, 
called CONSULS, were chosen from among the patricians, 
in an assemblv of the people by centuries. The first consuls 
were, L. JUNIUS BRUTUS, and L. TARQUINIUS 
COLLAT1NUS. 

Their office was made annual, that they might not grow 
insolent by the length of their command ; and their authority 
equal, that they might counteract each other, if either of them 
should form designs dangerous to liberty. The consuls at first 
possessed the same power that the kings had enjoyed, and also 
the same ensigns of authority, except the crown ; only within 
the city the lictors, with the fasces and secures, went before one 
of them alternately, usually for a month at a time. A single 
officer, called accensus, attended the other. 

Brutus had the fasces first by the consent of his colleague. 
He obliged all the citizens to swear, " that they would never 
" suffer any one to reign at Rome." He filled up the senate, 
diminished by the murders of Tarquin, to its usual comple- 
ment, 300, by chusing into it the chief men of equestrian 
rank. * 

As certain sacred rites used to be performed by the kings, a 
priest was created, called Rex Sacrorum, to perform them, 
but devoid of authority, and subject to the High Priest. Even 
the name of Tarquin became odious ; and on that account 
Collattnus, the colleague of Brutus, was obliged to leave the 
city. Valerius was chosen consul in his room. 

Tarquin sent ambassadors to Rome to demand only his 
effects, without mentioning his return. A majority of the 
senate was for granting his request. But in the mean time 
some young noblemen, accustomed to the luxuries of a court, 
and therefore displeased with the late change, formed a conspi- 
racy to restore the royal family. Among these were the sons 
of Brutus. The conspiracy being discovered by a slave, called 
VlNDICIUSy the conspirators were apprehended and punished. 
Brutus saw the sentence of death executed on his own sons, 

* The new chosen senators were called conscript*, the old pafres. When addressed, 
they were called Patres et Conscripti ; hence, the et heing dropt, the name Fatres 
conscriptIj often marked by these two letters P,C. was afterwards applied to al! 
the senators. 

The 



208 



History of the Roman Republic. 



The king's effects, which had been before ordered to be re- 
stored, were given up to be plundered by the common people; 
and a field along the Tiber, belonging to the Tarquins, was 
consecrated to Mars, hence called Campus Mahtius, or the 
plain of Mars. 

Tarquin having prevailed on the Tarquinienses, Vejentes, and 
, other Tuscan states, to espouse his cause, led an army against 
Rome. An obstinate battle was fought, in which Brutus and 
A) utis Tarquinius fell by mutual wounds. Night put an end 
to the combat. The Tuscans giving up all for lost, went 
away in the night to their homes. Valerius returned to Rome 
in triumph. He ceh brated the funeral of his colleague with 
all the magnificence which the simplicity of that age would 
admit, Dicnys. v. 17. The matrons mourned for Brutus a 
whole year, (i. e. ten months, according to the institution of 
Romulus,) as for a parent. Valerius, because he did net 
immediately substitute a colleague in place of Brutus, and 
happened to be building a house in an elevated situation, was 
suspected of aiming at the sovereignty. But he soon removed 
these suspicions. He passed several popular laws, allowing an 
appeal to the people from the sentence of a magistrate, and 
granting leave to any one to kill the person who should attempt 
making himself king. He likewise appointed that the lictors 
should not carry an axe among their rods within the city ; and 
introduced the custom, that, when the consuls came into an 
assembly of the people, their lictors, in token of submission, 
should lower the fasces ; whence he got the sirname of POPLI- 
COLA, (a populum colendo.) The Capitol was dedicated this 
year by Horatitts, the consul who had been substituted in 
place of Brutus. That honour fell to him by lot. 

The Tarquins now had recourse to Lar PORSENA or Per- 
senna, king of Clusium, the most powerful prince at that time 
in Italy. He having marched with a great army to Rome, 
took the Janiculum by a sudden assault*, and would have also 
taken the city, had it not been for P. HORATIUS, called 
Coc LES, from, the loss of an eye, Dionys. v. 23. ; Plant. Cure. 
iii. 22. ; Plin. xi. 37. s. 55. who being stationed on the Subli- 
cian bridge, with two others, withstood the attack of the 
enemy, ar.d so prevented their passage, till the bridge was cut 
down from behind # . Then, having first forced his companions 
to retire 9 he leapt into the river, ami swam over ^ale to his 
friends, amidst the darts of the enemy, Polyb. vi. 53. A 

* As this was then done with difficulty, the br'ulpc was so built erer aAci that it 
mi^ht be taken to peces will) ease. Vim, xxxvi. 15 * 13* 

statue 



History of the Roman Republic, 



209 



Statue of Codes, was placed in the Comitium*, and as much 
land given him as he couid plough round in one day, Liv. 
ii. 10. 

Porsena now turned the siege into a blockade, and the city- 
began to be distressed with famine ; when C. MUCIUS, a 
young nobleman, formed the design of delivering his country. 
Having got admission into the enemy's camp, in the guise of a 
Tuscan peasant, with a dagger concealed under his cloak, he 
took his station among the thickest of the crowd near the 
king's tribunal, who happened then to be distributing pay to his 
soldiers, together with his secretary, who had almost the same 
dress with the king. Mucius, afraid to enquire which of them 
was Porsena, lest by his ignorance he should discover himself, 
slew the secretary by mistake, instead of the king. Being in- 
terrogated about the deed, and threatened with torture unless 
he made an open discovery, he thrust his right hand into a fire 
which was burning on an altar before him, and let it broil with- 
out any apparent emotion. The king, astonished, leapt from 
his throne, and ordered the young man to be removed from the 
altar. Having applauded his intrepidity, he dismissed him in 
safety. Mucius, as if to compensate such generosity, told the 
king, that 300 of the Roman youth had conspired to attack him 
in the same manner. Porsena, struck with this intelligence, 
voluntarily made proposals of peace to the Romans. The re- 
storation of the Tarquins was mentioned among the articles, but 
in vain : Every other demand was complied with, and hostages 
given, upon condition that the garrison in the Janiculum should 
be withdrawn. 

CLCELIA, a virgin, one of the hostages, having deceived 
her keepers, swam over the Tiber at the head of her com- 
panions, amidst the darts of the enemy, and restored them all 
safe to their relations. Porsena, incensed at this, sent to de- 
mand Clcelia back, making no account of the rest. After she 
came, he, in admiration of her virtue, not only let her go in 
safety, but also promised to release, on her account, half of the 
hostages of the other sex, and permitted her to chuse whom 
she pleased. She is said from motives of delicacy, to have 
chosen such as were below the age of fourteen. 

Peace being thus renewed, Porsena withdrew his army from 
the Roman territory. 

Mucius, who got the sirname of SCiEVOLA, from the 
loss of his right hand, was rewarded with lands on the north 
of the Tiber, afterwards called Praia Mucia> the Mucian 



* A part of the Forum, where assemblies of the people used sometimes to be held. 

P meadows. 



History of the Roman Republic. 



meadows. In honour of Clcelin, a statue of a virgin on horse- 
back was erected at the top of the via sacra, Liv. ii. 13. , 
Dionys. v. 35. 

According to Plutarch, in Peptic, p. 163. Questcrs y or ma- 
gistrates to take care of the public treasury, were first created 
this year ; but they appear to have been instituted long before, 
Tacit. Ann. xi. 22. ; Dionys. v. 34. 

Tarquin, having lost all hopes of further assistance from 
Porsena, retired to Tusculum to his son-in-law Mamilius Oc- 
tavius. By this means he excited several states of the Latins, 
Dionys. v. 61. and also of the Sabines, to war against the Re- 
mans. To oppose so formidable a combination, the Romans 
created a single magistrate with absolute authority, called 
DICTATOR, who always chose another person to command 
under him, called master of horse, (M AGISTER EQUITUM,) 
a. u. 253. The enemy delayed their threatened attack, and 
the Dictator resigned his command, Liv. ii. 18. Two years 
after, a bloody battle was fought at the lake Regillusy by 
A. Posthumius the dictator, and T. JEbutiusy master of horse, 
against the Latins, under the command of Mamilius and the 
Tarquins. The Latins were completely defeated. Mamilius 
and Titus the son of Tarquin were slain *, Liv. ii. 20. 

Tarquin, having now lost all his sons, fled to Aristodemus, 
the tyrant of Cuma> where he died a few years after, being 
about 90 years of age, a. u. 259. b. C. 493.; Liv. ii. 21.; 
Dionys. vi. 21. 

After the death of Tarquin the nobility began to oppress 
the plebeians, whom they had till that time treated with great 
kindness. The chief ground of complaint was the rigour used 
against insolvent debtors. In the mean time the JEqui and 
Volsci made war on the Romans. The plebeians refused to ill- 
list, unless they were relieved from their grievances. Redress 
was repeatedly promised them ; but after the enemy was re- 
pulsed, these promises were not performed, Liv. ii. 27. At 
last the plebeians, provoked by the cruelty of the usurers, by 
the haughtiness and treachery of the patricians, at the insti- 
gation of one SICINIUS, made a secession from the city to a 

* Dionysius says It was Semis Tarquinius that was slain in this battle, vi.ia. who, 
according to I.ivy, was killed t>y the people of Cr.hii, fee p. 206. 

In memory of this victory the Equitet, hy whose valour chiefly it w«s gained, made 
a solemn procession annually on the 15th July [Utfotu Quir.tilibus), the day on which 
tiie battle was fought, from the temple of Man without the city to the capitol, D'nnyt. 
ft 13. The ^ods Castor and Pollux are also said to have contributed in a singular 
manner to the victory, Ibid.; Val. Muk. i. 8. I. ; Fhr. i. 11.; Livy makes the origin 
of this procession much later, u. 46. 

mountain 

14 



History of the Roman Republic. 



211 



mountain beyond the Anio, called Mons Sacer, the sacred 
mountain, three miles from Rome. There having fortified a 
camp, they remained peaceably for some days, taking nothing 
but what was necessary for their subsistence. At last the se- 
nate, apprehensive of the consequences of such dissension, sent 
MENENIUS AGRIPPA, with ten of the principal senators, 
to propose terms of accommodation. Their remonstrances for 
some time made no impression. At la-t Agrippa, by applying 
the noted fable of the conspiracy of the different members of 
the body against the belly, to the resentment of the common 
people against the patricians, bent their minds. They agreed 
to return into the city upon condition of beine allowed to create 
magistrates of their own, who should protect their rights, and 
whose persons should be inviolable. Two were immediately 
appointed, Sicinius and Brutus ; three more were added ; and 
their number was afterwards increased to ten, Liv. iii. 30. 
They were called Tribunes of the Commons (TRIBUNI PLE- 
BIS). The first tribunes were elected on the 10th December 
. a. u. 260. (iv. Id. Decemb.) which ever after was the day when 
the tribunes entered on their office, Dionys. vi. 89. ; Liv. xxxix. 
52. At the same time two other magistrates were created in 
the assembly by curia, called iEDILES, to act as assistants to 
the tribunes, and to take care of the public buildings, particu- 
larly of the temples, Dionys. vi. 90. They were afterwards, as 
were also the tribunes and all inferior magistrates, elected in 
the Comitia Tributa, or an assembly of the people by tribes, 
Gel/, vi. 9. 

Soon after war was undertaken against the Volsci. "Whilst 
besieging Goritili the Roman army was in great danger, from a 
sudden attack of the Volsci from without, and a sally of the 
townsmen from within. C MARCIUS, a young nobleman, 
who happened to be on guard, collecting a body of chosen men, 
fought with such wonderful bravery and conduct, that he not 
only repulsed the assailants, but, rushing in at an open gate, 
took the city, whence he got the sirname of CORIOLANUS, 
Liv ii. 33.; Dionys. vi. 92. — 95. 

For many years there were violent contentions between the 
tribunes and the patricians, the former struggling to extend 
the rights of their order, and the latter to retain their pri* 
vileges. 

During a famine, occasioned by the neglect of tillage in the 
time of the secession of the plebeians, the consuls were obliged 
to send every where for provisions. At Cumae the Roman 
ships were detained for the effects of the Tarquins by their 
heir Aristidemus. At last abundance of grain being procured 

P 2 from 



212 



History of the Roman Republic. 



from the neighbouring states, and chiefly from Sicily, from 
Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse-, there was a debate in the se- 
nate at what price corn should be given to the plebeians. It 
was proposed by several, and chiefly by Coriolanus, who was 
inimical to the plebeians on account of his having been refused 
the consulate, that no corn should be given them, unless they 
abolished the office of tribunes, and gave up other rights, 
which they had extorted from the patricians. The plebeians, 
informed of tins, would have torn him in pieces, had not the 
tribunes named a day for his trial, and appointed that he should 
be judged in an assembly of the people by tribes, [comitia tri- 
buta,) then for the first time instituted, where the vote of 
every citizen was equal. The senators used every method in 
their power to prevent this innovation, but in vain. They 
then tried the force of intreaties, but this was equally unsuc- 
cessful. 

Coriolanus did not appear on the day of trial ; and being 
condemned in his absence, went into voluntary exile to the 
country of the Volsci. He was hospitably received by Attius 
Tullus, the chief of that nation, by whose artful manage- 
ment the Volsci were excited to declare war against the Ro- 
mans. Attius Tullus and Coriolanus were appointed com- 
manders. By the valour and abilities of the latter they took a 
great many towns from the Romans, whom they defeated in 
every engagement *, and at last having pitched their camp only 
five miles from the city, pillaged the Roman territory, always 
leaving the grounds of the patricians untouched. Various em- 
bassies were sent to Coriolanus to prevail on him to depart, but 
without effect. Dionysius says, the Romans were never in so 
great danger. At last he was overcome by the intreaties of his 
mother Vcturia, who had educated him with the greatest care, 
and withdrew his forces. Upon his return he is said to have 
been slain in an insurrection of the Volsci j others relate, that 
he lived to a great old age, Liv. ii. 34. — 41. Dionysius, who 
detailb the particulars of the story at great length in his usual 
manner, from vii. 1. to viii. 63. represents Coriolanus as pos- 
sessed of extraordinary virtue, and says he was cut off by the 
machinations of Tullus, through envy of his superior merit. 
The Romans and Volsci equally lamented him. The Roman 
matrons mourned for him a whole year, lb. 62. 

Next year, a. u. 266, the Volsci were overcome by Siccius 
the consul. Tullus, the perfidious host of Coriolanus, fell in 
the battle, Il>. 67. 

In the year of Rome 268, SP. CASSIUSj the consul, having 
gained a triumph over the Hernici, proposed what was called 

16 an 



History of the Roman Republic. 



an Agrarian la<w> about dividing the conquered lands among 
-the common people, and taking from the patricians those lands 
belonging to the public, which, he alleged, they unjustly 
possessed. In this he was opposed by his colleague Virginius, 
at the instigation of the senators, who gave out that Cassius 
was aiming at sovereignty, and prosecuted him with so great 
animosity, that, after he resigned the consulship, he was con- 
demned and thrown from the Tarpeian rock, Liv. ii. 41.; 
Dionys. viii. 69. — 81. Some say he was put to death by his 
father, in virtue of that right which, among the Romans, a 
father had over his children *, lb. 

The family of the FABII was at this time one of the most 
powerful in Rome. Whilst the state was engaged in various 
wars, the Fabii demanded that their family alone should carry- 
on the war against the Vejentes. They one day came all in a 
body, with the consul at their head, to make the proposal to 
the senate. Having obtained permission, they set out to the 
number of 306, Liv. ; as Dionysius says, attended by their 
clients and friends, amounting to 4000. At first they were 
very successful, defeating the enemy in every encounter, and 
plundering their territory ; but at last elated with success, they 
were brought into an ambuscade and cut off to a man, near 
the river Cremera. This happened on the 1 8th July (xv. KaL 
Sext. velJug. DIES CREMERENSIS) ; which ever after was 
held as an unlucky day, (dies ater,) Liv. vi. I. Tacit. Hist. ii. 91. 
and the gate of the city at which they went out was called 
Porta Scelerata, the wicked gate. It is said there was only one 
boy of the family left, near the age of puberty, from whom the 
illustrious heroes of that name, who afterwards appeared, were 
descended, Liv. ii. 48. — 51.; Dionys. ix. 15. — 23. but Diony- 
sius speaks doubtfully of this fact, lb. 22. 

The history of Rome, during this period, is not interesting. 
It contains, for the most part, only a repetition of similar 
occurrences ; an account of wars with the neighbouring states, 
chiefly with the JEaui and Volsci^ and of contests between 
the tribunes and patricians concerning agrarian laws and the 
rights of their respective orders, Liv. ii. 52. — hi. 26. 5 Dionys. 
ix. 24. — x. 23. 

* This agrarian law was afterwards frequently renewed, in different forms, and occa- 
sioned the greatest commotions in the state. For the patricians, who had found means 
to get possession of the puhlic lands, could not be prevailed on to part with them. The 
most effectual method employed by the patricians for opposing these agrarian laws, was 
to get one or more of the tribunes to give their negative against them : This negative 
was expressed by the word VETO, I forbid it, Liv. ii. 44. 48. 5a. 

P 3 In 



21* 



History of the Roman Republic, 



In the year of the city 296, the Consul Mimtcius being sent 
against the ^qui, was unwarily led into a deiile, where he was 
blocked up by the enemy. When this was known at Rome, 
L. QUINHUS CINCINNATUS was made dictator, whom 
the ambassadors, sent to notify his appointment, found working 
in his farm, whence he is commonly called the Dictator from 
the plough. He quickly raised an army, and marched to relieve 
the consul. Having surrounded the -ffiqui on all sides, he 
forced them to surrender at discretion, and made them all pass 
under the yoke. He returned to Rome in triumph, and re- 
signed the dictatorship on the sixteenth day after his appoint- 
ment, lAv. i i. 26. — 30.; Dionys. x. 23. — 26. 

In the year cf the city 299, three senators were sent as am- 
bassadors to Athens, to copy the famous laws of Solon, and 
to examine the institutions, customs, and laws, of the other 
.states of Greece, JLiv. iii. 31. Upon their return ten men 
(DECEMVIRI) were created in place of consuls, with supreme 
power, for a year, a. u. 301. to draw up a body of laws, which 
they did in ten tables. These laws were ratified by the people 
in an assembly by centuries. It was given out, that two more 
tables were wanting, to complete, as it were, the body of Ro- 
man law [corpus juris). Decemviri therefore were created for 
another year. APPIUS CLAUDIUS was the only one of 
the former decemviri that was re-elected, who henceforth began 
to take the lead among his colleagues. By his advice they 
assumed to themselves greater power, and acted more tyran- 
nically *. Towards the end of the year they added two tables 
to the former ten, after which it was expected that they would 
have appointed a day for the election of consuls. But this 
was not done; and after the year was expired, they continued 
their command without any new appointment. Such as 
shewed any repugnance to their measures were punished, 
some with banishment, and others with death. In the mean 
time the Sabines and JEqvi made an incursion into the Roman 
territory. This obliged the decemvirs to summon a meeting 
of the senate. It was with difficulty they got a quorum 
convened. Several senators gave their opinion that no decree 
could be passed in a meeting held by illegal magistrates. It 
was determined, however, by a majority, that the management 
of the war should be entrusted to the decemvirs ; which 
strengthened their authority. An army was levied and led 

* They were, each of them, preceded by twelve lirtori, be.iring the fjs;ts HM 
Kcurrs 1 whereas formerly one of their number only was preceded by lictors, bcarinj 
rnly the reacts, Ditnys. x. 59. ; Jl1v.iii.37. 

against 



History of the Roman Republic* 21 § 



against the enemy. But the soldiers, unwilling to act under 
such leaders, suffered themselves to be disgracefully defeated. 
Appius Claudius, with Oppius, one of his colleagues, was left 
to take care of the city. 

Appius, seeing a virgin of uncommon beauty, about fifteen 
years of age, passing through the Forum to school, conceived 
a criminal passion for her. Her name was VIRGINIA, the 
daughter of Virginius, a centurion of rank in the army, and 
betrothed to Icilius, who had been a tribune of the commons. 
Her mother being dead, she was under the charge of her nurse; 
whom Appius, having in vain attempted to bribe, employed 
Claudius, one of his clients, to claim the girl as his slave. The 
affair of course was brought before Appius as judge. In the 
mean time Icilius, the lover of the virgin, and Numitorius, her 
uncle, had influence to prevent sentence from being immediately 
pronounced. Virginius being informed of what was going on, 
returned from the camp, and next day went with his daughter, 
in the garb of criminals, attended by a great number of his 
relations and friends, to the tribunal of Appius. The de- 
cemvir, blinded by passion, and regardless of justice, decreed 
that Virginia should be given up as a slave to Claudius. 
When she was about to be carried away, Virginius requested 
that, since the virgin had been declared not to be his daugh- 
ter, he might be allowed to ask her nurse a few questions in 
her presence, that if he had been falsely called her father, he 
might return to the camp with less uneasiness. Leave be- 
ing granted, he took them both aside to an adjoining shop ; 
where, having snatched a knife from a butcher, he plunged it 
in the breast of his daughter, saying, In this manner only can 
I free thee, my daughter : and looking back to Appius, he 
said, By this blood I devote thee and thy head to the infernal gods, 
Appius, alarmed by the cry raised at so atrocious a deed, 
ordered Virginius to be apprehended. But Virginius, where- 
ever he came, opened for himself a way with the knife, till 
guarded by the crowd which followed, he reached the gate 
of the city. Icilius and Numitorius, taking up the dead body, 
exposed it to the view of the people, execrating the wicked- 
ness of Appius, and deploring the hapless beauty of the vir- 
gin, which had forced her parent to embrue his hands in her 
blood. The matrons present uttered the most doleful lamen- 
tations. Appius, unable to quell the commotion, and ap- 
prehensive for his life, stole away from the Forum without the 
knowledge of his adversaries, and hid himself in an adjoining 
house. 

P 4 Virginius, 



21G 



History of the Roman Republic. 



VirginiuSj having reached the camp, attended by a body of 
about 400 citizens, whom indignation at the cause of his cruel 
misfortune had brought along with him, holding in his hand 
the bare knife, and having his body all over stained with blood, 
excited among the soldiers a much greater agitation than he 
had left in the city. By a bare narration of facts he so in- 
flamed their minds, that they immediately struck their standards 
and marched to Rome. They first took possession of mount 
Aventine ; rom thence, finding that the senate favoured the 
Decemviri) having created ten military tribunes to command 
them, they passed over to the sacred mount (tnons sacer), fol- 
lowed by their wives and children, and all the common people, 
whose age permitted them to go. 

The Decemviri were thus obliged to resign their command. 
VALERIUS and HOR A I IUS, who had all along opposed 
their proceedings, were made consuls. Tribunes of the com- 
mons were likewise created, the chief of whom were Virgi- 
niuSj Lilius, and Numitorius. Virginius appointed a day for 
the trial of Appius before the people. Appius was therefore 
put in piison ; but before the day arrived he killed himself. 
Oppius, his colleague, perished in the same manner. The 
other eight decemviri went into exile, and their goods were 
confiscated. Claudius, the client and instrument of Appius, 
was likewise banished. And thus, says Livy, the ghost of Vir- 
ginia, after the punishment of all the guilty, was appeased, 
Liv. iii. 33. — 59.; Dionys. x. ^7. — xi. 47. 

Affairs being thus settled in the city, the consuls levied two 
armies and marched against the enemy Valerius conquered 
the JEqui and Fo/sci, and Horatius the Sabines. The soldiers 
now fought in a very different manner from what thev had 
done under the decemviri j such courage and alacrity did liberty 
inspire, Liv. iii. 60. &c. Valerius and Horatius were the 
first who triumphed by the order of the people, the senate 
having refused them that honour, Liv. iii. 63. from resentment 
on account of the popular laws which they had passed : " That 
the ordinances of the people in their assemblies by tribes (plebi- 
scita) should bind the whole Roman people ; that no magistrate 
should be created, from whom there was not liberty of appeal ; 
and that whoever offered violence to a tribune should be punish- 
ed with death, and the confiscation of his effects." Ib. 55. 

After this, the former disputes between the tribunes and the 
patricians were revived, which encouraged the JEqui and Volsci 
to renew their depredations, and to cany them even to the 
walls of Rome, lb. 66. But the Romans, moved by the sharp 

reproofs 



History of the Roman Republic. 



217 



reproofs of Quinctius Gapitolinus> the consul, marched against 
them, and, after a fierce combat, entirely defeated them, lb. 
70. The glory of this victory was tarnished by a shameful 
decision in a reference from two allied states. The inhabitants 
of Aricia and Ardea, having long contended in war about some 
lands, agreed to submit their differences to the judgment of the 
Roman people. They, upon the information of one Scaptius } 
adjudged the lands to themselves, contrary to the opinion of the 
consuls and chief men of the senate, who highly condemned 
their injustice, Liv. 3. ji. and 72. 

A. u. 309. A law was passed, after violent opposition, to 
permit the intermarriage of plebeians with patricians, which 
before had been forbidden, Liv. iv. 1. — 6. At the same time 
a law was proposed, that the consuls might be chosen either 
from the plebeians or patricians, lb. f. which, for many years,, 
produced the keenest contests between the two orders, but they 
never proceeded to slaughter. Reverence for religion restrained 
their minds. An expedient was then fallen upon which 
pleased both parties, that MILITARY TRIBUNES should be 
created with consular power, promiscuously, from the patri- 
cians and plebeians, but that no change should be made in the 
election of consuls *, Liv. iv. 7. Three military tribunes only 
were at first created; and the people satisfied with having 
obtained a freedom of election, chose them all from among the 
patricians, Liv. ib. Dionys. xi. 61. They were, however, soon 
obliged to resign their office, on account of some alleged 
informality in taking the omens at their election. An interrex 
was then appointed by the senate, as usual, who held an assembly 
for substituting consuls in their room. For upwards of seventy 
years, sometimes consuls were created, and sometimes military 
tribunes, as the influence of the patricians or plebeians pre- 
vailed. The number of military tribunes chosen was different 
at different times. They were so named, because the chief 
commanders of the legion called military tribunes^ were usually 
the most respectable plebeians. 

In the year of the city 312, two new magistrates were insti- 
tuted, called CENSORS, to take an account of the number of 
the citizens, and the value of their fortunes, the consuls, by 
reason of continual wars, not having leisure for that business, 
Liv. iv. 8. 

A. u. 3 15. In the time of a famine, Sp MiELIUS, a wealthy 
man, of the equestrian order, having purchased corn from 

* Dio-.rysius says it was ordained that six military tribunes should be annually created, 
three from each order, xi. 60. 

various 



218 



History of ihc Roman Republic. 



various places, distributed it among the people gratis; whence, 
and from otlier circumstances, he was suspected of aiming at 
sovereignty. 

CINCINNATUS was a second time made dictator to check 
his designs. Scrvilius Ahala> matter of horse, beinj* sent by 
the dictator to summon Mxlius before him, upon his refusal 
slew him with his own hand. His house was levelled to the 
ground, hence called -^EquiMjELIUM, Liv.iv. 13. — 16. 

The Romans continued their wars with the JEqui and Volsci, 
the Fidenates and Vejentes ; being at the same time often dis- 
turbed by internal dissentions. 

A. u. 350. The Romans laid siege to VEJI, the most opulent 
city of Etruria, which lasted for ten years. During this siege, 
for the first time, the Roman army kept the field all winter in 
tents or wooden barracks, covered with hides, Liv. v. 2. Pay 
also was granted to the cavalry, lb. 7. as it had been some 
years before to the foot-soldiers, Liv. iv. 59. Formerly both 
served at their own expence, Ibid. 

After Veji had been besieged above nine years, the Romans, 
alarmed by the bad success of two of their generals against the 
Falisci and Capenates, were on the point of raising the siege, 
when CAMILLUS, being created dictator, inspired them with 
fresh courage. Having defeated the Falisci and Capenates, he 
urged the siege of Veji with the greatest vigour, and at last, 
by carrying a mine into the enemy's citadel, took the city, a. u. 
360. Liv. v. 19. — 24. Camillus vowed the tenth part of the 
booty to Apollo of Delphi, in consequence of which a golden 
cup was sent as a present to that god, lb. 25. 

Two years after, Camillus, being made one of the military 
tribunes, was sent against the Falisci. Having defeated them 
in the field, he laid siege to their chief city, Falerii, 

It was customary among the Falisci to employ the same per- 
son as the instructor and companion of their children, and, 
after the manner of the Greeks, to entrust the boys of several 
families to the charge of one. The tutor of the children of 
the chief men at Falerii used, in time of peace, to carry his 
pupils to amuse and exercise themselves before the town ; and 
continuing the same practice during the siege, he found means 
to decoy them into the camp of the Romans. Being brought 
to the pratorium or general's tent, he told Camillus, that by 
delivering these boys into his power, he in fact put him in 
possession of the city. Camillus, detesting such villany, ordered 
him to be stript, and his hands bound behind his back. Then 
delivering a rod to each of the boys, he bid them beat their 

betrayer 



History of the Roman Republic. 219 



betrayer back to the city. This generosity so affected the 
Falisci, that they voluntariiy surrendered their city to Camillas, 
Liv. v. 27. 

As Veji was preferable to Rome in situation and fertility of 
soil, a law was proposed by Sicinius, a tribune of the com- 
mons, about removing thither, lb. 24. This law being keenly 
opposed by the patiici.ms, and particularly by Camillus, was 
rejected ; only, however, by a majority of one tribe, lb. 30. 
But, to gratify the people, the lands of Veji were divided 
among them, seven acres to each man, lb. 

Soon after, Camillus, being accused by the tribunes of having 
applied to his own use part of the plunder of Veji, and per- 
ceiving that he should be condemned, went into voluntary 
exile ; having prayed to the gods, that if he suffered that injury 
unjustly, they would make his ungrateful country soon feel the 
loss of him, lb. 32. 

After the expulsion of Camillus, ambassadors came from 
Clusium, begging assistance against the GAULS, by whom 
they were then attacked. Several tribes of that nation had, at 
different times, crossed the Alps, attracted, it is said, by the 
delicious taste of the wines in Italy, and had occupied the 
northern parts of that country. The tribe which had come 
last, and then besiegeo Clusium, was called Galli Senones, under 
the conduct of BRENNUS. 

The senate sent an embassy of three young patricians, all 
of the Fabian family, to request of the Gauls, that they would 
not, without provocation, make war on the allies of the Roman 
people. The Gauls said, that they would desist horn their 
attack, if the people of Clusium would give up to them a part 
of their territory, which they might easily do, as they had 
more land than they could occupy. When the Roman am- 
bassadors asked, What right the Gauls had in Etruria ? they 
answered fiercely, " That they carried their right in their arms." 
This haughty reply made the Roman ambassadors give up all 
hopes of negotiating a peace.. They therefore returned to 
Clusium, highly incensed. They even had the imprudence to 
join the Clusini in a sally against the enemy ; and one of the 
Fabii, advancing before the ranks, slew a leader of the Gauls : 
Whereupon Brennus sounded a retreat ; and the Gauls dropping 
their resentment against the Clusini, now only menaced ven- 
geance against the Romans. They first, however, sent am- . 
bassadors to demand, that the Fabii, for having violated the 
law of nations, should be given up to them. This being 
refused, they marched towards Rome. A battle was fought at 

the 



220 



History of the Jioman Republic, 



the conflux of the river Allia with the Tiber, on the 1 8th * day 
of July, a. u. 363. The Romans, through the misconduct of 
their leaders, were soon completely defeated. The greatest 
number of them fled to Veji ; a part retreated to Rome, and 
took possession of the Capitol. The priests and Vestal Virgins, 
carrying the sacred things, fled to Caere, Liv. v. 40. vii. 20. 
The multitude of citizens fled, some one way and some another. 
The old senators remained in the city, determined not to sur- 
vive the destruction of their country. 

The Gauls, surprised at the facility of their victory, advanced 
slowly towards the city, and reached it a little before sun-sct. 
Being informed by their scouts that the gates were open, and 
therefore suspecting snares, they passed the night before the 
walls. Next day having entered the city at the Collitie gate, 
they found the streets empty •, the houses of the poor shut, 
and those of the chief men open. They saw the aged senators 
sitting in the vestibules of their houses, dressed each in the 
robes of those offices which they had borne, and sitting in 
their curule chairs. The Gauls were struck with awe at their 
majestic appearance, resembling, says Livy, so many divinities, 
v. 41. and gazed at them as if they had been images; when 
Papirius, one of the senators, offended at a Gaul for stroaking 
his beard, which all the Romans then wore long, struck him 
with his ivory staff on the head : Whereupon the Gaul instantly 
slew him ; and, as if upon that signal, all the rest were killed 
in their seats. Then the houses of the city were plundered 
and set on fire. After ravaging the place for several days, the 
Gauls attempted to force the Capitol ; but being repulsed with 
great loss, they gave up all hopes of taking it by assault, and 
therefore prepared to blockade it. Having improvidently burnt 
the corn which was in the city, they were obliged to send out 
part of the army to procure provisions, by pillaging the neigh- 
bouring states. It happened that those plunderers directed 
their course to Ardea, where Camillus lived in exile. He having 
persuaded the Ardeates to take up arms to repel those invaders, 
attacked the camp of the Gauls in the night-time, and dispersed 
them with great slaughter. The Romans at Veji, under the 
conduct of Ctdiciusy a centurion, in like manner cut to pieces 
the Tuscans, who were plundering in that quarter, and in- 
tended to attack Veji itself. In consequence of this success, 

* This day (xv. Kal. Sext. vcl Aug.) was called DIES AL1 (BftKHS, and ever 
after reckoned an unlucky day [Diet ater, rcligiuiut vcl infaustus; omnij bumami di» 
finiquc juris tx[>crs)- T;cit. Hist, ii.yi. Imsigmii ret nulli fublice prwatimque agemdm t 
Liv. vi. 1. On the same d.iy also the FM'% had been klain .it Crcmera, (See p. a 13.) 

nor 



History of the Roman Republic, 



221 



•not only the courage, but also the number of the Romans at 
Veji daily increased ; and they now only wanted a head to 
direct them. It was unanimously resolved to send for Camillus 
from Ardea : But first it was necessary to consult the senate 
and people at Rome ; and this could not be done without 
great danger. Pontius Comminius, however, a brave young man, 
having swam down the Tiber, on the bark of a tree, to the 
foot of the Capitol, climbed up the rock on that side, unobserved 
by the enemy ; and having obtained a decree of the senate, 
and an order of the people, that Camillus should be recalled 
from exile and appointed dictator, he returned to Veji the 
same way he came. Camillus being sent for from Ardea, took 
upon himself the command of the army at Veji. * 

In the mean time the citadel of Rome, and the Capitol, was 
near being taken. For the Gauls, having discovered a practi- 
cable ascent, in a clear night got up to the top, in such silence, 
that they not only escaped the notice of the centinels, but 
also of the dogs. Some geese, sacred to Juno, which had been 
preserved in the greatest famine, by their cackling, awakened 
M. MANLIUS, a brave warrior, who had been consul three 
years before. He having quickly snatched his arms, and rousing 
the rest, tumbled down the Gaul who had first got up, and 
the rest of the garrison flocking to his assistance, soon cleared 
the citadel of the enemy. 

The Romans had now been blockaded in the Capitol near 
seven months. Both parties began to be distressed with famine ; 
the Gauls also with the plague. The latter knowing the 
wretched condition of the besieged for want of food, urged 
them to surrender. But the Romans, to convince them of the 
contrary, are said to have thrown in many places loaves of 
bread on the advanced guards of the enemy, Liv. v. 48. ; Ovid. 
Fast. vi. 391. At last a treaty was made that the Gauls should 
raise the siege and depart upon receiving 1000 pounds weight 
of gold. In weighing the gold, for there was then no coined 
gold, Brennus is said to have used unjust weights ; and, 
when the Romans complained, to have thrown his sword into 
the scale, saying, that the vanquished must put up vjitb every 
thing (ym victis esse). In the mean time, Camillus having 
arrived with his army, came in during the altercation about the 
weight of the gold ; and having ordered it to be removed, bid 
the Gauls prepare for battle. The Romans were victorious in 
their turn, and with equal facility, in two different engage- 

* Whence Lucan makes Lcntulus say, Fejosqug habitants Camil/e, illic Ro?r.a fuk % 



ments. 



222 



History of the Raman Republic. 



ments. The slaughter was so great that there was hardly one 
of the Gauls left to carry home the news of their defeat. 
Camillus returned into the city in triumph. The soldiers, in 
their songs, celebrated him as a second Romulus and founder 
of his country. The tribunes again renewed their proposal of 
removing to Veji ; but the people were prevented from em- 
bracing it by the persuasion of Camillus, chiefly from motives 
of religion, that they might not desert their temples and sacred 
rites. Their wavering opinion is said to have been determined 
by the casual expression of a centurion ; who, happening to 
pass through the Forum at the time, with some guards, said 
Ensign, fix your standard, ive shall best stay here. Upon which 
all the senate cried out, that they accepted the omen, and the 
people standing round approved it. The re-building of the 
city was instantly begun, and the work proceeded with such 
alacrity that it was finished in one year. 

After the city was rebuilt, a. u. 365, b. C. 387, the neigh- 
bouring states, the JEqui and Volsci, the Hermci, the Tuscans 
and Sabines, resumed their hostilities ; but they were all con- 
quered, chiefly by the conduct and valour of Camillus. The 
Volsci, after having carried on war for many years against the 
Romans, surrendered. Livy varies with respect to the length 
of time, i. 53. and vi. 2. and is at a loss to account for the 
frequency of their wars*, lb. 12. 

MANLIUS, the preserver of the Capitol, being suspected, 
from his uncommon kindness to the plebeians, lb. 11. of aim- 
ing at regal power, was condemned, and thrown from the Tar- 
peian rock ; and his house in the Capitol, which had been given 
him by the public as a reward for his valour, was levelled with 
the ground, 77;. 20. 

A. u. 387 or 388. L. SEXTIUS, after great contests, was 
first made consul from among the plebeians, Liv. vii. 1. This 
important change in the Roman government is said to have 
originated from a trifling cause. M. Fab'ius Ambustus, a noble- 
man, had two daughters, the elder of whom was married to 
Sulpicius, a patrician, and the younger to C. Licinius Stolo, a 
plebeian. While the latter was one day visiting her sifter, the 
lictor of Sulpicius, who was then military tribune, happened 
to strike the door with his rod, as was usual when that magis- 
trate returned home from the Forum. The younger Fubia, 
unacquainted with that custom, was frightened at the noise, 
which made her sister laugh, and express surprise at her 
ignorance. This stung her to the quick ; and upon her return 

* The Volsci nre said, a. u. 292, to hue been almost extinguished \ Vohtum nvmtn 
fene Jelxtum rjr,) Liv. in. 8. ami yet in three \cirs alter ihieaun war, 16.12. 

home 



History of the Roman Republic. 223 

home she could not conceal her uneasiness. Her father seeing 
her dejected, asked her if all was well ; but she at first would 
not give a direct answer : and it was with difficulty he at last 
drew from her a confession, that she was chagrined at being 
connected with a man who could not enjoy the same honours 
with her sister's husband. For although it had been ordained 
by law, that the military tribunes should be created promis- 
cuously from the patricians and plebeians, Liv. iv. 6. yet for 
forty-four years after their first institution, a. u. 31 1 to a. u. 355, 
no one plebeian had been created, Liv. v. 12. vi. 37. and very 
few afterwards, Liv. v. 13. 18. yi. 30. Ambustus, therefore, 
consoled his daughter with assurances, that she should soon see 
the same honours at her own house, which she saw at her 
sister's. To effect this, he concerted measures with his son- 
in-law, and one L. Sextius, a spirited young man of plebeian 
rank, who had every thing but birth to entitle him to the 
highest preferments. 

Licinius and Sextius being created tribunes of the commons, 
Liv. vi. 35. got themselves continued in that office for ten 
years, Ibid. 42. ; for five years they suffered no curule magis- 
trates to be created, lb. 35. and at last prevailed to get one of 
the consuls created from among the plebeians, lb. 42. 

The same year that Sextus was made consul, a new ma- 
gistrate was created to administer justice, called PRiETOR, 
and two additional ^Ediles, called CURULE iEDXLES, be- 
cause they had a right of sitting in public on a curule chair, 
a kind of seat adorned with ivory, which the other iEdiles 
had not, Liv. vi. 42. vii. 1. This year died the great Ca- 
millus, lb. 

A. u. 391. Stage-plays were first introduced at Rome, on 
occasion of a pestilence, to appease the divine wrath, Liv. vii. 2. 
From the same motive of superstition in that age, a dictator used 
sometimes to be created merely to fix a nail in the post of the 
temple of Jupiter. L. MANLIUS being created for this pur- 
pose, desired also to carry on war against the Hermci, and 
with that view levied an army with great rigour, whence he 
got the sirname of Imperiosus. 

Manlius being odious to the people on this account, after 
resigning his office, was accused by Pomponius % a tribune 5 
who, to enforce his charge, expatiated on the cruelty of Man- 
lius to his son ; whom, the tribune alleged, on account of a 
defect in speech and slowness of genius, his father had banished 
from the city, and obliged to work in the country like a 
slave. Young MANLIUS being informed of this, came to 

the 



224 



Hi story of the Roman Republic. 



the city early in the morning without telling any body, and 
having gone straightway to the house of the tribune, bid the 
porter tell his master that T. Manlius, the son of Lucius, 
■wanted immediately to speak with him. The tribune, sup- 
posing that he brought some new ground of accusation against 
his father, ordered him to be admitted. All witnesses being 
removed, the young man drawing a dagger, which he had 
concealed under his garment, and standing over the tribune 
who was still in bed, declared he would instantly stab him, if 
he did not swear to drop the prosecution against his father. 
The tribune, terrifi fd, swore to the word-; which the young man 
dictated. Thus L. Manlius was freed from his trial; and 
the people, although disappointed of an opportunity of con- 
demning a p< rsoi odious to them, were so pleased with this 
instance of filial affection, that they chose young Manlius as 
one of the six legionary tribunes, who then, for the first time, 
were appointed by the comitia Tributa, Liv. vii. q. 

The same year a great g ulf having been produced in the 
Forum by an earthquake, or Irom some other cause, the diviners 
being consulted, declared that it could not by any means be 
filled up, tili the best thing in Rome should be thrown into it. 
M. CURT1US, a brave young man, concluding that there was 
nothing in Rome more valuable than valour and arms, dressed 
in his finest armour, and riding on a horse adorned in the most 
splendid manner, is said to have thrown himself into the chasm, 
whence it was afterwards called the Curtian lake, Liv, vii. 6. 
or from another person of the same name, who distinguished 
himself under Romulus in t-hc battle against the Sabines, 
Liv. i. 12. ; Dionys. ii. 42. Some writers pretend that upon 
this the earth immediately closed of itself, Veil. Max. v. 6. 2. 
Varro gives different accounts of this matter, L. L. iv. 32. 

A. u. 394. The Gaulb encamped with their army on the 
bank of the Anio, only three miles from Rome ; and the Ro- 
mans pitched their camp on the opposite bank. There was a 
bridge betwixt both, but possessed by neither. A Gaul of 
enormous size advanced upon this bridge, and, with a lend 
voice, challenged the braved of the Romans to single combat. 
T. MANLIUS alone, who fre^d his father from the prosecu- 
tion of the tribune, had the hoi 'ncss to accept the challenge, 
but not without h..ving fir^r received permission from his com- 
mander. They both advanced nto an open space between the 
two armies. To all appearance the combat was ery unequal \ 
but Manlius made up by art what he v\ .. ted i 11 strength, and 
soon laid prostrate his mighty antagonist. Disregarding the 

rest 



History of the Roman Republic, 



22b 



rest of his spoils, he only took a golden collar or chain [torquis) 
from off his neck, and put it on his own, whence he got the 
sirname of TORQUATUS, which descended to his posterity* 
The Gauls were bo affected with the issue of this combat that 
they decamped in the night-time, Liv. vii. 10. 

The Gauls returned the two following years, and were 
both times defeated, the second time with great slaughter, 
lb. 15. 

Some years after, lb. 23. 25. when another Gaul of gigantic 
stature challenged any one of the whole Roman army to fight 
him, M. VALERIUS, a young man, and a legionary tribune, 
having first asked the consul's leave, went out against him, and 
killed him, by the assistance of a raven, as it is said, which, 
perching on the helmet of Valerius, struck the Gaul in the face 
with his beak and claws, and when he fell, flew out of* sight 
towards the east. Hence Valerius was sirnamed CORVUS, 
and his posterity CORVINI, Liv. vii. 26. The Romans 
immediately engaged in battle with the Gauls, and entirely- 
defeated them. Ib. 

In the year of the city 399, the whole Tuscan nation com- 
bined against Rome. But C. MARCIUS RUTILUS, being 
created dictator to oppose them, took their camp by a sudden 
attack, made 8000 of them prisoners, and dispersed the rest. -— 
He was the first plebeian raised to the office of dictator, to the 
great offence of the senators, who therefore refused him a 
triumph j but he obtained that honour by order of the people, 
Liv. vii. 17. 

A. u. 411. The Romans first engaged in war with the 
Samnites, the bravest nation in Italy ; which war was carried 
on for many years with various success, and with the greatest 
vigour on both sides, Liv. vii. 29. &c. The cause, or rather 
pretext, for hostilities on the side of the Romans, was to assist 
the people of Capua against the Samnites, by whom they were 
attacked. 

When the Romans at first hesitated about granting their 
request, the ambassadors of Capua, according to their instruc- 
tions, gave up themselves and their city into the power of the 
Roman people, that if they would not assist them as allies, they 
might defend them as subjects. * 



* Bjr no art did the Romans more successfully extend their empire than by- 
fomenting discord among the neighbouring states, and always assisting the weaker 
•gainst the stronger. The people of Capua were on the point of being entirely 
subdued by the Samnites, when they applied to the Romans for succour, 
£fv. vii. 29. 

O In 



226 



History of the Bom an Republic. 



In the first battle between the Romans and the Samnites, the 
Roman?, under the command or Valerius Corvus the consul, 
had the advantage, but with the loss of a great many men, 
lb. 33. The glory of this victory was near being tarnished by 
a dreadful disaster. For Cornelius, the other consul, had un- 
warily led his army into a defile, where they must have all been 
captured by the Samnites, had they not been extricated by the 
wonderful conduct and valour of DECIUS, a legionary tribune, 
lb. 34. on which account he was loaded with singular honours, 
37. The Samnites were vanquished in two other engagements. 
Being asked why they yielded, they are reported to have said, 
That the eyes of the Romans seemed to them to be on fire, 
.and that they could not endure the ferocity of their looks *, 

33. 

The fame of these victories spread even beyond seas, and 
the Carthaginians sent to congratulate the Romans on their 
success, Liv. vii. 38. The Roman army which wintered at 
Capua, corrupted by the luxuries of the place, secretly formed 
designs of taking that city from the Campatii, as the Campani 
had done from its former inhabitants, Liv. iv. 37.; but they 
were prevented by Marcius Ruillus the consul, lb. vii. 38. and a 
mutiny, which ensued, was suppressed by the prudent manage- 
ment of Valerius Corvus the dictator, lb. 40. The Samnite* 
sued for peace, which was granted them, Liv. viii. 2. 

The Latins having formed a league with the Sidiclni and 
Campani, demanded, that as they bore equal burdens, they 
should enjoy equal privileges with the Romans ; that half of 
the senate, and one of the consuls, should be chosen from 
them, Liv. viii. 5. This request being rejected with disdain, 
both sides had recourse to arms. It was like a war between 
citizens. Both nations used the same armour and the same 
manner of fighting. The Romans proved victorious, chiefly 
by the strictness of their discipline, which on this occasion, 
they carried to the greatest rigour, lb. 6. T. MANLIUS, the 
consul, ordered his own son to be beheaded for having fought 
contrary to orders, although victorious, having slain, in single 
combat, an officer of the enemy who challenged him, lb. 7. 



* Strabo mentions a law amon^ the Samnites, contrived as an incentive to courage; 
that parents were not allowed to dispose of their daughters to whom they pleased, hut 
that ten of the noblest virgins ami young men were annually selected ; that he who wu 
accounted the bravest of the ten, wai permitted tirst to chuse which of the virtus he 
pleased, then the second, and so on. If air, one of these afterwards failed in courage, 
he was deprived of the object of his choice thus honourably conferred, o'/z-jA. v. 250. 
A similar custom prevailed among ih« T.:f)rit, a nation near the C^ian sea, 

In 



History of the 'Roman Republic. 227 



In the first battle with the Latins, DECIUS, one of the consuls, 
seeing the wing which he commanded giving way, solemnly 
devoted himself to death for the army. The circumstances 
and effects of this devotion are described, Liv. viii. 9. & 10, 
Manlius, the surviving consul, having gained a complete vic- 
tory, returned in triumph. But he was met only by the aged, 
the youth execrated him for his cruelty to his son. 11. 12. 

All Latium being subdued, the Romans treated the different 
states variously, as they deserved, lb. 14. The ships of the 
people of Antium were partly burnt, and part of them brought 
to Rome. With their beaks, the tribunal in the Forum, 
whence orators used to declaim, was adorned, hence called 
Rostra, Ibid. 

A. u. 423. A great many men are said to have been poisoned 
by their wives; on which account a number of the guilty were 
punished, Liv. viii. 18. 

The Samnites, having made a league with the Vesting Marsi^ 
and Peligni, also with the Lucani and Appuli, whom the Taren- 
tines had artfully detached from the alliance of Rome, lb. 27. 
again took up arms, a. u. 429. To oppose this strong coalition, 
L. PAPIRIUS, called Cursor, from his swiftness, Liv. ix. 16. 
was made dictator, who named M. FABIUS MAXIMUS, 
master of horse, Liv. viii. 29. The forces of the enemy were 
vanquished with great slaughter, and the Samnites sued for 
peace, which was refused them, lb. 39. 

Next year the consuls, T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Posthu-* 
tnius, with both their armies, were led into a dangerous defile, 
called Furcje CaudIn*:, by the art of CAIUS PONTIUS, 
general of the Samnites ; where they were so blocked up, that 
it was impossible for them to extricate themselves. The 
Samnite general thus having the Romans in his power, at' the 
request of his officers, sent to Herentuus Pontius, his father, to 
ask what he should do ? He returned for answer, that the Rod- 
mans should be all let go unhurt, as soon as possible, When 
this advice was rejected, and the same messenger sent back to 
consult him again, he gave it as his opinion, that they should 
be all killed to a man. Pontius, perplexed by this contrariety 
of opinion, sent for his father to the camp to give his reasons, 
A council of war being called, the old man said, that by 
following the first advice, which he thought the best, they 
would establish perpetual peace and friendship with the Roman 
people ; by the other plan, they would so weaken the Roman 
gtate, that it would not for ages recover its former strength, 

Q a He 



228 



History of the lioman Republic 



He concluded with saying, that there was no medium ; and 

was carried home from the camp. 

In the mean time the Romans, having made many fruitless 
efforts to force their way out, were obliged to submit to what 
terms the Samnites chose to prescribe. Pontius embraced 
neither of his father's opinions, but followed a middle course. 
He demanded that the Romans should deliver up their arms, 
and should all pass under the yoke, each with a single garment ; 
that all the places taken from the Samnites should be restored, 
and that 600 Roman equites should be given as hostages for the 
performance. These terms, although highly ignominious, were 
accepted. The emotions which this misfortune excited in the 
Romans, can be more easily conceived than described. 

After the return of the army, the senate was consulted by 
the succeeding consuls Publilius and Papirius concerning the 
peace of Caudium. Spurius Postfiumius, one of the former 
consuls, being first asked his opinion, said, that as the conven- 
tion (spotisio) was made without the consent of the senate or 
people, the Roman people was not bound by it ; and proposed 
that he and his colleague, their lieutenants, qurestors, and le- 
gionary tribunes, who had signed the treaty, lb. 5. should be 
given up to the enemy, and thus free the people from the 
religious obligation by which they had bound them, lb. 8. This 
proposal was adopted, and a decree of the senate made accord- 
ing to it. 

The two consuls of the former year therefore, with the rest 
who had signed the treaty, were delivered to the feciales to be 
conducted to Caudium. When they came to the gate of that 
city, the fciales, having stripped them, and bound their hands 
behind their backs, brought them to the tribunal of Pontius ; 
and A. Cornelius Arvi/ia, the chief fecialis, formally surrendered 
thetn to the Samnites. But Pontius, considering this as a mean 
subterfuge to elude the performance of a treaty, ordered them 
to be loosed, that they might go where they pleased. 

The Samnites, now too late, repented their not having 
followed the wise counsel of Herennius. They, however, 
prep ired for their defence. But the Romans fought with so 
great fury that nothing could withstand them. The Samnites, 
being defeated by the two consuls, fled to Luceria, where 
Papirius forced them to submit to the same ignominious terms 
which they had imposed on die Romans. Some authors say, 
that Pontius was among those who were made to pass under 
the yoke. Here the 600 cquiUs % who had been given as hos- 
tages. 



History of the Roman Republic, 



tages, and all the arms and spoils taken at Caudium, were re- 
covered, lb. 15. 

A. u. 434. About this time ALEXANDER the Great over- 
turned the empire of the Persians, and established that of the 
Macedonians in Asia. Had he come into Italy, and contended 
with the Romans under the illustrious commanders above- 
mentioned, Livy thinks he would not have met with the same 
success, lb. 17. — 20. 

A. u. 442. APPIUS CLAUDIUS, the censor, first brought 
an aquasduct to Rome, and paved the road to Capua, called 
from him the Appian way. This Appius, having afterwards 
lost his sight, was surnamed C^cus, Liv. ix. 29. 

The war against the Samnites still continued, to which was 
added that against the Tuscans, lb, 32. against the Austines, 25. 
the Umbri, 41. the Hernia, 43. and the JEqui, 45. But the 
armies of these nations were all successively vanquished, Liv.ix. 
39.41.43. x. 12. 19, 20. 

A. u. 444. The consul FABIUS, having penetrated through 
the Giminian forest in Etruria, either took or slew 60,000 of 
the Tuscans, Liv. ix. 36. & 37. 

A.u. 457. The consuls DECIUS and FABIUS fought 
against the joint army of the Gauls and Samnites. Decius, 
who was opposed to the Gauls, seeing his soldiers giving way, 
in imitation of his father, devoted himself for his army, Liv. x. 
28. This act was supposed to engage the gods on the side of 
the devoted general. The Romans, therefore, renewed the 
fight with redoubled vigour, and Fabius gained a complete 
victory, lb. 29. The body of Decius was next day found 
under a heap of slaughtered Gauls, and his funeral celebrated 
with all military honour, lb. 

A. u. 459. Papirius gained another triumph over the Sam- 
nites, lb. 46. But the following year, O Fabiits Maximus 
Gurges, the consul, the son of Q. Fabius just now mentioned, 
having rashly attacked the Samnites, was defeated by them 
with great loss, and nothing but the approach of night saved 
his army from ruin. On which account the senate would have 
removed him from the command of the army ; but this affront 
was prevented by the intercession of his father, who offered to 
act as his son's lieutenant. He did so, and by his advice and 
assistance the consul gained a signal victory ; 20,000 of the 
enemy were slain, and 4000 made captives together, with their 
brave general Pontius, who was led in triumph by the con ul, 
and then ungenerously beheaded. Liv, epit, xi. Val. Max. v. 
J. I# j Plutarch, in Fab, Cunctator, 

Q 3 The 



230 



History of the Bom an Republic. 



The Romans, being afflicted by a pestilence, brought to 
Rome the image of iEsculapius, from Epidaurus, and built for 
him a temple on the island in the Tiber, Vol. May., i. 8. 2.; 
Ovid. Met. xv. 723. 

In the year of the city 463, the consul CURIUS DENTA- 
TUS being sent against the Samnites, prosecuted the war with 
so great success, that he forced them to sue for peace, which 
was granted them ; and thus the war with that people was for 
some time terminated, after it had lasted fifty-two years ; 
Eutropius s;>ys fortv-nine, ii. 9. It is supposed that the senate 
left to Curius to settle the articles of the treaty. 

When the ambassadors of the Samnites came to procure fa- 
vourable terms from Curius, they found him sitting by the fire 
on a rustic seat, dressing a few pot herbs or roots for his supper, 
Plin. xix. 5. s. 26. ; Juvenal, xi. 70. Valerius Maximus only 
says that he was taking supper in a wooden dish, iv. 3. 5. When 
the Samnites oiTered him a large sum of gold, he said, " You see 
from this, that I do not iu ant money. I had rather command those 
mho possess riches, than be rich myself" Sic. Cen.16. Plutarch, in 
Catone Censor. Curius triumphed twice in the same magistracy, 
over the Samnites and Sabines, Liv. epit. xi. He extended the 
empire of Rome all the way to the Hadriatic sea. 

A. u. 466. The plebeians being oppressed on account of debt, 
made a secession to the Janiculum, whence they were brought 
back by Hcrtensius the dictator, who died in that office, Liv. ib. 

A rretti u w being besieged by the Galli Settones, begged assistance 
from the Romans, who sent ambassadors to desire that the 
Gauls would desist from their attack. The Gauls, provoked 
at this interference, killed the ambassadors, and cut to pieces 
the army sent against them, with its commander CacH'ius, the 
prxtor, Liv. epit. xii. But dreadful vengeance was soon after 
inflicted on them for this crime by Cw ius Dentatus, who reduced 
their country almost to a desert, Polyb. ii. 19. but others give a 
different account of this matter. The Bojii and Etrurians were 
vanquished by Dolabella, Ib. 20. and Flor.'i. 13. 

Tin: Romans having now subdued the greatest part of Italv, 
were about to contend, for the first time, with a foreign enemy. 
The people of Tarentum had plundered some ships of the 
Romans which happened to anchor on their coasts, and had 
slain their commander; they had also insulted the ambassadors 
sent to demand redress for this injury; on which account war 
was declared against them. Unable to make resistance of 
themselves, they sought assistance from PYRRHU6 king of 



History of the Roman Republic. 



fepire. This prince was descended, by the father's side, from 
Achilles, Pans an. i. u. by the mother's, from Hercules, and 
possessed all the accomplishments of an able commander. Am- 
bitious of equalling in the west, the conquests of his cousin 
Alexander in the east, he readily complied with the request of 
the Tarentines *, and immediately dispatched a body of sjpbe® 
men to their relief, under the command of CINEAS-, his fa- 
vourite general, who was as much distinguished for his elo- 
quence, as forhis skill in war, having studied under Demosthenes. 
To him the king entrusted his most important negotiations, and 
used to say, that he had taken more towns by the words of 
Cineas than by his own arms. * 

Pyrrhus himself soon followed with 20,000 foot, 3000 
horse, 2000 archers, 500 slingers, and 20 elephants. His 
fleet being dispersed by a storm, and his own ship in great 
danger, he threw himself into the sea and swam on shore. 
Having collected about 2000 of his troops, he advanced to- 
wards Tarentum, where he was received by Cineas, and soon 
after joined by the greatest part of his army. He found the 
Tarentines sunk in luxury and effeminacy ; but he soon obliged 
the youth to change their manners, to drop their frivolous 
amusements, and apply to the exercises of war. This was ex- 
acted with so great rigour that many of them left the city. 
The Tarentines now repented their having sought foreign 
assistance, and found that they had got a master instead of an 
ally. 

The Romans, in the mean time, were making the most vi- 
gorous preparations for war. LiEVINUS the consul was 
sent into Lucania against Pyrrhus with an army. He encamped 
on the river Siris, between Pandosia and Heraclea. Pyrrhus 5 
wishing to gain time, till he should be joined by his allies the 
Samnites, the Lucani> and Bruttii, sent to offer his mediation to 
the Romans, to settle their differences with the Grecian states 
in Italy. Laevinus returned for answer, that the Romans 
neither accepted him as an arbitrator, nor feared him as an 

* Cineas, seeing Pyrrhus bent on his expedition to Italy, is said one day to have 
asked him what advantage he expected to derive from it: " If -we conquer the Romans , 
says Pyrrhus, ive shall become masters of Italy , then of Sicily and Africa ; in short every 
thing ivill be subject to us." " And -what shall ive do then ?" says Cineas. « Why then , 
my friend^ answers the king, uue shall Hue at our ease, feast, and be merry." " Aniivhat 
hinders us, replies Cineas, from novo enjoying thai happiness, ivhich you propose to 
purchase at the expence of so much labour and danger ?" These words affected the king, 

but did not divert him from his purpose. The ambiguous answer said to have been 

returned to Pyrrhus, when consulting the Oracle of Delphi about the event of the war, 
*' Aiote, JEacide) Romano* sincere posse," was the fiction of the poet Ennius, Cic. 
Dh, ii. 56. 

Q, 4 enemy. 



232 



History of the Roman Republic. 



enemy. Upon this Pyrrhus, having led out his forces, en- 
camped over against Lxvinus. Observing the order of the Ro- 
man encampment, he said to one of his friends, that it was not 
like that of barbarians, for so the Greeks called all other nations 
except their own. The Romans, perceiving that Pvrrhus 
declined battle, crossed the river and attacked him. They 
were, however aft ft an obstinate resistance, defeated, chiefly 
by the tern/, >f the elephants, which animals they had never 
before seen, a d by the valour of the Thessalian cavalry Plu- 
tarch savs that each army gave way seven times, and as oiten 
rallied again- The number of slain on both sides wa> great, 
and nearly equal. Pyrrhus, being congratulated on his vic- 
tory, said, (i Such another victory will oblige us to return to Epire." 
Observing that the Romans had all fallen with their faces to- 
wards the enemy, he is said to have exclaimed, " How easily with 
such soldiers could I conquer the world /" 

After the battle Pyrrhus got possession of the Roman camp, 
and in a short time was joined by the auxiliaries of the Lucani, 
Samnites, and Bruttii. Hearing that the Romans had col- 
lected another army to oppose him, he said, " that he had to do 
« with the Lernsean Hydra, whose heads being cut off, other . 
«' grew up in their stead in greater number. " ThL-> undaunted 
spirit of the Romans induced Pyrrhus to send Cineas to Rome 
with proposals of peace, and presents for the leading men and 
their wives. His presents were rejected ; but so pervasive 
was the eloquence of Cineas, that a majority of the senators 
seemed inclined to peace. APPIUS CLAUDIUS, who, on 
account of his age and loss of sight, had long withdrawn him- 
self from all concerns in public affairs, being informed of this, 
on the day when the matter was to be debated, ordered himself 
to be carried in a couch to the senate-house, and spoke with 
such energy, that a degree was passed agreeably to his opinion, 
" That the Romans would never make peace with Pyrrhus, till he 
« left Italy." 

C.neas, upon his return, being asked what he thought of the" 
Roman senate, said, " That it appeared to him to be an assembly 
" of kings" [ex rcgibus constare dixit, Liv. ix. 17.) 

Soon after the Romans sent an embassy to Pyrrhus about an 
exchange of prisoners. The chief man of this embassy was 
FA13RICIUS The king, informed of his influence at Rome, 
and of his poverty, tried to gain him by gold, but in vain. 
Next day, to alarm him, knowing that he had never seen an 
elephant, he ordered one of the largest to be concealed behind 
some hangings ; and while they were conversing together, 

upon 



History of the Roman Republic. 



235 



upon a signal given, the hangings were suddenly withdrawn, 
and the elephant with its proboscis extended over the head of 
Fabricius, uttered a hideous noise. But Fabricius, calmly turn- 
ing about and smiling, said, {< Tour great beast has made no more 
*« impression on me to-day than your gold did yesterday" Pyrrhus, 
admiring this magnanimity, permitted such of the captives 
as chose to go to see their relations at Rome, and celebrate 
the feasts of Saturn, on the single parole of Fabricius, that 
if peace was not concluded they should return. Accord- 
ingly the senate sent them all back after the festival was 
over, and decreed, that if any one staid, he should be put to 
death. 

Whilst Lsevinus opposed Pyrrhus in Lucania, Ti. Coruncanius, 
the other consul, triumphed over the Etrurians. Suipicius and 
Decius Musy the consuls of the next year, a. u. 474, fought an 
obstinate engagement with Pyrrhus, near Asylum, a city of 
Apulia, in which about 15,000 men are said to have fallen on 
each side. Night put an end to the combat, and both parties re- 
tired without renewing it. This Decius is said by Cicero to 
have devoted himself to death for his army, as his father and 
grandfather had done, Tusc. Q. i. 37. ; Fin. ii. 19. Some authors 
mention two battles fought near Asculum. 

The following year, 475, while C. Fabricius and Q. JEmilius, 
the consuls, carried on war against Pyrrhus, the king's physi- 
cian, or, according to others, a messenger with a letter from 
him, came to Fabricius, promising, for a suitable reward, to cut 
off Pyrrhus by poison. Fabricius, finding his colleague of the 
same mind with himself, sent back the person to the king with 
a letter informing him of the treason. Upon reading the letter, 
Pyrrhus is said to have cried out, is easier to turn the sun from 
his course, than Fabricius from the path of justice And in return 
for the favour, released all the Roman captives he had without 
ransom. The senate, not to be outdone in generosity, liberated 
an equal number of Tarentines and Samnites. 

After Pyrrhus had been two years and four months in Italy* 
he was invited into Sicily by the Syracusans, and other Greek 
states in that island, to settle their differences, and to repress 
the incroachmento of the Carthaginians. 

After the departure of Pyrrhus, Fabricius gained a victory 
over the combined forces of the Samnites, Lucani, and BruU 
tiiy for which he was honoured with a triumph. But the 
unanimous acknowledgment of his countrymen, that he had 
vanquished Pyrrhus more by his integrity than by his valour* 
was more glorious than any triumph. 

Pyrrhus 



254 



History of the Roman Republic. 



Pyrrhus was received in Sicily with the greatest joy, 
and his first attempts were attended with the most splendid 

success. 

Sicily at that time was subject to three different nations, 
the Syracusans and other Grecian states, the Carthaginians , and 
Mamertines^ a fierce people from Campania, who had served as 
mercenaries under Agathocles^ tyrant of Syracuse •, and being 
admitted as allies at Messana got possession of that city by ex- 
pelling or murdering its inhabitants, Polyb. i. 7. &c. j Liv. 
xxviii. 28. ; Strab. vi. 268. 

Pyrrhus drove the Carthaginians from all their possessions in 
Sicily, except Lilybseum. He defeated the Mamertines, and 
forced them to keep within their walls \ and now being master 
of almost all Sicily, he began to form designs of passing over to 
Africa. But, elated with prosperity, from being affable and 
gentle, he became insolent and cruel. He imposed on the allied 
states unjust taxes, which his ministers exacted with arrogance 
and rapacity. By forged accusations he put to death several of 
the chief men who opposed his measures, and some even of 
those by whose means he had been invited into the island. Thus 
he soon lost the affections of the Sicilians. A number of the 
cities revolted to the Carthaginians ; by whom he was attacked 
on one side, and by the Mamertines on the other. In the 
mean time his Italian allies, unable to stand their ground against 
the Romans, demanded assistance, which furnished him with a 
plausible pretext for leaving Sicily. It was with great difficulty, 
however, and considerable loss of men, that he affected his re- 
turn to Tarentum. Upon his departure from Sicily, he is re- 
ported to have said to his friends, " What a field of contest W4 
leave to the Romans and Carthaginians /" 

During the absence of Pyrrhus the war in Italy was carried 
on with varied success *, for the first year, a. u. 476, the allies 
of the king, supported by MILO the governor of Tarentum, 
and animated by the accounts of his successful exploits in Sicily, 
opposed, with great vigour, the Roman consuls Ruffinus and 
Brutus. * 

The following year the Romans were grievously afflicted 
with a pestilence, which enfeebled their operations under 

* P. Cornelius Ruffinus was very expert in war, but noted for avarice. On which 
account, when people expressed their surpri>e that Fabricius should support his applica- 
tion for the consulate agiitut Ins competitors. " X • cue eu«ht to ticnJer, said Fabriciuf, 
wittily, iff in a dangerous juncture, 1 chut I rutbtr to kt pillaged than soM," Gell. iv. 8. 
Cicero says Fabricius made this reply to Ruffinus himself, when he thanked him for 
htving given him his interest, though formerly inimical to him, d$ Out. ii. 66. 

Q. Fabius 



History of the Roman Tte^ubliL 



i}. Fabius G urges, and his plebeian colleague Genucius; for at this 
time the law was usually observed of joining a patrician and 
plebeian in the consulate together, and it is remarked, that the 
plebeian consuls during this period were the most conspicuous, 
Fabricius, Curius Dentatus, &c. 

The violence of the plague having next year abated, CTJ- 
RIUS DENTATUS was a second time raised to the consu- 
late, and the patrician assigned him for a colleague was L. Cor* 
nelius Leniuhis. Both consuls were sent against Pyrrhus with 
separate armies, to act in different places, Pyrrhus first 
marched against Curius, whom he chiefly feared, with his best 
troops, thinking to come upon him by surprise. A bloody 
battle was fought in the Taurasian plains on the river Calor, near 
Beneventum in Samnium. Pyrrhus was completely defeated, al- 
though his army was much more numerous than that of the 
Romans. Some say he lost 36,000 men ; others, 26,000. The 
Romans had now learned, not only to repulse the elephants by 
means of fire-balls and hooks, but also to drive them back upon 
their owners, as they did in this battle, which is said to have 
not a little contributed to their victory. Pyrrhus fled with a few 
horse to Tarentum. His camp was taken and plundered. 
The Romans are said to have been so pleased with the form 
of it, that they afterwards followed it as a model in their en- 
campments, Frontin. iv. i. 15. This was the most decisive 
victory the Romans had ever yet gained. It brought all Italy 
soon after under their subjection, and paved the way for their 
future conquests. 

Curius triumphed with great glory. The rich spoils carried 
in procession, the pictures and statues, the golden vases, the 
purple carpets, and other fineries of the Greek cities, were 
greatly superior to the rude ornaments of former triumphs. 
But what afforded the people particular pleasure was four ele- 
phants, which Curius had taken and ordered to be led along, 
with towers upon their backs filled with armed men, Fkr. 
i. 18. ', Plin. vii. 6. When the senate decreed fifty acres of the 
public land to Curius, he would accept of no more than seven, 
the portion of a common soldier, VaL Max, iv. 3. 5. The 
same year, a. u. 478, Fabricius being censor, degraded Ruffinus, 
who had been consul the year before, from being a senator, 
because he had ten pound weight of silver in plate for his 
table. All the plate Fabricius himself had was a silver salt- 
cellar, VaU Max. iv. 4. 3. From this Ruffinus Sylla was de- 
scended, Plutarch, in vitd Sylla princ* To which Juvenal al- 
ludes, ix. 142. 

Pyrrhus, 



236 



Histotij of Ihc Roman Republic. 



Pyrrhus, soon after his defeat, left Italy and returned t» 
Epire. He had been absent from it about six years. To keep 
up the spirits of his allies, by the expectation of .is return, he 
left Milo with a strong garrison in Tarentum. The Romans, 
from this apprehension, continued Curius in the consulship. 
The successes of Pyrrhus in Macedonia served to confirm the 
hopes of the former and the fears of the latter : but Pyrrhus 
being slain two years after, a. u. 480, at Argos, his allies in 
Italy were, one after another, obliged to submit to the Roman 
yoke. The Samnltes were entirely subdued by Corvilius the 
consul, a. u. 481, after they had contended with the Romans 
seventy-one years *. The citadel of Tarentum was surrendered 
to Papirius Cursor, the other consul, by Milo, who procured 
peace and liberty for the Tarentines. The Carthaginian fleet 
was then before Tarentum, wishing to get possession of the 
town, which was the cause of the Romans granting so favour- 
able terms. 

The Romans, after vanquishing their enemies, a. u. 482, 
sent Genucius the consul to perforin an act of justice. At the 
beginning of the war with Pyrrhus, the inhabitants of Rbegivm, 
afraid of being attacked by that prince, applied to the Romans 
for forces to assist them to defend themselves. A legion of 
Campanians was raised and sent to Rhegium. But they, in 
imitation of the Mamertines, murdered or expelled the native 
inhabitants, and took possession of the city. They had sup- 
ported themselves by forming an alliance with the Mamertines, 
Diodor. xxii. 2. Genucius having taken their city inflicted 
various punishments on the guilty according to their deserts; 
300 of the Campanian legion who remained were sent to Rome, 
and being condemned by the senate, were all beheaded in the 
Forum, fifty at a time, Liv. epit. xv. ; Polyb. i. 7. & 8. Livy 
makes them 4000, xxviii. 28. 

The Romans having now become masters of Italy, passed 
over into Sicily, to assist the Mamertines against Hiero, tyrant 
of Syracuse, and engaged in war with the Carthaginians, 

• It is remarkable that this people were afterward* the most fierce opponents to 
Rome in the Italian war ; and when most of the other states were cither pacified or 
subdued, they continued their implacable hostility, so that they led an army to the 
very walls of the city, where Sylla defeated them in a bloody battle, ordering his 
men to give no quarter. And afterwards, three or four thousand of them having 
laid down their arms (at Prxneste, I.iv.cpit. 88.), he brought them to Rome, and 
shut them up in an inclosurc in the C.imput JWurtius, where, three days .nfter, he 
ordered them all to be inhumanly butchered. Sylla persecuted the re*t of the Sam- 
nites with such unrelenting cruelty, that he hardly left u vestige ©f them remaining, 
Slrab. v. p. 249. 

16 a. 11.489* 



History of the 'Roman Republic, 



u. 489. This was called the first Punic war, and lasted 
twenty-four years. They now, for the first time, paid atten- 
tion to maritime affairs; and using a Carthaginian vessel, which 
they happened to get possession of, as a model, equipped a fleet, 
Polyb. i. 20, ; and soon after the consul DUILIUS gained a 
naval victory. REGULUS, their chief general by land, was 
sent with an army into Africa, where he gained many victories, 
but at last was defeated and taken prisoner by Xantippus, a 
Lacedemonian, in the service of Carthage. Being sent to Rome 
to propose an exchange of prisoners, he spoke against it in the 
senate; and returning to Carthage according to his promise, was 
put to death. The war was at last terminated by a complete 
victory at sea, gained by Lutatius Catulus over the Carthaginians 
under Hanno, near the iEgades ; and then over Amilcar by- 
land at the foot of Mount Eryx, a. u. 513. 

Livius Andronlcus, about this time, first introduced comedies 
at Rome, and Navius, tragedies ; contemporary with whom 
was Fabius Pictor, the most ancienr Roman historian. 

The second Punic war was begun by HANNIBAL the son 
of Amilcar, who derived from his father an implacable hatred 
against the Romans, a. u. 534. Having taken Saguntum, a 
city of Spain in alliance wich Rome, and having led his forces 
over the Pyrenees and Alps into Italy, he defeated the Romans 
in three different engagements, and brought them to the brink 
of ruin. They were saved by the prudent caution of Q. FA- 
BIUS MAXIMUS, hence called Cunctator. But by the rash- 
ness of Tarentius Varro, one of the consuls, they received a 
fourth dreadful overthrow at Cannae. Paulus ^Emilius, the 
other consul, and about 50,000 men were slain. Three bushels 
of gold rings, taken off the fingers of the nobility, are said to 
have been sent to Carthage. Still, however, the Romans re- 
mained firm; and refused all proposals of peace, unless Hannibal 
should leave Italy. He judging it improper to lead his army to 
Rome after the victory, wintered at Capua, where his soldiers 
were enervated by the luxuries of rbat place. Some time after 
he was repulsed at Nola, by MARCELLUS the praetor, who, 
after his consulship, being sent into Sicily, took Syracuse, which, 
had revolted to the Carthaginians, aft^r a siege of three years. 
It was enabled to hold out so long chiefly by the engines of 
Archimedes, the famous mathematician, who, at the storming 
of the city, was barbarously murdered by a common soldier, to 
the great grief of Marcellus. Liv. xxv. 31. SiL xiv. 676. 

The war, for several years, was carried on with various suc- 
«es«. In Spain, Publius Scipio, and his brother Cneius, being 

cut 



238 



History of the Roman ItepubUr. 



cut off, with the greatest part of their armies, the command of 
that province was conferred on young SCIPIO, the son of 
Publius, although only twenty-four years of age. He took New 
Carthage in one day, and drove the Carthaginians out of Spain. 
Hasdrubal having marched with his army into Italy, to join 
his brother Hannibal, was cut off, with his forces, by the 
consuls Livius and Nero, at the river Metaurus. Scipio 
having transported the war into Africa, with the assistance of 
Massinissa, stormed the camp of the Carthaginians and Syphax 
king of Numidia, in the night-time, destroying upwards of 
40,000 of their men. Hannibal being recalled to defend his 
country, was entirely defeated at the battle of Zama, and the 
Carthaginians obliged to submit to the terms of peace prescribed 
them by the victor, a. u. 552. The war lasted seventeen 
years. Scipio, for his merits, obtained the sirname of Afru 
canus ; contemporary with whom were the poets EnniuS and 
Plautus. 

The Romans, after thisj made rapid progress in their con- 
quests, always artfully procuring assistance from the states con- 
tiguous to those with whom they were at war. Philip, king of 
Macedon, who had formed an alliance with Hannibal, was, by 
the aid of the ^Etolians, and of Attalus, king of Porgamus, 
vanquished at Cynocephalx, in Thessaly, by Q. FLAMINIUS, 
who restored liberty to the different states of Greece, which 
had been subject to Philip, a. u. 556. 

The Romans next attacked Antiochus king of Syria, to whom 
Hannibal had fled for protection ; and, under the conduct of 
L. Scipio, the brother of Africanus, having defeated him in 
battle near Magnesia, obliged him to quit all his possessions in 
Europe, and likewise in Asia west of Mount Taurus, a. u. 563. 
Scipio got the sirname of As'iat'icus. 

Hannibal being every where persecuted by the Romans, was 
at last obliged to swallow poison, to save himself from falling 
into their hands, in a castle belonging to Prusias, king of Bi- 
thynia, a. u. 570. 

A second Macedonian war was soon after undertaken against 
Perseus, the son of Philip ; who being defeated by Paulu* 
i9EMiLius, was led in triumph to Rome, and his kingdom re- 
duced to the form of a Roman province, a. u. 585. 

Much about the same time, a quarrel having arisen between 
Massinissa and the Carthaginians, the Romans, without any 
cause of offence, at the instigation of Cato the censor, deter- 
mined to embrace this opportunity to demolish Carthage. The 
Carthaginians, finding all their subuai*t>ioiis to no purpose, 

14 wads 



History of the Roman 'Republic. 



239 



made a desperate resistance. At last, however, their city 
was taken and razed to the ground by SCIPIO jEmilianus> 
who likewise got the sirname of Africanus, a. u. 607. b. C. 
146. 

The same year Corinth was taken and destroyed by MUM- 
MIUS, after it had stood 950 years \ and Greece reduced to a 
Roman province, under the name of Achaia. Some years after, 
Numantia in Spain, being taken by Scipio, shared the same fate 
with Corinth, 620. 

The Romans, from their intercourse with Greece, now 
began to have a taste for the arts, and to cultivate the studies 
of literature. About this time flourished the poets Terence, 
Pacuviusy AcciuSy Cacilius, and Lucilius, the first writer of 
satires ; Polybius> the historian, and Panatius, the philo- 
sopher. 

After the destruction of Carthage, Rome, being freed from 
the fear of a rival, was torn by intestine divisions. Through 
the increase of wealth, avarice and Juxury had corrupted all 
ranks. The nobles oppressed the plebeians, and these in their 
turn became unruly and licentious. The first domestic struggle 
was excited by the GRACCHI, Tiberius and Caius, two 
brothers, the grandsons of Scipio Africanus by his daughter 
Cornelia ; who, attempting to assert the rights of the people, 
and to limit, by an Agraria?i law, the property of individuals in 
land to 500 acres, were both cut off by the nobles ; Tiberius, 
by Scipio Nasica, a. u. 621. and Caius, by Opimius the 
consul, 632. who cruelly massacred a great many of the 
people. 

Some years after, in the war against Jugurtha king of Numi- 
dia, the corrupt morals of the nobility gave occasion to the ad- 
vancement of MARIUS, a person of low extraction, to the 
consulship, by the interest of the people, who had been incited 
against the nobles by the eloquence of Memmius, a tribune of 
the commons, a. u. 647. Marius soon finished that war suc- 
cessfully, Jugurtha being delivered up to his quaestor SYLLA, 
by the base treachery of Bocchus, king of Mauritania. Upon 
his return, Marius was sent against the Cimbri and Teuttines, 
northern nations from the coasts of the Baltic, who had defeat- 
ed several Roman commanders, and threatened to over-run all 
Italy • but they were vanquished by Marius, with prodigious 
slaughter, near Aquae Sextia, now Aix, in Provence, a. u. 65 1 . 
On this occasion Marius was, contrary to custom* continued in 
the consulship for fire years.. 

Some 



240 



History of the Roman Republic. 



Some years after this, the Italian states being refused the 
freedom of Rome, entered into a confederacy to obtain it by 
force. This gave rise to the Social or Italian war, which was 
carried on for three years with great fury and doubtful success. 
At last, several of the states having obtained their request, the 
rest were obliged to submit. After the conclusion of this war, 
the Romans turned their arms against MITHRIDATES, 
king of Pent us, the most powerful monarch of the east, who 
had caused 80,000 Roman citizens to be massacred in one day 
in different parts of his dominions. The appointment of a 
general to this command, gave occasion to a cruel contest be- 
tween M.irius and Sylla. Sylla prevailed, and Marius was 
obliged to fly for his life. But being recal'ed by Cinna, and 
created consul the seventh time, he took revenge on his enemies 
with the mo&t savage cruelty. In the mean time, Sylla hav- 
ing defeated Mithridates, and concluded a peace with him, 
was returning to Italy, to inflict vengeance in his turn, 
with redoubled severity^ but Marius died before his arrival. 
Sylla having vanquished all his opponents, and caused himself 
to be created perpetual dictator, first set on foot a proscription 
of his enemies, by which he confiscated their effects, and set a 
price on their heads. Incredible numbers were put to death. 
But after governing with capricious tyranny for near three 
years, he unexpectedly resigned his power \ and retiring to the 
country, he soon after died of what is called the morbus pedicu- 
/aris, a. u. 675. 

After the death of Sylla, Lepidus the consul attempted to 
rescind his acts, and recall the exiled Marians, but was van- 
quished by his colleague Catulus, and by Pompey. 

The party of Marius was revived in Spain by Sertokius, an 
able general ; but he was basely assassinated by one of his own 
officers, Perpenna, who being defeated by Pompey, was put to 
death. About the same time, a dangerous insurrection of the 
slaves in Italy, under Spartacus, a gladiator, was crushes by 
Crassus a. u. 602. 

The war with Mithridates was resumed under LUCULLUS, 
a. u. 679, who carried it on for several years with great success, 
and likewise defeated Tigranes, king of Armenia, at the head of 
an army twenty times more numerous than his own. But 
at last his troops becoming mutinous, he was recalled, and the 
command given to POMPEY by the Manilian law, witli the same 
extraordinary powers with which a little before, by the law of 
Gabiniusy he had been invested, to clear the seas from pirates, 
who had lon^ infested them. Ue had performed this service 



History of the Roman Republic, 



241 



m four months, and was then in Asia with his army. Mithri- 
dates, weakened by repeated defeats, and abandoned by his 
allies, fled to the countries north of Caucasus; and having 
induced some Scythian princes to join him, proposed, in imita- 
tion of Hannibal, to carry the war from thence into Italy : but 
being betrayed by his son Pharnaces, he was obliged to put an 
end to his days, after he had waged war against the Romans 
near thirty years. Pompey, having settled the affairs of Asia 
with sovereign authority, returned to Rome in triumph. Dur- 
ing his absence from the city, a conspiracy, formed by Catiline 
to overturn the government, was crushed by the conduct of 
Cicero the consul, a. u. 690. 

Soon after, a combination was made between Pompey, Julius 
Caesar, and Crassus, the richest man in Rome, that no office 
should be disposed of, and nothing transacted in the state, 
without their approbation. This was called the first Triumvi- 
rate, and was formed by the contrivance of Caesar •, who, ap- 
prehending opposition from Cicero and Cato, procured the 
banishment of the former, by means of Clod i us, a seditious 
tribune, and sent the latter upon an expedition against Cyprus. 
Cicero was soon after restored with great honour. 

CiESAR, after his consulship, had the province of Gaul 
assigned him ; which, with wonderf ul conduct and bravery, he 
subdued in ten years, carrying the terror of his arms also into 
Germany and Britain. He is reckoned to have taken 800 
towns, reduced 300 states, and defeated three millions of men 
in different actions. 

Crassus, after his consulship, a„ u. 697, obtained the pro- 
vince of Syria, as being the richest ; from whence, having 
marched against the Parthians, he was cut off, together with 
his son and the greatest part of his forces, a. u 700. 

Pompey, all this time, remained in the city, promoting the 
interests of Caesar, and managing his own province of Spain 
by lieutenants. But after the overthrow of Crassus, and the 
death of his wife Julia, Caesar's daughter, which happened 
about the same time, he began to be jealous of Caesar's power; 
which Caesar perceiving, in order to sound the disposition of 
Pompey, took occasion to solicit the consulship in his absence. 
This was refused him ; and he was moreover ordered to lay 
down his command, and return as a private person to the city, 
Whereupon he crossed the Rubicon, the boundary of his pro- 
vince, and led his army towards Rome, Pompey and his adhe- 
rents flying before him, a. u. 704. 

Caesar having reduced Afranius and Petreius, Pompey's 

R lieutenants 



of the Roman Republic. 



lieutenants in Spain, transported his troops into Greece, in pur- 
suit of Pompey. Both armies met on the plains of Pharsalia 
in Thessaly. The fortune of Caesar prevailed. Pompey fled 
into Egypt, whore he was put to death by the orders of king 
Ptolemy, whose father, Auletes, he had restored to his throne. 
Csesar, without loss of time, followed after j and having with 
some difficulty reduced Egypt, he delivered it to Cleopatra, 
a. u. 706. After which, with incredible dispatch, he crushed 
Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, who was raising disturbances 
in Asia. He next subdued the remains of Pompey's party in 
Africa, under Scipio and Cato, absisted by Juba king of Mauri- 
tania. Cato, being shut up in Utica, slew himself, that he 
might not fall into the hands of the conqueror. Caesar's last 
and most dangerous combat was against the two sons of 
Pompey, and Labiennus, in Spain, whom he likewise entirely 
defeated with great slaughter. 

And thus having forced every thing to submit to his power, 
and caused himself to be created perpetual dictator *, he treated 
his enemies with much clemency, and regulated the affairs of 
the state with the greatest wisdom : but, behaving with too 
great haughtiness, a conspiracy was formed against him by 
no less than sixty senators, the chief of whom were Brutus and 
Cassius. He was murdered in the senate-house on the ides of 
March, after receiving twenty-three wounds, a. u. 709. 

The conspirators were prevented from restoring liberty to 
their country by Antony, who wanted to rule in Caesar's place. 
Being therefore declared an enemy by the senate, Hirtius and 
Pansa, the consuls, together with Octavius Cxsar, the dictator's 
grand nephew and heir, a young man but eighteen years of 
age, were sent against him with three separate armies. An- 
tony was defeated : but the two consuls being slain, the three 
armies became subject to Octavius, afterwards called Augustus. 
He artfully united himself with Antony, and Lepidus, who 
was likewise at the head of a great army. On pretence of re- 
venging Cxsar's death, they formed a second Triumvirate, and 
shared among themselves the provinces of the Roman empire. 
Returning to Rome, they established a proscription of their 
enemies. In consequence of which a great number of the first 
men in the state were put to death •, among the rest Cicero. 
The triumvirs then marched against the conspirators, who had 
assembled a great army under the command of Brutus and 
Cassius. A battle was fought near Fhilippi, on the confines of 



* Cum tiumtnt fax Uttk vtn'it. I.ucan. i. 67 a. 



Tluace, 



History of the Homan Emperors, 243 

Thrace, in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated, and after- 
wards slew themselves, a. u. 7 1 1. — It is observed that very few 
of the conspirators against Caesar died a natural death. 

The triumvirs did not long preserve concord among them- 
selves. Augustus, on a slight pretext, deprived Lepidus of his 
share in the triumvirate: and quarrelling with Antony, who, 
enslaved by a criminal passion for Cleopatra, had divorced 
Octavia, the sister of Augustus, a naval battle was fought be- 
tween them near Actium, in Epire, in which Antony and 
Cleopatra being completely defeated, fled to Alexandria, where 
both of them put an end to their days, Antony by falling on his 
sword, and Cleopatra by the poison of an asp, a. u. 723. 

Thus AUGUSTUS, by wonderful good fortune, became 
sole master of the Roman world, a. u. 724. The neighbouring 
nations made their submission, and courted his alliance. He 
restored peace and order to the state, and made the /best regu- 
lations for promoting its prosperity. The senate behaved to 
him with the meanest servility. They called him Father of his 
country, Emperor, and Augustus^ a name by which he has 
since been distinguished. He affected an unwillingness to 
accept the extraordinary honours heaped on him ; and even pre- 
tended, at one time, a strong desire to resign the government. 
The senators, conjuring him to retain it, he appeared to yield 
a reluctant compli nice, but only for ten years; and at the end 
of that period he always had his authority renewed^ which 
seemed to give his usurpation the sanction of law. The ancient 
forms were artfully preserved, but all power centered in him. 
He left the management of the peaceful provinces to the senate, 
where few troops were necessary; but reserved the most warlike 
to himself, which gave him the entire command of the army. 
Twenty-five legions were kept on foot for the defence of the 
empire, and two fleets were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna. 
During the course of a long reign, Augustus managed matters 
with so much address, and established his authority so firmly, 
that the Romans were never afterwards able to recover their 
liberty. 

In his time, Cantabria in Spain was completely subdued; as 
also Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noncum, Rhaetia, and Vindelicia. 
He met with the fiercest opposition from the Germans. They 
defeated the Roman army under Lollius, and cut off Varus 
with three legions ; but at last they were driven beyond the 
Elbe, and two of their tribes, the Suevi and Sicambri, trans- 
planted into Gaul. The Parthians restored the standards taken 
from the Romans under Crassus. An expedition was under- 

R % taken 



344 



History of the Roman Emperors. 



taken against the Arabians, but without effect. Augustus was 
more solicitous to establish his authority at home, than to extend 
his conquests abroad. He bounded the empire, on the north 
by the Danube and the Rhine ; on the west, by the ocean ; 
on the south, by mount Atlas and the desarts of Africa and 
Arabia ; and on the cast, by the Euphrates. 

His chief ministers were Agrippa and Maecenas. To the 
abilities of the former, he was in a great measure indebted for 
the empire. 

Augustus was not equally fortunate in his family connections. 
He had an only daughter, Julia, by his wife Scribonia, whom 
he married to Marcellus, the son of his sister Octavia, a youth 
of great hopes. Upon his death she was given to Agrippa, by 
whom she had several children; but they all died young, except 
a son and daughter, Agrippa and Julia, who were both con- 
temptible by their profligacy. 

Augustus having divorced Scribonia, married Livia Drusilla, 
the wife of Tiberius Nero, by whom she had two sons, Tiberius 
and Drusus; but had none by Augustus. After the death of 
Agrippa, Tiberius was married to Julia, and appointed heir to 
the empire. But Julia, by her infamous conduct, obliged her 
father to banish her from Rome. Augustus died at Nola, the 
15th year after the birth of our Saviour, aged seventy-six, having 
ruled in conjunction with Antony twelve years, and forty-four 
alone. It was said, it would have been happy for Rome if he 
had never died, or had never been born. 

Augustus greatly encouraged learning and learned men. 
Under him flourished the poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, 
and Propertius; the historians Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 
Diodorus Siculus, Trogus Pompeius, afterwards abridged by 
Justin, Cornelius Nepos ; Strabo, the geographer ; Vitruvius, 
the architect; Phredrus, the writer of fables, &c. A just taste 
for composition, however, had been introduced before his time 
by the poets Terence, Lucretius, and Catullus, but chiefly by 
Cicero, C.csar, Sallust, Varro, &c. 

Augustus was succeeded by a set of monsters, called Em- 
perors, the most cruel, except a few, that disgrace the annals of 
history. 

T1BEBIU8 was possessed of great abilities, but dark, suspi- 
cious, and cruel. 1 le at first ruled with moderation, during the 
life of his nephew GcnnanTcus, the son of Drusus, who was 
greatly beloved on account of his virtues. But after his death, 
which Piso, at the Emperor's desire, was supposed to have 
hastened by poison, Tiberius, leaving the direction of affairs to 
his favourite Sej anus, retired to Caprcoc, where he gave him- 



History of the Roman Emperors-. MB 

self up to abomiable lust and cruelty. Sejanus having formed 
a conspiracy against his life, was put to death. On this occa- 
sion, great numbers were cruelly executed, and many without 
any crime being proved against them. Tiberius, tired with con- 
demning individuals, at last ordered a general massacre of all 
who were imprisoned for that affair. He died in the 23d 
year of his reign, aged seventy-eight, smothered, as it was 
said, bv the orders of Macro, prefect of the Praetorian guards^ 
A. D. 37. 

Caligula, the son of Germamcus, who succeeded, was 
guilty of excesses in prodigality, impiety, lust, and cruelty* 
which exceed belief. He is said to have wished that the Ro- 
mans had but one head, that he might strike it off at a single 
blow. He was assassinated by Chaerea in the 4th year of his 
reign. 

After his death, Chserea and the senate wished to restore the 
republic ; but the soldiers preferred an emperor. Some of them 
discovering Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, a man of weak 
intellects, who was hiding himself in a corner of the palace 
through fear of being murdered, instantly proclaimed him em- 
peror. The senate were obliged to ratify their choice, Chserea 
was put to death ; and all hopes of liberty expired with him. 
The Romans were at this time reduced to the lowest state of 
subjection. Corruption of morals had first prepared them for 
slavery, and it now rivetted their chains. 

Messalina, the wife of Claudius, a woman of a most infa- 
mous character, and Narcissus, his freed-man, had the chief 
management of affairs. After Messalina was cut off for her 
crimes, the emperor married his niece Agrippina, the daughter 
of Germamcus, who, to procure the empire for Nero, her son 
by her former husband Domitius, poisoned him at the age of 
sixty-three, after he had reigned thirteen years, 

Nero, for several years, governed well, being under the 
direction of Burrhus and Seneca, who had been his preceptors. 
But afterwards, corrupted by Poppsea, a profligate woman, and 
Tigellinus, he became a monster of cruelty, extravagance, and 
debauchery. He murdered his mother, his wife Octavia the 
daughter of Claudius, Seneca, the poet Lucan, Petronius Ar- 
biter, who had been the minister of his pleasures, the virtuous 
Thrasea, and others without number. He is said to have set 
Rome on fire, that it might exhibit a representation of the 
flames of Troy. Above two-thirds of the city were destroyed. 
Throwing the blame of it on the Christians, he raised a hor- 
rible persecution against them. Many were devoured by wild 

R 3 beasts, 



246 



History of the Roman Emperors. 



beasts, or burnt alive, to supply the place of torches in the 
night-time. In this persecution St. Paul was beheaded, and 
St. Peter crucified. During these cruelties, Nero appeared as 
a charioteer in the circus, or a musician on the stage. At last, 
being deserted by the army and the senate, he was obliged to 
kill himself, to avoid a more ignominious death, after a reign 
of fourteen years. He was the last Emperor descended from 
the Caesars. 

Sergius Galba, who succeeded by the appointment of 
the army, having, by his rigour and parsimony, lost the af- 
fections of the soldiers, was murdered by Otho in the 7th 
month. 

Otho, being vanquished by Valens and Csecina, the lieu- 
tenants of Vitellius, commander of the legions in Germany, 
slew himself in the 10th month. 

Vitellius, a brutal tyrant, was murdered by the gene- 
rals of Vespasian, governor of Syria, in the 10th month, A.D. 

7°' 

Vespasian reigned ten years, with great wisdom •, but his 
virtues were tarnished by a sordid parsimony. In his time, 
Jerusalem was destroyed by his son Titus, who succeeded 
him. 

Titus was called the Darling of Mankind, for his virtue. 
He reigned three years. 

Do3Iitian, his brother, a cruel tyrant, reigned fifteen years. 
He was murdered by his domestics, A.D. 96. He was the 
last of those who are called the Twelve Cfsars. 

After him followed five excellent princes, Nerva, who ruled 
one year and four months. Trajan ruled twenty years. Un- 
der him the empire was most extensive. He subdued Dacia, 
and built a bridge over the Danube. Under him flourished 
Pliny, Tacitus, Juvenal, and Plutarch. Adrian abandoned 
all Trajan's conquests, and demolished the bridge over the 
Danube. He reigned twenty years. Under him flourished 
Florus, Suetonius, Arrian, and Epictetus. Antoninus Pius 
reigned twenty-three years. Marcus Aurelius, the philoso- 
pher, nineteen. CoMMODUS, his son, a wicked prince, thirteen 
years. He was murdered A.D. 193, 

Pertinax, his successor, attempting to correct abuses, was 
put to death in the third month, by the Prxtori.in guards, who 
set up the empire to sale. It w.i< purchased by Didius Julia- 
NUs, a rich lawyer, who was killed in the fifth month, by the 
orders of his successor Sevkrus, an African by birth, governor 
of Illyria. Sevcrus put to death all the Praetorian soldiers con- 
1 1 cerncd 



History of the Roman Emperors. 



247 



eerned in the murder of Pertinax ; broke and banished the rest. 
He defeated his competitors Niger and Albinus *, degraded the 
senate ; and after an able but despotic reign of eighteen years, 
died at York, A.D. 211. 

Caracalla, his son, murdered his brother Geta, and exer- 
cised the most horrid cruelties. He was assassinated in the sixth 
year of his reign by the contrivance of Macrinus; who having 
enjoyed the empire one year, was cut off by the arts of Msesa, 
the sister of Severus, to make room for her grandson Helio- 
gabalus. This emperor surpassed all his predecessors in effemi- 
nacy and debauchery, and equalled the worst of them in cruelty. 
He was slain by the Praetorian guards in the fourth year. 

Alexander Severus, his cousin-german, succeeded; a most 
virtuous prince, who was cut off in the thirteenth year of his 
reign, aged twenty-nine, in a mutiny of the soldiers excited 
by the influence of Maximin, one of the principal officers in 
the army, a Thracian by birth, of Gothic descent. He had 
been a shepherd in his youth, but turned soldier in the reign of 
Severus. His gigantic size, for he was no less than eight feet 
and a half high, his prodigious strength, courage, and assiduity, 
raised him to preferment. But when made Emperor, he proved 
a merciless tyrant. He was murdered by his guards after a 
reign of three years, A.D. 238. 

Rome was now entirely subjected to a military government. 
The soldiers were masters of every thing. They made and 
unmade emperors at their pleasure. More than fifty are 
reckoned up in the course of the following fifty years. 

Maximus and Balbinus, elected joint Emperors by the 
senate, were slain by the army. Gordian was murdered by 
Philip. He fell in an action against Decius ; who, after a 
reign of two years, was slain in a battle with the Goths, 251. 
Gallus was killed by his soldiers, fighting against ^Emilia- 
nus ; who fell in the same manner, marching against Vale- 
rian. Valerian was made prisoner by Sapor King of Persia, 
A. D. 260. Under the weak administration of his son Gal- 
lienus, a number of pretenders sprung up at once, known by 
the name of the thirty Tyrants. 

During these convulsions, the empire was daily declining ; 
and to precipitate its fall, it was attacked by enemies on all 
hands ; on the east by the Persians ; on the west by barbarous 
nations from the north of Europe, and north-west of Asia, 
under the name of Goths and Vandals, Scythians and Huns, 
Alans, &c. These were repressed for some time by Emperors 

R 4 of 



218 



History of the Roman Emperors. 



of ability who rnppened to be raised to the throne. Ci ATDirf 
defeated the Goths near the Danube, with vast slaughter, A. D. 
269. Air ELIAN, his succe.s-.or, defeated Zenobia Queen of 
Palmyra, and took her prisoner. He put to death her secretary, 
Longinus, the author of an excellent treatise on the Sublime, 
A.D. 273. Aurelian was slain by Mnestheus, his principal 
secretary, 275. Afier him followed Tacitus, who died in the 
sixth month ; and Probus, slain in a mutiny of the .soldiers in 
the sixth year; both good Emperors. Carus succeeded-, who 
soon after being struck dead by lightning, left the empire to 
his two sons NuMERlANUS and Carinus. But they enjoyed 
it for a very short time. 

Dioclesian, a native of Dioclea in Dalmatia, being elected 
Emperor. A. D. 284, assumed Maximian as his colleague: and 
created Constantius and Galerius with subordinate authority, 
whom he called Casars. After a vigorous and successful reign 
of twenty years, he rerigned the sovereignty, having prevailed 
with his colleague to do the same, and lived in retirement at 
Saione in Dalmatia : the two Caesars succeeded ; but Maximian 
afterwards resumed the empire, and was slain. 

Constantine, the son of Constantius, sirnamed the Great, 
having become sole master of the empire, transferred the seat 
of government from Rome to Byzantium, which from him 
was called Constantinople, A. D. 330. He withdrew the troops 
from the frontier provinces, and at his death divided his do- 
minions among his three sons and two nephews ; bv which 
means he hastened the ruin of the empire. He died A.D. 337, 
aged sixty-three, after a reign of thirty years. 

This emperor first established the Christian religion, which, 
amidst the greatest persecutions, had always continued to 
increase. But no sooner was it protected by law, than the 
church was torn by divisions and disputes. The heresy of 
Alius, a priest of Alexandria, who denied the divinity of our 
Saviour, gave rise to the most violent animosities, which con- 
tinued for many ages. The first general council was assembled 
at Nice in Buhynia, consisting of three hundred and eighteen 
prelates, besides inferior clergy \ where, in presence ot Con- 
stantine, the writings of Arius were condemned, A.D. 325. 
Alhanasius, patriarch of Alexandria, was, in the follow ing 
reign, the great supporter of the catholic or orthodox doc- 
trine. 

The successors of Constantine were all cut off by their mu- 
tual discords, except CoNSTANTIUSj his youngest son, a weak 

16 and 



History of the 'Roman Emperors. 



249 



and timid prince, who died after a reign of thirty-three years* 
A.D. 361. 

Julian, his cousin-german, succeeded, commonly called 
the Apostate, from his relinquishing Christianity, and restoring 
Paganism \ a brave and valiant prince, but extremely super- 
stitious. He forced the Germans, who had invaded Gaul, to 
repass the Rhine ; but was slain in an expedition against the 
Persians, A.D. 363. 

Jovian, being created Emperor by the army, was obliged 
to conclude a dishonourable peace with the Persians. He re- 
stored the Christian religion, and died in the seventh month. 
Valentinian was appointed to succeed ; who, reserving the 
West to himself, made his brother Valens Emperor of the 
East. 

In the time of Valens, the Goths having been expelled from 
their possessions along the mouths of the Borysthenes and 
Niester by the Huns, a barbarous nation from the north-west 
of Asia, presented themselves on the banks of the Danube, to 
the number of two hundred thousand men earnestly intreating 
the Romans to grant them a passage, and receive them into the 
empire. Vaiens imprudently gave them settlements in Thrace. 
Soon after, irritated by bad usage, they took up arms, under 
their king Fririgern, and being joined by the Huns and 
Alans, defeated the Romans in a great battle near Adrianople s 
in which Valens perished, with most part of his army, A.D* 
378. 

The progress of the barbarians was for some time checked 
by the valour of Theodosius, who was appointed Emperor of 
the East by Gratian, the son of Valentinian, and afterwards 
became sole Emperor. But after the death of Theodosius ? 
A.D. 395, in the reign of Arcadius and Honorius, his sons, 
who were weak princes, new tribes of barbarians succeeding 
one another rushed in upon the empire like a torrent^ 
and swept every thing before them. Alaric, general of the 
Goths, having over-run Italy, took Rome, and gave it up to 
be plundered by his soldiers for five days, A.D. 410, Ges- 
nerick, king of the Vandals, pillaged it for eleven days, 455,, 
Attila, king of the Huns, called the Scourge of God, from his 
cruelty, spread his ravages over the greatest part of Europe. 
At length, the empire of the West was finally extinguished* 
upon the abdication of Augustulus *, and Odoacer, general 
of the Heruli, assumed the title of King of all Italy, A.D, 476. 
The empire of the East subsisted about one thousand years 

longer, 



250 



History of the Roman Mmpth o m 



longer, to the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet, A.D. 

Odoacer, having reigned seventeen years, was overthrown 
in several engagements, and 2t last slain by Theodoric ; who 
first established the kingdom of the Goths in Italy, and em- 
bracing Christianity, reigned at Rome with great wisdom and 
moderation, till he died, A.D. 526, aged seventy-four. But 
about fifty years after, Italy was annexed to the empire of the 
East, by Narses, the eunuch, general of the Emperor Justinian ; 
who cut off Totila, the last king of the Goths, and established 
what was called the Exarchate of Ravenna, A.D. 554, which 
lasted one hundred and eighty-five years. 

The Lombards, a nation of Germany, under Alboinus, seized 
upon the greatest part of the north of Italy, hence called the 
kingdom of Lombardy, A.D. 571. 

The northern nations were now in possession of all the coun- 
tries of the Roman empire in the West. Hardly any vestige 
of the Roman laws, arts, or literature, remained. New forms 
of government, new manners, new names of men and countries, 
wei^e every where introduced. From this period to the eleventh 
century, Europe was covered with the grossest ignorance and 
barbarity. Persons of the highest rank could neither write nor 
read. The government which these nations established, is now 
called the Feudal System. The king or general parcelled out 
the conquered lands to his officers, and they to their soldiers, 
under the condition of attending the king in war, when re- 
quired. This form, although it may seem well calculated for 
defence against foreign enemies, was very unfavourable to in- 
ternal happiness and security. 

The kingdom of Lombardy lasted two hundred years, and 
ended with Desiderius, who was dethroned by Charlemagne, or 
Charles the Great, King of France, A.D. 772. 

During the feeble government of his successors, Italy was 
divided into different states and principalities, which, with a few 
alterations, subsisted till the conquests of the French. 

Savoy, Piedmont, &c. were long subject to the family who 
were called Dukes of Savoy, till the beginning of the last 
century, when they obtained the title of King of Sardinia. 

Milan, after various revolutions, became subject to the 
House of Austria, to which was annexed the dukedom of 
Mantua. Parma and Plarentia were subject to a prince of the 
royal family of Spain. Modena was governed by its own Duke, 
under the protection of the House of Austria. 

The 



Hzstmy of Modern Italy. 



251 



The republic of Genoa owes its liberty to Andrew Doria, a 
-native of it, admiral to Charles V. It is governed by the no- 
bility, who elect a Duke or Doge every two years. The island 
of Corsica was formerly subject to Genoa, but was ceded to 
France, a. 177c. Lucca is under a similar government to that 
of Genoa, enjoying the protection of Austria. Its citizens are 
remarkable for their industry. Various other cities in Tuscany 
were formerly free, as Florence, Pisi, Sienna, &c. ; but they 
all fell under the power of the family of Medici, several princes 
of which were great favourers of learning in the fifteenth cen- 
tury. Tuscany is now subject to the house of Austria, a vounger 
branch of which rules it, under the title oiGrandDuke of Tuscany. 

The republic of VENICE is the most ancient in Europe. 
During the ravages of Atiila^ A. D. 452, a number of fugitives 
took refuge in a cluster of small islands at the top of the Hadria- 
tic, and laid the foundation of this city ; which, by the culti- 
vation of commerce, in process of time raised itself to be the 
first power in Italy. In the year 1 193, the Venetians con- 
quered Constantinople itself, and held it for some time ; and 
it was so late as 1715 that they lost the Morea. Their great 
opulence excited the envy of the neighbouring states. The Em- 
peror of Germany, the Kings of France and Spain, the Pope, 
and all the princes of Italy, formed a league, called the League 
of Cambray, to crush them, A. D. 1508. Venice was at first 
stripped of all its possessions, but was afterwards saved by a dif- 
ference arising among those powers about the division of their 
prey. It has never since, however, recovered its former im- 
portance, and now holds only a secondary place among the 
powers of Europe. It has been chiefly hurt by the different di- 
rection which commerce has taken since the discovery of a pas- 
sage to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope, by the 

Portuguese, under De Gama, A. D. 1497. The supreme 

power at Venice is lodged in the nobility, who elect a Duke or 
Doge for life, who lives in great state, but has little power. * 

The Popes were originally only Bishops of Rome, and 
obtained respect from the dignity of the See in which they 
presided. But taking advantage of the superstition and credu- 
lity of their conquerors, who had embraced Christianity, they, 
by degrees, artfully enlarged their authority; and pretending to 
be the successors of St. Peter, and heads of the church, they 
established a spiritual dominion over the minds of men, to 

* Venice, Genoa, Ragusa, and Poglizza were fur some time independent states, but 
fiave now ceased to be so. 

which 



History of Modern It&hj. 



which for many ages most part of Europe submitted with 
implicit obedience. In all ecclesiastical controversies, their 
decisions were considered as infallible. Nor was their power 
confined to these alone ; they dethroned monarchs, disposed of 
crown*., md absolved subjects from rhe obedience due to their 
sovereigns. The grent instrument of their authority was what 
thev Called laying kingdom: under interdicts^ or prohibiting the 
performance ot certain religious services. There was not a 
throne which they had not shaken, nor a prince who did not 
tremble t their power. 

The Popes were originally dependent, first on the Emperors 
of Rome, and afterwards of Germany •, but in process of time, 
they arrogated to themselves a superior authority, as being vice- 
gerents ot Christ upon earth. Pope GREGORY VII. carried 
his presumption so far, that quarrelling with Henry IV., an 
Emperor distinguished for his virtue and ability, about the dis- 
posal of church benefices, he obliged him to stand three days, 
bare-footed, in the depth of winter, before the gates of his 
castle, imploring a pardon, which he at length with difficulty 
obtained, A. D. 1077. 

This contest between Gregory and Henry gave rise to two 
great factions, called the GUELFS and GHIBBEL INKS, 
which kept Italy and Germany in perpetual agitation for three 
centuries ; the former supporting the pretensions of the Popes, 
and the latter defending' the rights of the Emperors. 

The Popes were chiefly indebted for their temporal power to 
the liberality of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, to Gregory 
VII., and to the donations of other superstitious princes; but the 
foundation of it was first laid by Pepin, King of France, who 
obliged Aistulphus, King of the Lombards, to surrender Ra- 
venna, which he had reduced, with all the territories belonging 
to the Exarchate, to Pope Stephen III. From the time of Cle- 
ment V. 1305, to Gregory XL 1 377, the Popes resided at Avig- 
non in France. The death of Gregory occasioned a violent 
schism in the church, which lasted from the year 1379 to 1429, 
during which period there were two Popes at the same time, 
the one residing at Rome and the other at Avignon ; each ac- 
knowledged by different parts of Europe. At one time there 
were three Popes. 

The power of the Pope was greatly diminished by the re- 
storation of literature in the sixteenth century, after the taking 
of Constantinople! 1453 > an ^ tne invention of printing by John 
Guttemberg of Strasburg, John Faust and Peter Shejfer at Mentz, 
-ibout 1440 i or, according to others, by Laurence Coster at 

Harlcim ; 



History of Modern Italy. 



253 



Harleim ; but it recceived the severest blow by the reformation 
.of religion, begun in Germany by Martin Luther, 15 17. 

The Pope, however, still claims high authority. He is styled 
His Holiness: and ambassadors, or even princes approaching 
him, humbly kiss his toe. His ambassadors are called legates 
or nuncios. The cardinals are next in dignity to the Pope; and 
upon his decease, create a successor out of their own number. 
For which purpose they are confined each in a separate apart- 
ment, in a particular place in the Vatican, called the Conclave. 

The authority of the Pope in 1806 was almost entirely 
suppressed by Buonaparte, and the Pope himself detained in 
Paris until 18 14, when he was restored to his former throne 
by the allied sovereigns of Europe. 



Account of the Crusades, and their Consequences. 

While the power of the Popes was in its zenith, in the 
eleventh century, they, by means of one PETER, a hermit, set 
the princes of Europe on the wild attempt of recovering Judea, 
and the sepulchre of our Saviour at Jerusalem, out of the hands 
of the Infidels, or Mahometans. This was called the Holy 
War, and engaged the attention of Europe near two hundred 
years. The first expedition was resolved on in the council of 
Clermont in France, where Pope Urban presided, A.D. 1095. 
It was termed a CRUSADE, from the badge of the cross, by 
which those who joined in it were distinguished. The valour 
of the crusaders, animated by enthusiasm, was at first irresist- 
ible. They took Jerusalem, 1099, anc * GODFREY of Bouillon 
was created King of Judea. But in the end the Christians were 
deprived of all their possessions, after having lost, in several 
different expeditions, above a million of men. Jerusalem was 
retaken by the Infidels, underSALADiN, King of Egypt and Syria, 
A.D. 1187. The Christians, however, remained in possession 
of some part of Palestine near one hundred years longer. 

During the crusades, were instituted the three famous mili- 
tary orders, The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, The Knights 
Templars, and The Teutonic Knights of St. Mary. 

This foolish and unsuccessful enterprise, however, in the 
end, was productive of beneficial consequences, by uniting 
together the nations of Europe, suspending hostilities, and en- 
couraging commerce, particularly in the cities of Italy, Venice, 
Genoa, and Pisa •, whereby they acquired such wealth as en- 
abled them to secure their liberty and independence, and after- 
wards 



254 



T Ti story of Modern Italy. 



wards to procure political importance. The forming of cities 
into communities, corporations or bodies politic, as they were 
called, and granting them the privilege of municipal jurisdic- 
tion, without depending on the great lords to whom they had 
formerly been subject, was from Italy soon propagated over 
the rest of Europe. 

The Italians first established a commerce with the east by the 
ports of Egypt and the Red Sea ; and then with the countries 
in the north of Europe, particularly with Hamburg, Lubec, 
and other cities along the Baltic. These cities had entered into 
a league, called the Hanseatic League, for the protection of 
trade from pirates, by whom those seas were infested. Navi- 
gation was then so imperfect, that a voyage between Italy and 
the Baltic could not be performed in one summer. For that 
reason certain towns in Flanders were pitched upon, particu- 
larly Bruges, as staples, where the Italian merchants, then 
called Lombards, brought the productions of India, together 
with the manufactures of Italy, and exchanged them for the 
more bulky, but not less useful productions of the north. By 
the invention of the mariner's compass, according to some, by 
Flavius of Amalphi, A.D. 1302, navigation was rendered more 
expeditious and secure. 

The happy effects of granting freedom to the inhabitants of 
cities, soon induced sovereigns, and their great vassals, to grant 
the same privilege to that part of the people which resided in 
the country. In consequence of this diffusion of liberty, a 
more equal method of distributing justice came to be intro- 
duced. The right which individuals claimed, of waging war 
against one another, was checked •, the ridiculous custom of 
deciding differences by judicial combat, and fire ordeal, as 
it was termed, was abolished ; the power of the nobility was 
subjected to that of the sovereign ; law began to be studied 
as a science ; and war ceased to be the only object of atten- 
tion to men of rank. A copy of Justinian's Pandects, called 
the Corpus Juris, was accidentally discovered at Amalphi, 
1 137, which, in a short time, revived the knowledge of the 
Roman law over all Europe. In consequence of these im- 
provements, a greater politeness and civility of manners began 
to prevail. This change was greatly promoted by the singular 
institution of chivalry, which took place after the holy war, 
but chiefly by the progress of science and the cultivation of 
literature. 



History 



History of Naples* 



555 



History of the Kingdom of NAPLES. 

THE south of Italy, now called the Kingdom of Naples 
has undergone many revolutions. Upon the invasion of 
the northern nations, it shared the same fate with the rest of 
Italy. In the end of the tenth century, it was conquered by 
the Saracens. They soon after were driven out by the Nor- 
mans under the sons of TANCRED. Their successors pos- 
sessed the kingdom of Naples for several ages, together with 
the island of Sicily ; both which they called the kingdom of the 
Two Sicilies. Under them it became a flourishing state. Ro- 
ger I. A.D. 1 130, first introduced the culture of silk from 
Greece into his dominions, from which it was soon communi- 
cated to the rest of Italy, and other parts of Europe. 

By the influence of the Pope, Naples and Sicily came into 
the power of the French, under CHARLES Duke of Anjou, 
who vanquished and put to death CONRADIN, the last of the 
Norman race, A.D. 1265. But the Sicilians were so disgusted 
at their new masters, that they cut them all off on Easter-day, 
A.D. 1282. This massacre was called the Sicilian Vespers^ be- 
cause the first stroke of the bell which summoned the people 
to prayers the preceding evening, served as a signal to the con- 
spirators. From this time Sicily remained subject to the kings 
of Arragon, whose protection they had solicited. The House 
of Anjou, however, with a few interruptions and tragical revolu- 
tions, continued to hold the crown of Naples, till the Spaniards 
drove them out, 1504, chiefly by the abilities of GONSALVO 
de Cordova, called the Great Captain ; when it was annexed to 
the crown of Spain, v/hich governed it by a viceroy. The op- 
pressive government of the Spaniards, particularly in imposing 
taxes, gave rise to a famous revolt, headed by Masionello, a 
poor fisherman, aged twenty-four, which at first was attended 
with surprising success. But he was at last killed at the head 
of his own mob, 1647. 

Naples and Sicily continued with Spain till the year 1706, 
when Charles, afterwards Emperor, took possession of it. But 
after various treaties, and much bloodshed, it was finally ceded 
to Spain, 1736. The present king of Naples is Ferdinand IV. 
King of the two Sicilies. 



SICILY. 



256 



Ancient Sicily. 



SICILY. 

CICILY is an island in the Mediterranean sea, adjoining to 
O the southern extremity of Italy, extending from 36 35' to 
38 25' north latitude, ami from 12 50' to 16 5' east longi- 
tude from London. Its greatest length is 210 miles, its breadth 
133, and its circumference 600. Posidonius makes its circum- 
ference 4400 stadia, or 550 miles, Strab. vi. 266. ; Diodorus 
Siculus 4360 stadia, v. 1. On account of its fertility, it was 
esteemed one of the granaries of the Roman empire, Horrevm 
reipub/ica, \ . frumentarium SUBSIDIUM, Cic. Manil. \2.in Verr. 
iii. et annona subsidium, Liv. xxvi. 40. xxvii. 5.; S/7. xiv. 23.* 

SICILIA was also called Sicania, Sil. xiv. 33, &c. and 
Triouetra, Horat. Sat. ii. 6. 55.; Si/, v. 490. or Trinacria, 
Virg. JEn. iii. 440. 582. tv/ TrinacRIS, Ovid. Fast. iv. 419. 
v. 346. from its triangular form, Plin.m. 8. Tribus hac excurrit 
in aquora Unguis, Ovid. Met. xiii. 724. 

The three promontories or capes of Sicily are, 

Peloris, -tdis, Pelorias, -iadis, Pelorus, or -urn, now Cape 
Peloro or Torre del Faro, from a tower and light-house erected 
on it, on the north point towards Italy \ PACHYNUS, now Cape 
Passaro, on the south; and LlLYBiEUM, now Cape Bo'eo, on the 
west, Ovid. Fast. iv. 479. Met. xiii. 725. 

Sicily is separated from Italy by the F return Siculum, or Straits 
of Messina, called also the FARO, fifteen miles long, Plin. iii. 
8. s. 14. and in some places so narrow, that the barking of dogs 
and the crowing of cocks is said to be distinctly heard from the 
one side to the other. 5/7. xiv. 20. This strait is thought by 
some to have been formed by an earthquake breaking the isthmus 
which joined Sicily with tne main land, and the Tuscan and 
Ionian seas rushing in, Ovid. Met. xv. 290. Plin, iii. 8.; Senec. 
ad Marc. 17. ; S/7. xiv. 12. See p. 175. 

On the right side, that is, on the side of Italy, is SCYLLA, 
a dangerous rock ; on the left, i. e. on the side of Sicily, 
CHARYBDISj a whirlpool, said to swallow up ships, and upon 
the return of the tide to throw them up again in broken pieces, 
Virg. JEn. iii. 420. ; Ovid. Met. vii. 63. xiii. 730. ; Pont. iv. 
10. 25. Rented, amor. 740.*, Senec. ep. 79. The situation of 
Scylla is ascertained, see p. 174. but the modems are not 
agreed about that of Charybdis. The poets represent them as 
nearly opposite j hence the proverbial saying about a person 

* M. CfttO Sapiens, cellam penariam reipublica?, nutriccni plebis Roniansr, SicilUm 
nominavit. Cic. Vcrr. 2. 2. Majoribua nostii* in African) «*J»c provincia gradus 
imperii fact us e?.t; neque enim tarn facile opts Caitliarmis tanta: concidissent, nisi illud 
et rei frumwHariie subsidium, ci rtcepttculum cUiibus uostns puur«, ib, §, I. 

wh« 



Ancient Sicily* 



who wishing to avoid one danger falls into another, Incidit in 
Scyl/am, dum vult vitare Charylrdim, from Gualter, Chaiillon. 
Hence also Seneca calls this strait f return fabidosum, i. e. cele- 
brated or exaggerated in fable, ep. 45. & 79 ad Marc, if. 

Cape Peloro is a long sandy neck of land advancing into the 
Tuscan sea, within a mile and an half of the Calabnan coast, 
which is here very abrupt and lofty. This isthmus shuts up the 
straits to the eye, so that the tower and light-hou^e appear to 
be on the Italian side of the water j hence Etangusti rarescent 
claustra Pelori> Virg. JEn. iii. 411. It is so difficult to navi- 
gate through the entrance of the Faro, that pilots are always 
ready to put to sea as soon as a vessel is seen in the offing. Cha- 
rybdis is supposed by Mr. Swinburne to have been at the isthmus 
of cape Peloro; several miles north of Messina, where it is com- 
monly supposed to have been, from Strabo, vi. 268., and where 
there is still a kind of whirlpool, although nowise answering to 
the description given of Charybdis by the ancient poets. Thu- 
cydides also seems to place it at the entrance of the straits, and 
ascribes it to their narrowness, and to the concourse of the 
Tuscan and Sicilian seas, iv. 24. * 

Messana or Messina is the first town south of Pdorus. Its 
ancient name was Zancle, from the resemblance of its port to 
the form of a sickle, Thucydid, vi. 4. It got its present name 
from a colony of Messenians from Peloponnesus, who took pos- 
session of it, Strab. vi. 268. The inhabitants were called Mes~ 
sanenses, but afterwards Mamertini, from the soldiers of that 
people, who treacherously made themselves masters of the 
town, seep. 234. whence Messana is called by Cicero, civitas 
Mamertina, Verr. ii. 5. iii. 6. The Mamertines being hard 
pressed by Hiero king of Syracuse, and by the Carthaginians, 
applied to the Romans for assistance ; who, wishing to extend 
their conquests beyond Italy, gladly laid hold of this pretext for 
engaging in war with the Carthaginians, and made Messana their 
head-quarters in Sicily during their long struggle with that 
people, Liv. epit. xvi, xxix. 7. 9. hence this city became great 
and opulent. Since the fall of the Roman empire it has under- 
gone various vicissitudes of fortune. It was almost entirely de- 
stroyed by the dreadful earthquake in 1783. 

Several miles south of the straits is the promontory Dre~ 

* Spallanzani gives a long description of Charybdis. He places it between a pro- 
jection of land named Punta Secca, and another projection, on which stands the tower 
called Lantema or the Light-house, a light being placed at its top to guide vessels 
which may enter the harbour by night. It is 750 feet from the shore of Messina, and 
is called by the people of the country calofaro, (ko.Xo$ Qttgos, the beautiful tower,) 
from this light-house. It is not properly a whirlpool, but an incessant motion of 
agitated waters; 12, miles distant from Scylla, though Homer places it verv near. 
Vol. iv. 177.— -203, 

S panum, 



258 Ancient Sicily, 



panum, and south of it the town TaUEOMENIUM, Plin. iii. 8. 
now Taormina, in an elevated situation, on the extremity of 
mount Taurus ; commanding one of the grandest prospects in 
the world ; containing only about 3000 inhabitants. Here are 
the remains of a noble ancient theatre, placed between two 
high rocks, whence there is a full view both of JEtna and the 
plains. On a neighbouring point of mount Taurus stood Naxus, 
the first colony of the Greeks in the island, built about 700 
years before Christ, and destroyed by Dionysius, Diodor. xiv. 
16. Near this the river O NOB ALA, mentioned by Appian, 
Bell, civ. v. 1161., now Cantara, empties itself into a beautiful 
bay. South of this is the river Asines, now called Freddo y from 
the coldness of its water ; and Acis y now Aci y Jaci, or Chiaci, 
running rapidly from mount .^Etna, Ovid. Fast. iv. 468. ; Sil. 
xiv. 222. . 

Next is the city CATANA or Catana, v. Catane, Sil. xiv. 
197., at the foot of mount jEtna, by the eruptions of which it 
has been several times overwhelmed. * 

The last and most dreadful overthrow of this city was in 
1693. It has since been rebuilt in a very splendid manner, and 
contains about 30,000 inhabitants, a considerable number of 
whom appertains to the university, the only one in the island, and 
the nursery of all the lawyers. A stream, called Amcnanus, now 
Guidicello, issuing from iEtna, runs through the city, which 
sometimes becomes dry for several years, and then begins to 
flow again, Strab. v. 240.; Ovid. Met. xv. 279. This inter- 
mission is supposed to depend on the different repletion and eva- 
cuation of the repositories of water in the cavities of ./Etna. 

In the way between Taormina and Catana, through the 
woody part of ^Etna, is an old chesnut tree of enormous size, 
the trunk of which is one hundred and ninety-six feet in cir- 
cumference ; others make it two hundred and four feet. The 
whole of this coast is in a great measure formed by the lava of 
mount ./Etna, which is of a much harder consistence than that 
of Vesuvius. One of the most tremendous spectacles in 
nature, is the conflict between a large stream of lava, several 
miles broad and of immense depth, and the waters of the sea. 
The noise produced is said to be more dreadful than the loudest 
thunder, f 

# In one of these eruptions the filial affection of two brothers, AnapUs and Amphi- 
kHmutf is celebrated, who lescued their parent! at the hazard of their lives, Strji. vi. 
769.; Srnec. i-nef. iii. 37. vi. 36. ; Vak Mix. v. 4. ext. 4. called f>ii ffjtres, Sil. 
xiv. 197. 

I The stream of lava in 1669 was tour miles broad and fifty tcet deep. It at first 
moved at the rate of seven miles in one day, but iftl rwardl it took four days to travel 
fifteen miles. It overwhelmed n great part of Catana, and drove back the sea a con- 
siderable way from the shore. 

At 



Ancient Sicily. 



259 



At a small distance from the shore are three rocks of lava, 
which Pliny calls the rocks of the Cyclops, iii. 8. a name by which 
they are still distinguished. A stream of lava, in the sixteenth 
century, formed a harbour for the people of Catana j but by a 
subsequent eruption it was filled up in 1669. 

South of Catana is the river Sim^ETHUS, Virg. JEn. ix. 584. 
now Giaretta, one of the largest in the island, deep and muddy* 
After running through an extensive plain, it flows into the top 
of the bay of Catana. Near its mouth it throws up great quan- 
tities of fine amber. Above the mouth of this river stood Mur- 
gentium or Morgantium, Strab. vi. 257. ; Liv. xxiv. 27. or 
Morgentia, Si/, xiv. 266. surrounded with woody plains, lb. 
whence Morgantinus ager, the country, Cic. Verr. iii. 18. 
South of this is the river Eryces and the Terias, joined by tile 
Lyssus: then the country of the LEONTINI, remarkable for 
its fertility, Cic. Verr.m. 18.; Phil. il. 17.; formerly called 
Lastrigonii campi, Sil. xiv. 116. Their chief town Leontini or 
Leontium, now Lentini, stood on the south side of the river 
Teriasy several miles from the sea, near the lake of Biveri. The 
hills on the east are hollowed into many large cavities, where 
saltpetre is produced in great quantities. 

The Leontines being attacked by the Syracusans, sent their 
countryman Gorgias, a famous orator, to solicit assistance from 
the Athenians, which furnished that people with a pretext for 
undertaking their fatal expedition to Sicily ^Diodor. xii. 53. & 83; 

South-east of Leontini is the small river Pantagias, v. -ies 9 
Sil. xiv. 231. now Porcari, rocky at its mouth, Virg. JEn. iii. 
688. South of this was the town Megara, -orum vel -a s or 
Megaris, -idis, on a bay of that name, lb. into which run the 
rivers Myla, Liv. xxiv. 30. and Aldbon or Alabis, Sil. xiv. 228. 
Megara was anciently called Hybla, Strab. vi. 267. built by 
Hyblon a Sicilian king, Thucydid. vi. 4. It did not exist in the 
time of Strabo, but the name was given to an adjoining moun- 
tain or plain, famous for producing honey, Ovid. Pont. iv. 15. 
10. Ib. 199.; Sil. xiv. 200. whence Apes HybUa, Virg. eel. i„ 
55. and Mella Hyblaa, for the most excellent honey, Martial. 
xi. 43. and ii. 46. vii. 87. 

Near the place where Megara stood is now the town AU- 
GUSTA, which was almost entirely destroyed by the earth- 
quake in 1693. It has been since rebuilt on a regular plan, and 
is now said to contain eighteen thousand inhabitants. It is only 
nine miles from Syracuse by sea, but eighteen by land. At the 
bottom of the bay, on a peninsula, was Thapsus or Tapsus, in 
3 low situation, Virg. ibid, not far from Syracuse. 

SYRACUSiE, Syracuse, the ancient capital of the island, 

S 2 was 



260 



Ancient Sicily, 



was founded by a colony from Corinth under Archias, Strab, 
vi. 269 *. It became so great a city that the circuit of its walU 
amounted to one hundred and eighty stadia, or twenty-two 
English miles and an half, ib. 270. It was of a triangular 
form, and consisted of five parts or towns ; Ortygia, or the 
island called Nasos or Ntjo-oc, which was all that the Greeks at 
first occupied, after having expelled the Sicilians, Thucydid. 

vi. 3.; Acradina, that faced the sea ; Tycha or Tycbe, joined to 
Acradina on the east; Neapolis, or the New City, which lay 
along the side of the great port ; and at the eastern extremity 
EriPOL/E, Strab. Ibid.; Liu. xxv. 24 Sc 25. But as Epipola 
was little inhabited, Cicero divides Syracuse only into four parts, 
Verr. iv. 53. hence it is called gUADRUPLiCES Syracuse, Auson. 
de clar. urb. The island was joined to Acradina by a bridge. 
In the island f was the famous fountain A RET H USA, which emit- 
ted a copious stream of the sweetest water, resembling a river, 
and abounding with fishes, Cic. Ibid. R was supposed to com- 
municate with the river Alpheus at Olympia in Elis, which was 
believed to run below ground under the sea for above five hun- 
dred miles, and to issue at the mouth of this fountain, Virg. JEn. 
iii. 692.; Eel. x. I. & 4. •, Cic. ibid.; Ovid. Met. v. 573.-, 5/7. 
xiv. 53.; Stat. Silv. i. 2. 203.-, hence it was said to smell of or- 
dure during the Olympic games, Strab. ib. and to emit excre- 
ments, Senec. Nat. Q. iii. 2. This communication between 
Arethusa and Alpheus Pausanias mentions as a fact which he be- 
lieved, and endeavours to confirm by similar instances, v. 7. 

vii. 23. and Strabo as formally refutes it, vi. 270. & 271.; Plin. 
xxxi. 5. /. 30.; Senec. Q. Nat. iii. 21. & 26.% EpipcU, which 
lies on the north side of the city, was first surrounded with a 
wall by Dionysius the elder, a part of which was called Hcxa- 
pylon> v. -um, from its having, as is supposed, six gates, Liv. xxv. 
24. Dionysius is said to have employed in this work more than 
sixty thousand men, besides builders, and to have^urged it with 
such vigour, that in_Uventy days he completed»the wall thirty 
stadia, or four miles and three quarters long, and so high and 

* One of the HtT»c\\dx,TI>ueydiJ.\'i. 3. supposed to be descended from Bacchus; 
whence the whole colony U*Tal]ed Bacchiau^, hir:ari gens orta Cerintho, Ovid. Met. 
v. 407. J 

f The insuLv^x insular division was the chief part of the city. After Syracuse wu 
taken by Marccllus, the.Rom^ns prohibited the native citizens from inhabiting this 
quarter ; because it could be defended by a handful of men, and, on that side, the city 
could be approached from the sea. Cic. Ferr. v. 31. & 38. 

J The poets represent Arethusa as a nymph, -^o being beloved by Alpheus % the god 
of the river of that name, Jlyine from him, w .is changed into a fountain ; whose water > 
running below ground from Elis to Sicily, first burst forth in Ortygia, O11J. Met. v. 
577. Sec. Stut. 2.203. whence she is called Alpuei as, -adis, the Alphean 

rymph. Ond. Met.y.^-;. and the waters of the fountain, il** vnd^t^ ib, 

thick 



Ancient Sicily. 



261 



thick as to set at defiance any assault from besiegers-, being also 
secured by towers at proper distances, Diodor. xiv. 18. 

The city is now confined to Ortygia, or the island alone, 
which is of an oblong shape, about two miles in circumference, 
and lies between two bays, the great and small harbour. It 
contains about eighteen thousand inhabitants.,, In the dreadful 
earthquake on the nth of January 1693, which proved so fatal 
to Sicily, one-fourth of the inhabitants of Syracuse perished 
under the ruins of their houses. The earth shook during a 
space of four minutes, and overturned almost every city on the 
eastern coast. Above sixty thousand persons lost their lives. 

Arethiisa is now nothing but a pool of brackish water. The 
waves have found a passage to it through the rocks, which re- 
peated earthquakes have split, and not a fish is to be seen in it. 

The principal remains of antiquity at Syracuse are several 
temples, one of them the temple of Minerva, converted into a 
Christian church ; a theatre, and an amphitheatre ; many sepul- 
chres and catacombs, or subterraneous repositories of dead 
bodies ; the Latomia and the Ear of Dionysius. 

The Catacombs or subterraneous vaults are formed in streets 
or alleys cut through one continued stratum of soft stone, and 
crossing one another in many directions. They are more 
regular than the catacombs of St, Januarius at Naples. These at 
Rome are not to be compared to either. At stated distances 
are large circular rooms lined with stucco, and pierced at top 
to admit light and air. On each side of the walls are recesses 
cut into the rock, and in the floor of these cavities coffins of all 
sizes have been hollowed out. In some places there are twenty 
troughs, one behind another. Skeletons have been often found 
in them with a piece of money in their mouths. Some of these 
are of great antiquity. 

The Latomixy or Lautumi^e, was a prison of immense ex- 
tent cut out of the solid rock by Dionysius, Cic. Verr. v. 27. & 
55. now converted into a subterraneous garden filled with a 
great variety of the finest shrubs and fruit trees, which bear 
with vast luxuriance. 

The Ear of Dionysius, as Mr. Brydone informs us, is a huge 
cavern cut out of the hard rock in the form of the human ear, 
eighty feet high, and two hundred and fifty feet long, said to 
have been so contrived that the sounds from below were col- 
lected into a point, as into a focus, which was called the Tym- 
panum, and communicated with a small apartment where the 
tyrant used to conceal himself, and thus overhear what was said 
by the prisoners. When this apartment was finished, he put to 
death the workmen employed in making it, that no one might 

S 3 know 



2G2 



Ancient Sicily. 



know its use. Here he confined such as he suspected to be his 
enemies ; and by overhearing their conversation, judged of their 
guilt, and condemned or acquitted them accordingly. 

Mr. Swinburne says that this cavern is eighteen feet wide and 
fifty-eight feet high, and runs into the heart of the hill in the 
form of a capital S ; the sides are chiseled very smooth, and 
the roof coved, gradually narrowing to as sharp a point as a 
Gothic arch ; along this point runs a groove or channel, which 
served, as is supposed, to collect the sounds that rose from the 
speakers below, and convey them to a pipe in a small double 
cell above, where they were heard with the greatest distinctness. 

This hearing-place has now lost its virtue \ but the echo at 
the mouth of the grotto is very loud : the tearing of a piece of 
paper makes as great a noise as a smart blow of a cudgel on a 
board ; and a gun gives a report like thunder, that vibrates for 
some seconds, but farther in, these extraordinary effects cease. 
Rings are still found in the corners of the walls, where no 
doubt the more obnoxious criminals were fastened. 

Mr. Swinburne makes this excavation part of the large La- 
tomi<z on the skirts of Neapo/is, a most extraordinary spot. It 
consists of a very spacious court or area, round which runs a 
wall of rock of great height, so artfully cut as to cause the 
upper part to project visibly out of the perpendicular line, and 
thereby defeat every attempt to climb up. Near the summit of 
the rock is a channel which conveys part of the waters of the 
aqueduct to the city, and can with ease at any time be stopped 
and turned into the Latomht. In the centre of the court is a 
huge insulated stone, and upon it the ruins of a guard-house ; 
vast caverns penetrate into the heart of the rocks, and serve for 
saltpetre works and roperies. The subterraneous garden, which 
others make the LatGtnia, is in Acradina, and belongs to a con- 
vent of Capuchin friars. It is thought to have been originally 
a quarry, and afterwards converted into a prison. Mr. Brydone 
says, that most part of it is about one hundred feet below the 
level of the earth. 

The most remarkable things to be seen at Syracuse arc enu- 
merated by Seneca, ad Marc. 17. Many of them still remain. 

The great harbour is at the south of the island ; it is between 
five and six miles round ; Strabo says ten miles round. Two miles 
south from the island is the mouth of the river Amipus^ Liv. 
xxiv. 36. south of which was the suburb of Oi.ymimi M, lb. 33. 
where arc still the remains of the temple of Olympian Jupiter, 
which Gelo enriched with the spoils of the Carthaginians about 
two thousand five hundred years ago. This river is very clear 
and deep. It is joined on the south by another river that rises 

from 



Ancient Sicily. 



from a round pond, twenty feet in diameter and twenty-eight 
feet deep, the water of which is as clear as crystal, and full 
of fish. It was anciently called Cyane, Ovid, Font. if„ 10. 26* 
-now Pisma, about six miles from Anapus. Here it was that 
Pluto struck the earth with his sceptre, and plunged into the 
infernal regions with Proserpine, whom he had carried off 
from the flowery fields of Enna ; here the nymph Cyane 
attempted to stop him, and, for her officiousness, was by the 
angry god metamorphosed into a fountain, Ovid. Met. v. 412. &c. 

South of the great harbour is the promontory Plemmyrium % 
now Massa Oliveri, called by Virgil undosum, because frequently 
washed by the waves of the raging sea, A5n. iii. 693. It pro- 
jects into the sea opposite to the city, and straitens the entrance 
of the great harbour, Thucydid. vii. 4. Here Nicias, the general 
of the Athenians, erected fortifications, lb. ; but they were 
soon after taken by Gylippus, the general of the Lacedaemo- 
nians, who had been sent to the assistance of the Syracusans^ 22* 
which greatly distressed the Athenians, 24. 

From the small harbour, which was next to Acradina, Mar- 
cellus attempted to take Syracuse ; but being prevented by the 
engines of Archimedes, Polyb. viii. 8. he converted the siege into 
a blockade, Liv. xxiv. 34. He at last became master of the place, 
partly by force, partly by intestine treachery, in the third year 
of the siege, Id. xxv. 23.-32. Livy says he would hardly have 
gained so much booty if he had taken Carthage itself. Ib.* 

South of Syracuse are the rivers Cacyparus, now Casibifi, 
Asinarus, near which Nicias and Demosthenes, the Athenian 
generals, were taken prisoners ; and Helorus, v. -urn, running 
into the sea through a fertile plain, Virg. JEn.'m. 698. called 
Heloria Tempe, by Ovid. Fast. iv. 487. ; farther up it runs 
through corroded rocks, hence called clamosus by Silius Italicus, 
xiv. 270. On it stands a town of the same name* 

At a small distance from this is Pachynus or Cape Passaro f 
the southermost point of the island, Virg. ib. 699. where was a 
harbour, Cic. Verr. v. 34. j it is a barren island of about a mile 
round, with a small fort on it. 

West from Pachynus was Odysseum Prvmontorium, the pro- 
montory of Ulysses ; where some authors place the harbour of 
JEdissa, mentioned by Cicero, Verr. v. 34. and read portusOdysse&t 

See Gravius on the passage. West of this stood CAMA- 

RINA, near a lake of the same name, which being drained, 
contrary to the advice of Apollo, occasioned a pestilence \ Et 

* At this time the Romans are said to have first got a taste for the works of ^he 
Greek artists, which they ever afterwards sought with such eagerness and rapacity. 
Liv. xxv. 4a. 

S 4 fatis 



26* 



Ancient Sicily. 



fat'is nutiquam cottcessa moveri, Scrv. in. Virg. JLn. iii. 700. j Sil. 
xiv. 199. But this rrny be better explained from the nature of 
the lake itself, which is at least as low as the level of the sea, 
so that it could never possibly be drained. Its waters are sul- 
phureous, and boil up violently in several places. 

West from Cam.irina are two rivers, mentionrd only by 
Silius Italicus, xiv. 229. Achates and Vadcgrusa. Then follows 
GliLA, on a river of the same name, anciently a large city, 
Immanisque Gela y fluvii cogncmine dicta, Virg. JEn. iii. 702. ; 
Sil. xiv. 219. now Terranova : the inhabitants were called Ge- 
LENSES, Ctc, Verr. iii. 43. iv. 33. Virgil calls the country campi 
Giloiy lb. 701. Through these plains runs the river HIMliRA, 
which divides the island into two parts, and was the boundary 
between the Carthaginians and the tyrants of Syracuse, Liv, 
xxiv. 6.; Si/, xiv. 234. ; Strab. vi. 266. near the mouth of which 
stood Phalarium, a castle on the top of a hill, called Ecttimes, 
now monte Licata, where Phalaris is said to have kept his 
brazen bull, Diodor, xix. 108. 

South of this stood AGRIGENTUM or Acragas, near the 
top of a mountain, four miles from its harbour, and about one 
thousand one hundred feet above the level of the sea, whence 
It makes a noble appearance at a distance, Virg. it?, A stream 
of the same name runs past it, Polyb, ix. 21. It was the largest 
city in the island next to Syracuse, and at one time contained 
above two hundred thousand inhabitants, Diodcr. xiii. 82. who 
were remarkable for their hospitality, as also for their 
luxury and magnificence, lb. 83. Plato said of them, that 
they built as if they were always to live, and supped as if they 
were never to sup again, JElian. xii. 20. When in conjunction 
with Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse, they defeated the Cartha- 
ginians at Himera, so great a number o( captives fell into their 
power, that many private persons had five hundred each to 
their share. But most of these prisoners being the property 
of the public, were employed in hewing stones for building 
temples, in making common sewers below ground, and in 
digging out of the solid rock a large fish-pond, seven furlongs 
round and thirty feet deep, Diodor. xi. 25. which is now quite 
dry, and converted into a garden, Swinburne. The temple of 
Jupiter Olympius was three hundred anil forty feet long, sixty 
broad, and one hundred and twenty high, the largest in the 
island, Diodcr xiii. 82. The sculpture on part of the walls 
answers to Virgil's description of the painting in the temple of 
Juno at Carthage, JEn. i. 453. which, although called pictura 
by the poet, v, 464. is supposed to have been a carving on the 
doors or roof, as Pausan. i. 24. v. 10. viii. 45. x. 19. for it 

appears 



Ancient Sicily. 



26B 



appears that the art of painting was unknown in the time of 
- the Trojan war, Plin. xxxv. 3. s. 6. Agrigentum was at this 
period governed by THERON, under whose wise administra- 
tion it enjoyed the greatest prosperity. But his son Thrasydseus 
having imprudently engaged in war with the Syracusans, was 
defeated by Hiero, the son of Gelon •, and being d posed 
from his command perished in exile. The Agrigentines re- 
established a popular government, and obtained peace from 
Hiero, about the same time that the Roman family of the 
Fabii were cut off by the Vejentes at Cremera, Diodor. xi 53. 
The Agrigentines sometime afterwards contended with the 
Syracusans about pre-eminence, but without success, Diodor. 
xii. 8. xix. 70. & 71. xx. 31, & 56. 

Agrigentum was founded by a colony of Rhodians, Poiyb. 
ix. 21. or of Ionians, Strab. vi 272. Thucydides says by a 
colony from Gela (Geloi), who called it Agragas, from a neigh- 
bouring brook, vi. 4. ; but the citadel is said to have been built 
long before by D^dalus, at the desire of Cocalus, king of 
Sicily, to whom that famous artist had fled for protection against 
Minos king of Crete, Pausan. vii. 4. ; Diodor. iv. 78. who, 
having come into Sicily to demand that Dsedalus should be 
given up to him, was deceived by Cocalus, and treacherously 
killed, being suffocated while in bath, lb. 79. 

The Agrigentines flourished long as a free people. The first 
that reduced them to slavery was PHALARIS, originally a tax- 
gatherer, who accomplished his purpose by singular art, Polyan. 
Strat. v. 1. and exercised on his subjects the greatest cruelties. 

PERILLUS, an Athenian artist, brought to this tyrant a 
brazen bull of exquisite workmanship, so contrived, that the 
voice of a person inclosed in it, with his tongue cut out, would 
exactly resemble the bellowing of a bull. Having pointed out 
the wonderful effect this would have, if set on a fire with cri- 
minals shut up in it, and perceiving the tyrant highly delighted 
with the invention, he expected a great reward for his inge- 
nuity ; but Phalaris ordered the experiment to be first made on 
himself, [repertorem torruit arte sua, Ovid. Pont. ii. 9. 44.) to the 
great satisfaction of all Agrigentum, Plin. xxxiv. 8. s 19 $ 
Cic. Off. ii. 7. ; Ovid. Art. Am. I. 653. ; lb. 4^. *, Trist iii. 
11. 40. ; V id. Max. ix. 2. ext. 9. ; Juvenal, viii. 8 r. ; Pers. iii. 
39. He, however, frequently used it afterwards for the 
punishment of his enemies, Cic. Pis. 18. ; Verr. iv. 33. hence 
Phalarismusy cruelty or tyranny, Id. Att. vii. 11, 12. His 
subjects at last rose upon him and put him to death, Cic. Of, 11. 7. 
by stoning him, according to Valerius Maximus, at the insti- 
gation of Zeno of Elea, (Ekates,) the philosopher, iii. 3. ext. 2. 

as 



Ancient Sicily. 



as Ovid says, in that instrument of torture, in Itnde y v. 439. 
about 570 years B. C. 

Hamilcar, when he took Agrigentum, carried this famous 
bull to Carthage. Scipio Africanus, the younger, having de- 
stroyed that city about 260 years after, restored it again to 
Agrigentum, where it remained in the time of Augustus, when 
Diodorus Siculus wrote his history*, xiii. 91. 

There are certain letters ascribed to Phalaris, which repre- 
sent him under a very different character from what he bears 
in history •, but these, although by many believed to be genuine, 
are generally reckoned spurious. 

After the death of Phalaris the Agrigentines long enjoyed 
liberty. Thcro or Theron, who was contemporary with 
Xerxes, ruled with such moderation, that the people never 
were more happy, Diodor. xi. 53. When the Athenians in- 
vaded Sicily the Agrigentines formed an alliance with them 
from jealousy of the Syracusans, Dicdor. xiii. 4. ; but finding, 
that instead of friends they had got masters, they soon changed 
sides. About seven years after the defeat ot the Athenians 
before Syracuse, the Carthaginians sent a great army into 
Sicily under Hamilcar, who obliged the inhabitants of Agri- 
gentum to leave their city, and plundered it of every thing 
valuable, Ibid. 90. It was again restored about sixty years 
after by Timoleon, after defeating the Carthaginians, Id. xvi. 
90. It must have speedily acquired strength ; for in about 
twenty-four years we find it engaging in war with Aga- 
thocles, Id. xix. 70. Before the arrival of Pyrrhus in Sicily, 
the Agrigentines had been subjected to despotism by Pkin- 
tias, who was supported by the Carthaginians ; but encou- 
raged by the assistance of the Epirots, they expelled their 
tyrant and the Carthaginian garrison, and joined the con- 
federacy of the other Grecian states in Sicily under Pyrrhus, 
Diodor. xxii. 11. & 14. After the departure of that prince 
they again submitted to the Carthaginians, who made Agri- 
gentum their head-quarters at the beginning of the first Punic 

* A similar instrument of torture is said to have been used, among others, ha Aga- 
thocles, tyrant of Syracuse, upon the people of JEgt sta, when he destroyed that city, 
Diodor. xx. 71. 'I'his tyrant appears to have exceeded Phalaris in every species of 
cruelty. Phalaris sometimes Viewed himself to be not devoid of virtuous leelings. 
Two f riends, Melanippus and Chariton, had conspired hit death* Chariton, to save 
his friend, determined to execute the enterpiisc alone; but tailing in his attempt to 
stab the tyrant, he was apprcluiuli d, ai d put to t! <.- rack to make him discover his 
accomplices. Tins he bore with great foititude, ami refused to make any discovery. 
Melanippus hearing of it, came to the tyrant, and told him, that he was not only an 
accomplice, but, as was in reality the case, the author of the plot, and begged that 
he might suffer in place of his friend. Phalaris, .ulmirinj fuch generosity, pardoned 
them both. JFAian. ii. 4. 

war, 



Ancient Sicily. 



267 



war, Polyh. i. 17. It was therefore attacked by the Romans, 
lb. and taken after a blockade of some months, lb. 19. ; Diodor. 
xxiii. 7. During the long contest between these two states 
Agrigentum was repeatedly besieged and taken, and suffered 
from "both the most cruel outrages, lb. & Diodor. xxiii. 13.; 
jLiv. xxiv. 35. xxv. 23. xxvi. 40. Its situation, as described 
by Polybius, ix. 21.- made it always a place of consequence. 
The number of inhabitants was so diminished by its frequent 
disasters, that when it fell under the power of Rome, by a 
decree of the senate, new planters were brought to it from the 
other cities of Sicily by T. Manlius the pnetor •, and Scipio 
prescribed laws about chusing their senate, that one half should 
be taken from the old, and the other from the new citizens* 
Cic. Verr. ii. 50. After this we find very little mention made 
of Agrigentum in the Roman authors ; Strabo says that only 
the vestiges of its former greatness remained in his time^ 
vi. 272. as indeed of all the cities on that coast which had 
been under the power of the Carthaginians, lb. 

The present town of GIRGENTI occupies the mountain 
on which the ancient citadel stood, containing near 20,000 
people. The remains of antiquity here are more considerable 
than in any other part of the island. They lie about a 
mile from the modern city, and consist chiefly of temples, cata- 
combs, and sepulchres. Of the temples, the most entire are 
those of Venus and Concord •, and of the tombs, that of The- 
ron. The stone of these buildings is the same as that of the 
whole mountain, a concretion of sea-sand and shells full of per- 
forations, of a hard and durable texture, and of a deep reddish 
brown colour. The wails of the old town were in a great 
measure cut out of the solid rock. Travellers agree that it was 
a most favourable situation for a large city. It is said to have 
been anciently famous for its breed of horses, Virg. 2En. iii. 704. 
To them they sometimes built tombs, and on several of these 
erected pyramids, Plin. viii. 42. s. 64. 

West from Agrigentum was Camicus, the seat of Cocalus, 
on a river of the same name, where Minos was killed, Strab. 
vi. 273.; Herodot. i. 169. as it is said, while bathing, Ovid. 

in Ibin, 291.— West from this is the river Halycus, at the 

mouth of which stood Heraclea, called Minoa, Liv. xxiv. 35.; 
Polyb. i. 25. ; Cic. Verr. ii. 50. because it is supposed to have been 
built by Minos, when he came into Sicily in quest of Daedalus : 
the inhabitants were called Heraclienses, Cic. Verr. iii. 43. — 
West of this is the river Hypsa, Plin. iii. 8. joined by the 
Crimessusy CrinusuSy or Cririzsus, Virg. JEn. v. 38. near which 
Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians with an army greatly 

inferior 



268 



Ancient Sicily. 



inferior in number, and obliged them to leave the island, 
Diodor. xvi. 78. — 81. ; Nep. in Itmdeontt, 2. Not far from the 
mouth of this river, now called Maduitie, on the west side 
stood SELINUS, founded by the people of Megara, Thucydid. 
vi. 4.; Strab. v. 272. named from the quantity of wild parsley, 
(csXivov,) which grows there ; so likewise the river, Strab. xvii. 
834. called Palmosa by Virgil, from its palm-trees,^/?, iii. 705.; 
Si/, xiv. 209. which Cicero says abounded in those parts, Cic. 
Verr. v. 33. s. 87. This is not now the case ; hence it is sup- 
posed the poet alludes to the dwarf palm, or palmetto, which 
here covers the waste lands as thick as furze or broom does in 
other countries. The inhabitants were called Selinuntii. They 
made a brave defence against the Carthaginians under Hanni- 
bal, and suffered dreadful cruelties after the city was taken, 
about the 359th year of Rome, Diodor. xiii. 55. — 60. But 
the Carthaginians were soon after expelled by Hermocrates, 
the Syracusan, lb. 63. They, however, again took the place, 
and having destroyed it, transported the inhabitants to Lily- 
bseum, Id. xxiv. I. It seems to have been again restored ; for 
it is mentioned as one of the first considerable places in the 
island taken by the Saracens, and one of the last they aban- 
doned. It was razed to the ground by the Normans. 

The ancient greatness of Selinus is proved by the vestiges of 
it which still remain, forming the most extraordinary assemblage 
of ruins in Europe. They lie in several stupendous heaps, 
with many columns still err jt, and at a distance resemble a 
large town with a crowd of steeples. The ruins of three 
temples of the old Doric order are chiefly remarkable ; one of 
them is said to have been about three hundred and thirty feet 
long, and thirty-nine feet broad. 

Near Selinus was Thermo: Selinunttx, Strab. vi. 275. now 
Sciacca } the scene of bloody feuds between two noble families 
called Luna and Perollo, which originated from a preference 
given to the former in a love affair, by the influence of King 
MAftTIN ; see Swinburne, xxxv. Sciacca stands upon a very 
steep rock hanging over the sea, and excavated in every direc- 
tion into prodigious magazines, where the corn of the neigh- 
bouring territory, which is very fertile, is deposited for ex- 
portation. It contains about thirteen thousand inhabitants. At 
the eastern foot of the hill are several very strong mineral springs, 
one of them impregnated with sulphur, hot enough to boil an 
egg. This is u^ed in cases of cutaneous and scorbutic disorders, 
paralytic affections, &c. Fragments of the conduits, pipes, 
and buildings of the ancient baths, are still extant. 

There 



Ancient Sicily. 



269 



There are several inconsiderable streams between Selinus and 
the cape ; the chief is Mazara, on which was an emporium* 
and a fort of the Selinuntii of the same name, where now is a 
considerable town, whence the western part of Sicily is called 
Val di Mazzura. 

The most westerly point of Sicily was called LILYBiEUM, 
now cape Boeo or Marsalla, a plain neck of land projecting a 
few miles into the sea, and for some space covered with shallow 
water, Virg. JEn. iii. 706. There was a town and harbour 
near it of the same name, built by the Carthaginians, and 
strongly fortified, Diodor. xxii. 14. which sustained a siege of 
the Romans for ten years in the first Punic war, Id. xxiv.Jin.; 
Polyh. i. 41. &c. 

Near Lilybseum are three small islands, called jEgates or 
JEgiisa, from JEgusa, one of their number, near which the 
Romans, under Lutatius Catulus, defeated the Carthaginians, 
under Hanno in a sea-fight, which put an end to the first Pu- 
nic war, after it had lasted twenty-four years, Polyb. i. 60. ; 5/7. 
i. 61. iv. 79. vi. 684. Peace was granted to them on condi- 
tion that they should give up all Sicily, and pay to the Ro- 
mans annually two thousand two hundred talents of silver for 
twenty years, Polyb. i. 62. 

The first town north of the cape was Motye, near the pro- 
montory ^Egetharsum or JEgithallum; then the town I) re- 
pan UM, now Trapani, so named from the shore being there 
bent in the form of a scythe, (dpsnoivov,) fifteen miles from 
Lilybaeum. Virgil makes iEneas call this coast illatabilis, 
because unfertile, JEn. iii. 707. or because he there lost his 
father Anchises, lb. 0,> 

North of this was mount ERYX, the highest in the island 
except iEtna, Polyb. i. 55. hence compared by Virgil to Athos 
and the Apennines, JEn. xii. 701. on the top of which was a 
celebrated temple of Venus, lb. whence she is called ErycIna, 
Virg. JEn. v. 759. •, Horat. od. u 2. 23. said to have been built 
by Eryx the son of Venus and Butes, a prince of this island, 
who is reported to have contended with Hercules in boxing, 
Diodor. iv. 23. enriched with gifts by -ZEneas, and hence held 
in great veneration, Diodor. iv. 83. The slaves who attended 
this temple were called Venerii, Cic. Cacil. 17. In the second 
Punic war a temple was built to Venus Erycina at Rome, Liv* 
xxii. 9. & 10. without the Colline gate, Strab. vi. 272. 

Below the top of the mountain stood the town ERYX, a 
place of great strength, lb. 273. Hamilcar, general of the 
Carthaginians, who possessed this town, Polyk i. 58, and Dre- 

it panum, 



Ancient Sicily, 



panum, being hard pressed by the Romans after the battle of 
Agates, was obliged to evacuate both, Liv. xxi. 41. xxviii. 41. 
and submit to the terms prescribed by the victors. 

North-east from Eryx stood ^EGESTA or Segesta, said to 
have been founded by iEneas, Cic. Verr. iv. 33. and the work 
conducted by Pgcstus, who gave his name to the city, Festus ; 
or by a body of men sent from Italy by Philoctetes under 
^E^estus, a Trojan, Strab. vi. 272. It lay upon a ridge of 
hills gently sloping towards the north, sheltered on the southern 
and eastern quarters by high rocky eminences, at the foot of 
which two roaring brooks winded their course, and embraced 
the city, called by JEneAS Scamander and Simois, Strabo, xiii. 
608. to which Virgil is supposed to allude, JEn. v. 634. & 
756.-, for his Acesta is the same with iEgesta, lb. 718. & 750. 
The emporium, or port of Segesta, was at the mouth of the 
river, near the spot where Castelamarc now stands. Segesta 
had the advantage of hot mineral waters within its district, 
which are still used for medical purposes. Of the ruins of 
Segesta, the chief is a Doric temple of thirty-six column^, all 
perfectly entire, except one, which has been damaged by a 
stroke of lightning. This edifice is a parallelogram of one 
hundred and sixty-two feet by sixty-six. 

PANORMUS, now Palermo, the present capital of Sicily, 
was so named from the excellence of its harbour, Diodor. xxii. 
14. It is said to have been founded by the Phoenicians, after- 
wards possessed by the Greeks, Thucydid. vi. 2. for some time 
the chief place of the Carthaginians ; and taken by the Romans 
in the first Punic war, Polyb. i. 38. who ever afterwards retained 
possession of it, Liv. xxiv. 36. xxix. 1. It always continued 
faithful to the Roman republic and empire, till it fell under the 
power of the Saracens, a. 821, who made it their metropolis. 
The Normans took it from the Infidels, and made it the seat 
of empire, a. 107 1. 

About a mile west of Palermo is mount Ercta or £ircta f 
now Pellcgrinoy which Hamilcar Barcas strongly fortified towards 
the end of the first Punic war, Polyb. i. 56. ; Dhdor. xxii. 14. 
and preserving a free communication with the sea, maintained 
the post for five years, against all the efforts of the Romans to 
take it, lb. xxiii.y///. till he was obliged, by the necessities of 
his country, to give it up, with the rest of the island. On tins 
mount now stands the shrine of Saint Rosali>:> the protectress 
of Palermo. — On the east of the city is the little river Orethus> 
now AmmtrugltOf on the banks of which Cxcilius Metellu* 
defeated the Carthaginians, Polyb. i. 40. 

A few miles east from Panormus stood 1IIMERA, on a lifer 
14 of 



Ancient Sicily. 



271 



of the same name, Plin. iii. 8. founded by the people of Zancle 
or Messana, Strab. vi. 272. taken and destroyed by Hannibal, 
a general of the Carthaginians, in the first Punic war, Diodor. 
xiii. 59.; Cic. Verr. iv. 33. Such of the citizens as survived 
built Therme on the east side of the river, Cic. Verr. ii. 35. 

The next town on the east was Cephaledum> -dium y v. -dis, 
Cic. Verr. ii. 52. now Cephaludi, Sil. xiv. 253. ; then the river 
Monalus and the town Halesa, Cic. ib. 7. ; Sil. ib. 219. Ca- 
LACTA, Cic. Verr. iii. 43. (x«A>j «xt>j, bonum littus,) Sil. xiv. 

252.; Diodor. xii. 8. — H ALUNTIUM, Cic. Verr. iv. 23 

Agatbyrna, Liv. xxvi. 40. — Tyndaris on the river Helicon. — 
Mylje, near the river Longanus, twenty-five miles from Peloris, 
Strab. vi. 66. — Then Naulochus, and between these a temple 
of Diana Facelina, Sil. xiv. 261. on the river Melas or Melan, 
Ovid. Fast. iv. 486. where the oxen of the sun were supposed 
to be kept, Ib. and on this shore something like their ordure 
was imagined to be thrown out by the sea, Plin. ii. 98. — 
On the bay between Mylse and Naulochus, Sextus Pompeius 
was defeated by Agrippa in a sea-fight, Suet. Aug. 16.*, Veil. 
ii, 79. 

A considerable space of the interior part of Sicily is covered 
by mount JEtna, now Gibello, a\ insulated mountain, or de- 
tached from all others ; the largest volcano in the world. It 
is about two miles in perpendicular height, and above one 
hundred miles in circumference at the base j some make it 
considerably more*, but it has never been measured with geo- 
metrical accuracy. It is divided into three circles or zones, the 
largest and lowest of which is called Piemontese^ and occupies a 
breadth of eighteen miJes of rich cultivation: the second, Regione 
Sylvosa, or Nemorosa, the woody region, six miles : and the 
third, Regione deserta, Netta or Scopetra, the barren region, also 
six miles, always covered with snow, Sil. xiv. 64.- — 70. but 
the lower part of it only in winter. Thus the whole ascent is 
about thirty miles. It appears at a distance like a vast regular 
tapering cone or sugar-loaf terminating in a point. The present 
crater of this immense volcano is a circle of about three miles 
and a half in circumference, as it was in the time of Pliny, iii. 8. 
It goes shelving down on each side, and forms a regular hol- 
low, like a vast amphitheatre. Near the centre of the crater 

* The Abbe Spallanzani says, iEtna covers a space of 180 miles, and in its 
height above the sea considerably exceeds two miles. The borders of the crater of 
iEtna are never less than a mile in circuit. In the dreadful eruption of 1669, they 
were enlarged to six miles. Vol. i. p. 19J. 

is 



2T2 



Ancient Sicily* 



is the great mouth of the volcano, whence issue volumes of* 
smoke, and sometimes fire. 

The appearance of the rising sun from the top of ^£tna is 
esteemed one of the grandest objects in nature. The extent of 
the prospect is immense. Several smaller mountains of con- 
siderable bulk* rise on the sides of ./Etna in different parts, and 
from some one of these the great eruptions have burst forth, and 
not from the opening at the top. 

The first ancient author who mentions an eruption of mount 
./Etna is Pindar. From the silence of Homer concerning it, it 
is supposed that either there had never been an eruption before 
his time, or at least not for many ages. The first eruption is 
said to have happened in the time of Pythagoras. From that 
time till the battle of Pharsalia were reckoned one hundred 
eruptions. 

Thucydides, after mentioning an eruption in the Peloponne- 
sian war, about the year of Rome 329, says it happened the 
fiftieth year after the first eruption, and that there had been 
three eruptions from the time that Sicily was inhabited by 
the Greeks, iii. 116. The ancients imagined that iEtna was 
diminished by its eruptions, JElian. viii. II. but of this Seneca 
speaks doubtfullyf, Ep. 79. 

On the north of iEtna was the town Tissa, 5/7. xiv. 268. 
near the river Ouabain : the inhabitants, Tissenses, Cic. Verr. 
iii. 38. On the south, Inessa, called also ^Etna, Strab. vi. 
268.5 Diodor. xi. 49. & 76. — West of it, Centuripa, -pa, or 
-pe, on the river Cyamosdrus, Polyb. i. 9. •, Thucydid. vi. 94. ; 
Cic. Verr. iv. 29. between them, Adranum, or Hadranum, 
built by Dionysius, Diodor. xiv 38.; Sil. xiv. 251. South of 
it, Hybla Major. — There were two other towns in Sicily called 
Hybla, besides this •, Hybla Parva, called also Megiira, See 
p. 2^9 and hybla Minor, or Hera v. Heraa, Cic. Att. ii. 1. 
near Camarina. 

West from iEtna were Galeria, Diodor. xvi. 68. — Herbita, 
Cic V nr. iii. 32. — Symaihum, on the river Symxthus, and 
above it Ag)rium, Cic. Verr. iii. 27. the birth-place of Diodo- 
rus Sfculus, Diodor. i. 4. — Assorus, near the river Cbrysas, 
Cic. Verr. iv. 44. South of it ENNA, almost in the centre 
oi the inland, situate on an eminence, surrounded by flowery 

* M re than one of these eqml Vesuvius in size. Sp.illjnz..:ni. 

I Altn.» is termed Tynans, -iii-s, because the giant Ty-pbon or Tyf!.-:?ui was sup- 
po <-d »• l»e placed imdei i«, Ovid. </. w. 11. also Trin.xcria JEvha, i e. SuSl.i, 
as hei-ig me most remarkable thing in the island, Vug. JEn, iii. 55.;. which is hence 
called i ellus iETNJtAj OviJ. Met. viii. 260. 

meadows. 



Ancient Sicily. 



27$ 



meadows, whence Proserpine was carried off by Pluto, Cic. 
- Verr. iv. 48 \ Diodor. v. 3. Near it were several lakes, lb. 
the chief of which was called Pergus, Ovid. Met. v. 385. At 
Enna Ceres was worshipped with particular devotion, hence 
she was called Ennensis Ceres, Cic. Verr. iv. 49. 

East from this was the town Pallca, near the temple of the 
Pallci> certain indigenous divinities, built on the side of a lake, 
called Lacus Palicorum, the waters of which, in some places* 
boiled up as if by the force of fire. This temple was an in- 
violable asylum, and oaths made in, it were held most sacred, 
Diodor. xi. 89. A person convicted of having sworn falsely was 
drowned in the lake, Macrob. Sat. v. 19. ; Sil. xiv. 220. Near 
this lake was Mena y the native place of Ducetius, a brave 
general of the Sicilians, Diodor. xi. 76. xii. 29. whose chief city 
was called Trinacria, which Diodorus says was very populous^ 
and held the first rank among the Sicilian towns. But no other 
author mentions it. After the death of Ducetius it was de- 
stroyed by the Syracusans, lb. 

There were several other interior towns in Sicily, mentioned 
by the classics, as Bidis, near Syracuse, Cic. Verr. ii. 22. % 
HerbessuSy Liv. xxiv. 30. ; Tricola or Triocola> now Calatabol- 
letta, on the top of a very lofty mountain, of difficult access., 
where Trypho and Athenio established the head-quarters of the 
republic of slaves, whom they rescued from bondage, a. u„ 
649, and defended themselves against the Romans for four 
years, till they were reduced by Aquilius, Diodor. fragment, 
xxxvi. ; Flor. iii. 19. *, Liv. Epit. 67, 68, and 69. j Freinshem* 
supplem. ; Entella, near the river Crimissus ; leta, on mount 
leiasy Sil. xiv. 272. ; Halyca, or Halycia, towards Lilybseum,, 
now Salemi, from the saltness of its waters and soil ; Petrlna or 
Petraa, Callipolis, Engyon, lb. 249. ; Amastra, Apolloniay Ara- 
bela, Eubaea, &c. But several of these were places of small 
importance, and the situation of some of them is not ascer- 
tained. 

Sicily is now divided into three parts ; Val di Noto, so 
called from the principal town of that division; Val di Mazara s 
named from one of its cities j and Val Demona 9 of uncertain 
etymology. 



History of SICILY. 

The first inhabitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Lestri- 
gones f a savage race of men. It was afterwards peopled from 
different nations, chiefly from Greece.. It was governed by 

T a number 



274 



History of Sicily. 



a number of petty princes, called Tyrants ; who being expelled, 
the different states enjoyed intervals of freedom. The rest of 
Sicily generally followed the fortune of Syracuse, its capital. 

The Carthaginians made many attempts to become masters 
of the island. Having formed an alliance with Xerxes, king 
of Persia, they invaded it with a great army under Hamilcar, 
but were defeated by Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, b. C. 481. 
The merits of Gelon enabled him to transmit the sovereignty to 
his brother Hiero ; but Thrasybulus, the son of Hiero, on ac- 
count of his tyrannical behaviour, was expelled. After which 
Syracuse enjoyed liberty for sixty years. During this period it 
was attacked by the Athenians. 

DIONYSIUS having, with wonderful address and much 
cruelty, made himself master of the government, after surpris- 
ing turns of fortune, held it for thirty-eight years. For most 
part of that time he carried on war against the Carthaginians 
with various success. He was succeeded by his son Dionysius, 
called the younger, who equalled him in cruelty, but not in 
abilities. He was first expelled by his relation Dion, the scho- 
lar of Plato, at whose desire he had formerly invited that phi- 
losopher to his court, but profited little by his instructions. 

Dion being assassinated by Calippus, an Athenian, the tyrant 
again obtained the government ; but was finally expelled by 
Timoleon of Corinth, one of the most virtuous of the Greeks, 
who restored liberty to Syracuse, and to the rest of Sicily, 
b. C. 347. Dionysius, retiring to Corinth, is said to have 
been forced by extreme poverty to open a school for teaching 
children. 

The Syracusans tasted the sweets of liberty but for a short 
time. Agathocles, the son of a potter, obtained the sove- 
reignty, and exercised it with the most horrid cruelty. Being 
besieged by the Carthaginians, he boldy carried the war into 
Africa, where at first he met with the greatest success ; but 
suffering a reverse of fortune, he basely abandoned his troops, 
and returned to Syracuse. He at last perished by poison, after 
a reign of twenty-eight years, b. C. 289. 

The Syracusans, being hard pressed by the Carthaginians, 
requested aid from Pyrrhus, at that time in Italy. His rapid 
success at first gave them great hopes ; but having, by his 
insolence and imprudence, alienated the affections of the 
Syracusans, he suddenly left them exposed to new calamities, 

b- c- 275- 

They never regained tranquillity till HlERO, a descendant of 
Gelon, was created King, lie having relinquished the alliance 
of the Carthaginians, in the first Punic war joined the Ro- 

14 mans; 



History of Sicily. 



275 



mans ; and during a peaceful reign of fifty years, rendered his 
subjects happy. The troubles which followed the murder of 
his grand-son Hieronymus, who was cut off for his cruelty, ter- 
minated in the final reduction of the island to the Romans. Si- 
cily was the first country which they reduced into the form of a 
province. Since the overthrow of the Roman empire, it has in 
general shared the same fate with the kingdom of Naples. 

Sicily is governed by a viceroy, appointed by the king of 
Naples, who resides at Palermo, and rules with the same un- 
controuled authority as his master. The Barons exercise abso- 
lute power over their vassals. All causes, civil and criminal, 
are determined by their creatures. This abject state of the 
people discourages industry. There is therefore little com- 
merce in the island, but what arises from the necessity of dis- 
posing of its superfluous products for those of foreign countries, 
which habit and luxury have rendered necessary for the support, 
clothing, or convenience of its inhabitants 5 and these articles, 
they generally receive at second-hand from Naples, Genoa, 
Venice, or Leghorn. The principal trade of the island is car- 
ried on at Palermo and Messina. 

The exports are, corn, oil, wine, brandy, cheese, salt-fish, 
silk, fruit, manna, salt, sumach for dyeing, lemon-juice, rags 2 
sulphur, &c. The imports from different countries are too 
numerous to be recounted ; Swinburne, 

The inquisition was abolished in Sicily on the 27th of March 
1782, by the address and influence of the Viceroy Caraccioli. 

Insula JEolim, or the Lipari Islands. 

Between Sicily and Italy are the Islands called MOLIJE 
INSULiE, or JEolides> from iEolus their king, called also in- 
sule Vulcani, Liv. xx. 51. or Vulcanise, and by the Greeks, 
Hephzstiades, from c H<paio-Toj the Greek name of Vulcan, be- 
cause some of them emitted flames, as they still do ; also LI- 
PAR^EORUM insula, from Lipara, the chief of them, Plm. 
lii. 9. ; Strab. vi. 274. and 275. now the Lipari or Liparean 
islands, seven in number. Ib & Diodor. v. 7. ; Mel. ii. 7. 

The largest, next to Lipara, is Strongyle> now Strombolo^ 
named from its round figure, Strab. ib. 276. called also Strongy- 
los, Sil. xiv. 259. about ten miles in circumference, now sends 
forth flames incessantly. Its crater is not on the summit, as in 
other volcanoes, but on its side, more than two hundred yards 
from the top. In this mountain iEolus, the god of the winds, 
Sil, ix. 492. was supposed to reside, Strab, ibid, and to confine 

T 2 the 



276 



Lipari Islands. 



the winds in a vast cave, as in a prison •, hence Virgil calls it iEo- 
LTA, JEn. i. $2. after Homer, Odyss. x. init. ; but this name may 
also refer toLipara, as JEn. viii.416. or indeed to all these islands. 

The island between Lipara and Sicily was called HIERA, 
(iepot, ) i. e. sacra sc. Vulcano^ Diodor. ibid, or Templum Vulcanty 
Strab. ibid, by Virgil, Vulcania tellus> Ibid, by Strabo also 
Theamissa, from its emission of flames, Ibid. here Vulcan wag 
supposed to have his work-shop, Thucydid. hi. 88. It was be- 
lieved there was a communication below ground between the 
Liparean volcanoes and ^Etna, Diodor. ibid. 

North-west of Hiera are, Ericusa, so called from being co- 
vered with heath, now Alicudi and Ph<emcusa> from its abun- 
dance of palm-trees or palmettos, now Felicudi. The other 
two are, Didyme and Euonymos ; the last is so called, because 
it lies on the left of those who sail from Lipara to Sicily, 
Strab. ib. 

There are two or three small islands east from the Lipara 
islands, not classed with them ; Heraclea, or the island of Her- 
cules, Aicesia^ Sec. and two to the west, Ustica and Osteodes, 
named from the bones (oVrea) of six thousand mutinous mer- 
cenaries, whom the Carthaginians sent thither to perish, Diodor. 
v. M. 

There was in Lipara a city of the same name, founded by 
Liparus, the son of Auson, a king of Italy, who gave name t« 
it and the island. He was succeeded by iEOLUS, a foreigner, 
(the son of Hippotos, Diodor. iv. 67. hence called Hippotades, 
Ovid. Met. iv. 663. xi. 431. ep. xviii. 46.) who happened to 
come to the island, and married Cyane, the daughter of Lipa- 
rus. This j:Eo1us is said to have invented the use of sails. From 
his skill in prognosticating the weather, he is represented in 
fable as the ruler of the winds, Id. v. 7. Homer makes Ulys- 
ses, in his wanderings, to land on the island of Mollis, and to 
receive from him the winds, shut up in a leathern bag, OJ\ss. \ 
19. * Lipara was afterwards possessed by a colony of Cnidians 
and Rhodians, Diodor. v. 9. It fitted out a fleet, and having 
the other islands under its subjection, long withstood all the at- 
tacks of the Tuscans, Strab. vi. 275. nay, often vanquished them 
by sea, and sent the tenth of the spoil as a present to Apollo at 
Delphi, Diodor. v. 9. The Athenians also attacked them, but 
without success •(-, Thmydul. iii. 88. 

Lipara 

• Virgil represent ar. confining t lie winds in a cave at the bottom of i 

[flOUntkin, JF.n. i 51. So Status, Silv. iii. 2. 42. 

f In the time of Camillus the Liparenses publicly exercised piracy; but they 
Jid not .ict as pirates to ihe Roman ambassadors, who fell into their power, 
when they were cirryinc a golden cup to Delphi as a present t* /\ polio, in con- 
"* sequence 



Malta, 



277 



Lipara aftewards fell under- the dominion of the Carthagi- 
. mans, Polyb. i. 21. It was taken by the Romans in the first 
Punic war, lb. 39. after which we seldom find it mentioned. 
Under the Romans it seems to have been much exposed to the 
depredation of pirates, Cic. Verr. iii. 37. 

In the African sea, about eighty-four miles from Camerina, 
and one hundred and thirteen from Lilybseum, is the island Me- 
xTte or M elite, Plin. iii. 8.; Strab. xvii. 834. now MALTA, 
about sixtymiles in circumference, twentylong, andtwelvebroad; 
anciently remarkable for its manufactures, as it still is, Cic. Verr, 
iv. 46. particularly of cotton, Diodor. v. 1 2. hence called Meliten- 
sis vestisy i. e. ex goffypio facta, lb. ii. 2. et Cic. Verr. ii. 72. In this 
island the Apostle Paul is said to have been wrecked, Acls, xxviii. 
1. to whom a church is consecrated ; and near it a statue of the 
saint placed on the very spot on which the house stood where he 
was received after his shipwreck, and where he shook the viper 
off his hand into the fire without being hurt by it : at which time 
the Maltese believe the saint cursed the venomous animals of 
the island, and banished them from it for ever. It seems, in fact, 
there are now no venomous animals in Malta ; See Brydone's Tour 
through Sicily and Malta. But the best commentators maintain 
that the Apostle Paul was not wrecked here, but on an island of 
the same name in the Hadriatic, on the coast of Illyricum, now 
called Melede, and belonging to the republic of Ragusa. 

Malta was first peopled by a colony of Phoenicians, who, ex- 
tending their commerce all the way to the western ocean, found 
this island a commodious station, on account of its excellent 
harbours, Diodor. v. 12. It was afterwards possessed by the 
Carthaginians. Sempronius the consul reduced it under the 
power of the Romans in the second Punic war, Liv. xxi. 51. 

Malta is famous for having been the residence of the knights 
of St. John of Jerusalem, hence called the Knights of Malta, to 
whom it was given by the Emperor Charles V. 1530, after they 
were driven out of Rhodes by the Turks. Its chief town is 
Valetta. The Turks again attacked them here, but were obliged 
to raise the siege with great loss, 1566. * 

sequence of a vow which Camillus had made of consecrating to that God the tenth part 
of the plunder of Veji. [See />.2l8 ) Timasitheus, the chief magistrate of Lipara, 
fiom a motive of religion, not only restored the cup to the ambassadors, but also 
having entertained them hospitably, sent a guard of ships to conduct them to Delphi 
and bring them back safe to Rome. On which account, by a decree of the senate, 
a league of hospitality was made with him, and presents given him by the public, 
Liv. v. 8. 

* Malta is at present snbject to Britain, having been taken from the French after 
a long blockade. 

T 3 West 



278 



Sardinia and Corsica. 



West from Malta is the island Gaulos, now Goso y about 
twelve miles in length and six in breadth ; and Cossyra, Sil. xiv. 
273- 

SARDINIA, between 39° and 41 north latitude, and be*, 
tween 8° and io° east longitude, about 170 miles long, and 90 
broad, Strabo says, 220 miles long, and 98 broad, v. p. 224. ; 
of a fertile soil, but unhealthful ; called by the Greeks lchnusa, 
from its resemblance to the sole of the foot. Sil. xii. 358. Its 
chief city was Ca/aris, Cagliari. It is separated from Corsica 
by a strait called Taphros or FoJfci> about seven miles broad, now 
the straits of Bonifacio. Neither serpents nor wolves are said to 
be produced in this island •, nor any poisonous herb, except one 
which, when eaten, contracts the nerves, and produces the 
grin of laughter, in which state the patient dies ; hence Risus 
Sardous or Sardonius, Serv. ad Virg. eel vii. 41.; C : c. Fam. 
vii. 25. Sardi Venales was another proverb for any thing of 
small value, Cic. Fam. vii. 24. 

The Carthaginians, when attacked by their foreign merce- 
naries, being forced by the Romans to give up this island, was 
the chief cause of the second Punic war. After the fall of the 
Roman empire it was subject to various states. In later times, 
it fell under the dominion of Spain. In the year 1719 it was 
allotted to the Duke of Savoy, with the title of King of Sardinia. 
Its present sovereign is Victor Emanuel Cajetan, who succeeded 
on the abdication of his brother in 1804. 

CORSICA is 150 miles long, and 50 broad ; rough and 
barren *, Strabo makes it 160 miles long, and 70 broad, v. p. 244. 
called by the Greeks Cymus, whence the epithet Cyrnaus; 
the people, Corsi, famous for the noble stand which the inha- 
bitants made for their liberty against the Genoese, and after- 
wards against the French, under their general Paoli. Its chief 
city is Bastia. * 



TURKEY in EUROPE. 

TURKEY in Europe is situate between 36 and 49" north 
latitude, and 17 and 40 east longitude, j 000 miles long, 
and 900 broad, and contains the following countries : 

* The bees in Corsica anciently produced hitter honey, O-viJ. Amrr.x. 11. 10. ; 
Serv. in. Virg- G. \v. ioo. hence, Et thyma Cccropi* Corsica penis ,if>i, You set coarse 
food before one accustomed to better fart ; or, You require a good poem on a bad 
mhject, Mart ill. xi. 43. 4. 

I. GREECE. 



Greece* 



279 



I. GREECE. 

was called by the natives He/las, and the inha- 
bitants Hellenes. By the poets the people are called Banai, 
Pelasgi ; Argtvi or Argei, Ach'tvi, &c. The name of Graci 
is not used by Homer or Virgil. 

Greece anciently comprehended Peloponnesus, Gracia Propria^ 
Thessalia, Ep'irus, and Macedonia ; but the two last were after- 
wards not included in it. The Romans, having subdued these 
countries, divided them into two provinces, the one called 
Achaia, containing Peloponnesus and Gracia Propria; the 
other Macedonia, containing Macedonia, Thessalia, and Epi- 
rus, usually ruled by two governors, sometimes only by one, 
Tac. Ann. v. 10. Bio, lviii. 25.* 

PELOPONNESUS. 

This peninsula has its name from Pelops, the son of Tan- 
talus, king of Phrygia, as if it were the island of Pelops 
(UsKottos vyo-os). By its gulfs and capes it resembles the leaf of 
a plane-tree, and is now called Morea. f 

Peloponnesus is joined to Gracia Propria by the isthmus of 
Corinth, which, where narrowest, is only forty stadia over, 
Strab. viii. 355. or five miles, Plin.iv. 6.s. 10. called Isthmius 
umbo, Stat. Theb. vii. 15. Here the different states of Pelo- 
ponnesus occasionally formed entrenchments, when in dread of 
an invasion, Herodot. viii. 40. Here also were celebrated the 
Isthmian games, every three years, near a temple of Neptune, and 
a wood of pine trees consecrated to that god, Strab. ib. ; Pausan. 

11. 1. An attempt was made to dig through the isthmus by Deme- 
trius, Caesar, Nero, and others, but without success, Plin. iv. 4. 

Pleoponnesus was divided into six parts, Achaia, Elis, Mes- 
senia, Laccnica, Arcadia, and Argolis. 

I. ACHAIA, called also Achais, -tdis, Ovid. Met. v. 577. 
Chief towns, Corinthus, and Sicyon, the most ancient city 
in Greece. 

SICYON was anciently called JEgiale, from its first king 
-^Egialeus, Pausan. i. 5. & 6. J From his grandson Apis, the 

* Augustus left the management of Achaia and Macedonia to the senate. Dio. liii. 

12. Tiberius assumed the care of them to himself, Tac. i. 76. Suet. CI. Clau- 
dius restored them to the Senate, Suet. ibid. t 

f It is nearly as broad as long, about one thousand four hundred stadia. Strabo, viii. 
P' 355* Pliny makes it one thousand five hundred and twenty stadia, or one hundred 
and ninety miles broad, from the promontory of Malea to the town of JEgiutn, on 
the Corinthian gulf; and one hundred and twenty-five miles crosswise, from Olympia 
to Argos, iv. 6. s. 10. ; in circumference, five hundred and sixty-three miles, Ib. 4. s. 5. 

\ Sic yon was long famous for shops stored with metals of all sorts, Plin. 36. 4« cf. 
Plaut. Cist. 1, a, xi, & l t %. 8, 8cc. 

T 4 whole 



280 



Peloponnesus. 



whole country within the isthmus' was called Apia, before the 
arrival of Pelops at Olympia, Ib. 5. from Lydia, Id. v. 1. or 
from Phrygia, Strab. \\\. p. 321. 

CORINTH was called anciently Ephyra or Ephyre, Plin. 
ib. ; Lucan. vi. 57. Ovid. Met. ii. 239. It stood at the foot 
of a high hill, on which was the citadel, called Acrocorin- 
THts, Plin. iv. 4. The circumference of the city was forty 
stadia, and including the citadel, eighty-five, Strab. viii. 379. 
Corinth is called bimaris by Horace, od. i. 7. and by Ovid, 
Met. v. 407. ep. xii. 27. because it had a port both on the Co- 
rinthian or Crissaan and the Saronic gulfs : on the former, 
Lerhauw, connected with the city by a double wall, about 
twelve stadia in length ; and on the latter Cenchrea, distant 
from Corinth seventy stadia, Strati, ib. 380. The ro *d to the 
citadel had so many windings, that one had to go thirty stadia 
before reaching the top, lb. At the entrance stood a temple of 
Venus, from which there was a very extensive prospect, Pausan, 
i. 4. ; Strab. ib. In the citadel was a large fountain, called 
Pirene, Plin. ib. whence Pirenis unda is put for Corinth, 
Ovid. Pont. i. 3. 75. and Corinth is called Ephyre Pirenis, Ov. 
Met. vii. 391. 

The danger from pirates and storms, in sailing round the 
capes of Malea and Tanarus, determined merchants rather to 
transport their goods over the isthmus •, whence Corinth became 
the mart of Asia and Europe, Strab. ib. 378. The celebration 
of the Isthmian games added to its consequence *, Ib. 

The artificers of Corinth were famous for their skill. By 
mixing copper with a small quantity of gold and silver, they 
composed a metal extremely brilliant, called MS Corinthium, 
which was almost proof against rust, Cic. Tusc. iv. 14. and 
therefore held in the highest estimation, Cic. Verr. iv. 44. ; 
Plin. xxxiv. 8. It was falsely supposed to have been acciden- 
tally produced at the burning of Corinth, when that city was 
taken by Mummius, Plin. ib. 2.; Flor. ii. 16. The ornaments 
on the pottery ware of Corinth were executed with such skill, 
that they were preferred to marble and the precious metals, 
Strab. viii. 38 1. A number of these, and of the most valuable 
pictured, were destroyed by the Romans at the taking of the 

citjr.f 

* The extravagant price at which certain pleasures were purchas«d in this 
city gave occision to the proverbial expression, JVoh cttivu Lomimi cutingit adite 
t'nRiNTiiuM, Horat. rp. i. 17. 36. ; Gtll. i. 8.; Strab. viii. 378. but others sup- 
pose an allusion to be here made to the difficulty of reaching the harbour of Corinth, 
Suidat. 

f Mummius, who took Corinth, wis a man of great magnanimity, but bad little 

taste for the arts, (yiyttXatptw palXt* n ?i*.»7i%*»St) Strab. ib, 

Corinth 



Peloponnesus, 



281 



Corinth lay in ruins till it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar, who 
sent thither a colony composed chiefly of freed men. They, 
in removing the rubbish, found a great many vessels of brass 
and earthen ware, which, when carried to Rome, were sold at 
a great price, under the name of Necrocorinthia ; because many 
of them were found in sepulchres*, lb. 382. 

The other cities of Achaia were less considerable ; Phlius* 
-untisy Pellene, JEgtra ; Helice, destroyed by an earthquake, 
Strab. viii. 384.; JEgium, Rhium> Patra, Phara, Bura> Olenus 3 
Dyme> &c. Near Jfegium was Homagyrium, so called, be* 
cause Agamemnon there assembled the Grecian chiefs to concert 
measures for their expedition against Troy, Pausan. vii. 24. 

II. ELIS or Elea. The chief cities were, Elis, on the 

river Peneus, now Belvidere $ and OLYMPIA, on the river 
Alpheus, near which the Olympic games \ were celebrated every 

fifth 

* Near Corinth was a grove called Cranium, occasionally the residence of Diogenes, 
the cynic, where Alexander the Great is said to have visited him, Plutarch, in 
Alexandra, p. 6 7 1. 

f There were four solemn games among the Greeks, consecrated by religion, 
(hence called hpoi ayans v. 0,6X01, or hpa. d0Xc&, sacra certamina,) the Olympic, 
Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. Of these, the Olympic were the chief. 
The contests at all of them were much the same ; namely, running, leaping, 
wrestling, boxing, and throwing the discus, a kind of round quoit of stone, lead, or 
other metal, launched from a thong run through a hole in the middle of it. These 
contests were called, from their number, Jive, Pentathlon or Quinquertium, 
also gymnastic, (luoi gymnici,) from the place of exercise, {gymnasium vel 
palaestra,) where the combatants (athletje) were trained, usually naked, (yvpvoi,) 
and for a considerable time before restricted to a particular regimen, Horat. art. 
p. 4t2.; i. Corinth, ix. 25. There was a contest in which both wrestling and 
boxing were united, called pancratiam, because it required the whole strength 
(iretv xparos). 

The place where these contests were exhibited was called STADIUM. Pausan. vi. 
20. The principal contest was running, of which there were several kinds, on foot, 
on horseback, and in chariots ; chiefly the last, because anciently chariots were much 
used in war. That part of the Stadium where the horse and chariot races were 
performed was called HIPPODR6MUS, Pausan. vi. 20. & 21.; the part where the 
course began, Carceres or Carcer (kQicrts, fiuXZts, vel ypotftft'/i, because anciently 
marked by a white line); where it terminated, meta [riXo?, rz^a. vel ypappn, 
linea, whence mors ultima linea rerum est, Horat. ep. i. 16. 79.) The prize of the 
victors was a branch of the palm-tree (PALMA), which they carried in their hands, 
Gell. iii. 6. and at the Olympic games, a crown or wreath of olive, Herodot. viii. 26.; 
at the Pythian games, generally of laurel; at the Isthmian games, of pine; and at the 
Nemean, of parsley. 

The prize was made of small value, that the combatants might be animated by the 
love of glory, not of sordid gain. 

Those who conquered were called HiERONrca:, on whom the highest honours 
were conferred. They were conducted with great pomp to their native cities, which 
they entered through a breach in the flfells, made for that purpose, in a chariot 
drawn by white horses, Suet. Ner. 25. whence the games were called Iselastica, 
certamina (from itcnXccvvco, invehor). Plin. ep. x. 119. The victors were maintained 
during the rest of their lives at the public expense, Vitruv. 9 pr. Cicero informs 
us, that to be victor at the Olympic games (Olympionlces 3 -co) was esteemed almost 

more 



Peloponnesus. 



fifth year ; the period of four years complete being called an 
Olympiad. Here was a magnificent temple of Jupiter, hence 
called OLYMP1US i and a celebrated image of that god, 
made by Phidias, Strab. viii. 353. from the description of 
Homer, //. i. 528. 

Near the place where Olympia stood was the ancient city of 
Pisa, which the people of Elis (E/ei) destroyed, Pausan. v. 10. 
whence this part of the country was called Pisatis, zdis> Strab. 
all 356. hence also Pisa is put for Olympia, Virg. G. hi. 180. 
By a colony from this city Pisce in Tuscany was founded, hence 
called Alphex ab engine Pis.E, Virg. JEn. x. 179. 

more glorious than a triumph at Rome, Flacc. 13.; Tusc. q. i. 46. hence a victor is 
said to be equal to the gods, [Ironies) Lucian de gymnas. p. 273. so Horace, od. i. 1.6. 
iv. *. 18. Statues of the victors were erected in the wood round the temple of 
Jupiter Olympius, Pausan. vi. i. 2. &c. and also sometimes of their horses, lb. vi. 13. 
Even kings did not think it below them to coatend at the Olympic games, Pindar. 
It was not required that the proprietor of the horses should drive them himself ; the 
registering of his name was sufficient. No person branded with infamy was admitted 
2S a combatant. 

The Olympic games are said to have been first instituted by Hercules, Strab. 
viii. 355. : Apollodor. ii. 7. z.; Diodor. iv. 14. v. 64., in honour of Pelops, Stat. 
Tbrb. vi. 5. but were afterwards omitted. Homer does not mention them, Strab. ib. 
They were restored by Iphitus, a sovereign of that country, as it is said, by the 
advice of Lycurgus, Plutarch, in Lycurg. The purpose of all these games was to 
prepare the youth for war, by improving their agility and strength. 

The Greeks first began to mark the chronological order of events by Olympiads, 
in the year in which one Cor s. bus of Elis obtained the chief prize, that is, the 
prize in the chariot-race, and whose name was first inscribed in the public register 
of the Eleans, and gave name to the Olympiads. This year answers to the 776th 
year before Christ, and is a remarkable aera in history, Pausan. v. 8. Some authors, 
as Diodoius die Sicilian, mark not only the year of each Olympiad, but also the 
chief Archon of Athens, and the consuls of Rome for that year. 

The people of Elis (Elei) commonly had the direction of the games, and 
sometimes the people of Pisa, before the destruction of that city, Strab. viii. 
355. Those chosen by the Eleans to preside as judges of the combats, were 
called H£LLENODIC.a:, Pausan. v. 9. or AGOXOTHET2E, i. e. Certaminum judices 
▼cl magistri, as they are called by Suetonius, Ner. iz. As the Eleans de- 
termined the prizes, hence Elea palma, the prize of victory, Hurat. ad. iv. 2. 1 7. the 
S4me with what Virgil calls Olympiace prtemia palm*, G. iii. 49. Celtr Eleo career: 
missus equus, quickly starting from the barrier, Ov;d. cp. xviii. 166. Hie vel ad Eiei 
vietas, et maxima campi sudabit spatia, shall run in the stadium or course at Olympia, 
Virg. G. iii. 202. Eliadum palmas Epirus equarum, sc. mittit, produces mares fit to 
jain the prize at the Olympic games, lb. i. 59. which are called Olympia, -iorum 
sc. artam:na t Horat. ep. i. I. 50.; Cic. Brut. 69. Anciently women were not per- 
mitted to see these games, Pausan. v. 6. but afterwards we read of female combatants, 
and some of these also victors, JEHan. x. \. ; Pausan. iii. 8. 

The games lasted for five days. The first day fell on the nth of the month called 
Hecatcmb<ron, which began with the new moon following the summer solstice. During 
the celebration of the games there was a suspension of hostilities between the different 
?tates, Tbucydid. v . 49. 6c JO. 

An immense crowd of people assembled^) this solemnity, not enly from all Greece, 
but also from remote countries, 9 

Works of genius were aUo exhibited at the Olympic c^ames. Here Herodotus reaJ 
his history, Lucian ; and the honours conferred on him are said to have so affected 
Thucydides, then a boy, that he shed tears, and thereby attracted the notice of Hero- 
«i6tUS, Suidar, in voce TlIUCT DfDE5. 

III. MES- 



Peloponnesus. 



28S 



III. MESSENIA Its chief city was called Messene, 

which was anciently the name of the country, when it was 
subject to the kings of Lacedcemon, Strab, viii. 358. Messene 
is said to have been built by Epamlnondas, Pausan. iv. 27. But 
Ovid makes it to have existed in the time of Hercules, Met. 
xii. 549. 

Messene stood at some distance north of the top of the Mes, 
senian gulph, Plin. iv. 5. It was strongly fortified, and joined 
by a common wall to an almost inpregnable fortress, called 
Ithome, Pauu'vr.^u like Corinth *, Strab. <rni. 'jfii. The 
ancient capital was PYLOS, the city of Nestor ; hence he is 
called Pylius, Ovid. Met. viii. 365. xii. 542. It was called 
Pylos Messeniaca, to distinguish it from two other towns of the 
same name; one of them on the Alpheus, which Strabo makes 
the residence of Nestor, lb. It is termed Neleia, from Neleus, 
the father of Nestor, Strab. Theb. iv. 125. 

Pylos of Messenia stood on the Ionian sea, near the small 
island Sphacteria, where a large body of Lacedsemonians being 
surrounded by the Athenians, under Demosthenes and Cleon, 
in the Peloponnesian war, were at last obliged to surrender, 
Thucydid. iv. 1. — 42. 

The other towns of Messenia were, Cyparissa, Met hone, Asine 
Thuria, Ccrone, Phera, Oechalia, &c. The promontory at the 
bottom of the Messenian gulf, on the west, was called Acri- 
tas, Pausan. iv. 34. 

IV. LACONICA or Laconia. The chief city, LACE- 

DJEMON or SPARTA, the most powerful in ancient Greece, 
now called Misitra, at the foot of mount Taygetus, on the 
west side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic 
gulf, forty-eight stadia, or six miles in circumference, Polyb. 
ix. 20. the houses small and without ornament, not built close 
together, but divided into different villages or hamlets, (xarx 
xoopus,) according to the ancient manner of the Greeks, Thu- 
cydid. i. 10. The city was not surrounded by wails, Nep. 
Agesil. 6. {immunita, Ovid. Met. x. 169.) till it fell under the 
dominion of tyrants, after the time of Alexander the Great> 
Liv. xxxiv. 38.; Justin, xiv. 5.; Pausan. vii. 8. — called patiens 
by Horace, od. i. 7. 10. and severa, by Cicero, Legg. ii. 15. 
from the hard discipline with which the youth were brought 
up, Cic. Tusc. v. 27. according to the laws of Lycurgus (quibus 

* Ithome and Acrocorinthus were called the two horns of Peloponnesus, by seizing 
which, as the horns of an ox, one might become master of the whole. The strength 
of these two cities, however, did not prevent them from being once and again taken 
and destroyed, Strab. ib. 

summa 







Peloponnesus. 



tumma virtus in patientia ponebatttr, Nep. Alcibiad. ii). The 
inhabitants were called Lacedjemom i, Lacones, or Spartanl 
They affected great conciseness of expression whence stylus La- 
iMfltfj vel Laconismus, was put for brevity, Cic Fam. xi. 25. 

About twenty stadia south of Laccdcemon stooa Amycl.e, on 
the west bank of the Eurotas, Polyb. v. 19.; Liv. xxxiv. 28. 
abounding in fruitful trees, hence called virides, Stat. ix. 769. 
the usual abode of Leda, hence called Led.e.e, lb. vii. 163. ; 
Sil. ii. 434- where was a splendid temple of Apollo, Pcl\b. lb. 
hence called ApOLLlNEiE, Stat. Theb. iv. 223.; put for Sparta, 

Id. Achill. ii. 345. On the opposite bank of the Eurotas 

6tood Therapxje, also sacred to Apollo, Stat. Theb. iii. 422. 
where was a temple of Castor and Pollux, whence they are 
called TherapN-Ei fratres, Stat. Theb. vii. 793.5 Silv. iv. 
8. 52. 

West from the mouth of the Eurotas stood GYTHIUM, or 
Gytkeum, the port of Lacedaemon, a place of great strength, 
Liv. xxxiv. 29. ; Polyb. v. 19. ; Cic. Off. iii. 11. not far from 
which anciently stood Helos, which the Lacedaemonians hav- 
ing taken, reduced the inhabitants to slavery, whence all their 
slaves were called Helotes, Helots, or Hots, Scholiast, ad 
Thucydid. i. 101 .-, Nep. Pausan. 3.; Liv. xxxiv. 27.; but Strabo 
cares a different account of their origin, vi. 278. 

At the bottom of the Laconic gulf, on the east side, was the 
promontory Malea or Malea, projecting in the form of the 
boss of a shield •, hence called Undisone UMBO Males, Stat. 
AchilL i. 408. dangerous to mariners, Virg. JEn. v. 193.; 
Ovid. Amor. ii. 11. 20. Sc 16. 24. and on the west side, Tje- 
xarvs, the most southern point of Europe; where was a temple 
of Neptune, reckoned inviolable, Nep. Pausan. 4. and near it 
a cave, through which, as being the common passage to Hell, 
Srat. Theb. i. 96. ii. 32. Hercules is said to have dragged Cer- 
berus from the infernal regions, Strab. viii. 363. ; and Orpheus, 
to have descended thither, Ovid. Met. x. 13. ; hence Horace 
calls it Invisi horrida Tatnari sedes, od. i. 34. 10. and Virgil, 
Tsnarias etiam fauces, alta cstia Ditis, G. iv. 467. So Statius, 
Theb. ii. 48. — 55. Here was a quarry of black marble, Plin. 
xxxvi. 22. /. 43.; Propert. iii. 2. 11. Here also was a town 
called Tj&KABtrMj or Cxnepolis, (Kstiv-xohi;,) Pausan, iii. 25. 
hence Tsnaride:, ~d&, is put for Hyacinthus, the Lacedxmoniaiu 
Ovid. Met.x. 183. Afarito T.enakia, for Helena, Li. epxst. 
xiii. 45. 

The other towns of Laconica were Selasia, famous for 
the defeat of Cleomenes, Pausan. ii. o. ; Plutarch, in vita ejus j 

Diiiuvi) 



Peloponnesus. 



285 



Delium, Epidaurus, Limera, Prasizy Cyphanta> Leuca y Pherct vel 
Phar<e> Cynosura, v. -a y Tripolis, Pitana, &c. 

V. ARCADIA, the country of shepherds, sacred to Pan.—- 
Its chief cities were Teg^ea, whence Pan is called Tege/Eus, 
Virg. G. i. 1 8. ; Pallantium or Pallanteum, the city of Evander ; 
Mantinea, famous for the death of Epaminondas ; and Mega- 
lopolis > founded by that commander, Pausan. iv. 27. ix. 14. 
On the confines of Laconia, Belbina ; its territory, ager Belli- 
nitisy Liv. 34. 38. Arcadia was very populous. It was said 
to contain three hundred thousand slaves, Athenaus, vi. 60. I 

Arcadia abounded with lofty mountains. * 

Towards the north of Arcadia was a woody hill, called 
Nonacris, Plin. iv. 6. s. 10.; Ovid. Fast. ii. 275. near whi^ 
was a town and district of the same name, Vitruv. viiK 
Here, from a steep rock distilled a deadly water, forming a 
small stream called Styx, which proved fatal to every one that 
tasted of it, Plin. ii. 103. \ Senec. Nat. Q. iii. 25. It ran into 
the river Crathis, Pausan. viii. 18. This water corroded every 
lubstance, except the hoofs of certain animals, as of a horse, 
an ass, or a mule. By means of it Alexander the Great is 
said to have been poisoned, Plin. xxx.Jin.; Curt. x. 10. 16. ; 
Plutarch; Pausan. viii. 18. The Arcadians, when they had 
occasion to confirm any engagement by an inviolable oath, used 
to go to the town Nonacris, and swear by the water of STYX. 
Herodot. vi. 74. which probably gave rise to the fables of the 
poets concerning the infernal river of that name. 

** The chief mountains of Arcadia were Cyllexe, where Mercury is supposed te 
have been born, hence called Cyllenius. Virg. G. i. 336.; Mn. iv. 252. & 276. 
and Cyllenia proles^ lb. 258. Mjenalus, frequented by the nymphs, Virg. Kct.%.5$. 
whence Manalii versus, Arcadian or pastoral verses, Virg. Eel, viii. 21. ERY- 
MANTHUS, covered with woods famous for the wild boar skin by HercUes, Id. 
Mn. vi. 802. — PARTKENlUS,saidto be so named from the virgins wh> 
used to haunt in its forests, Strv. ad Virg. Eel. x. 57. hence Portkenii camfi, the Ar- 
cadian plains, Ovid. ep. ix. 49. — LYCiEUS, often mentioned by Virgil, Ect. x. 15 
G. i. 16. iii. 2.314. iv. 539, where was a temple of Pan, near which games were 
celebrated in honour of him, Pausan. viii. 38. whence Pan is called Lycxus, 
Mn. viii. 344.; Liv. i. 5. and a place in Rome was named Lupercal, where the 
Lupercalia, or festival of Pan, instituted by Evander, was celebrated, lb. 8c Ovid. 
Fast. ii. 423.— -Stymphalus, at the foot of which was a lake of the same name, 
where Hercules destroyed the famous birds of prey, called STYMPHALiDE3,cr St v: > 
psalia monstra, Catull. lxvi. 113. — PARRHA3IUS, a woody mountain, Stat. 
Tbeb. vii. 163. and cold, Ovid. Fast. ii. 276.; there was also a town called Parrha- 
sia, Plin. iv. 6. s. 10- The inhabitants of this city and mountain 'Parrhasii) are 
iaid to have been one of the most ancient tribes in Greece, Strab. viii. 388. hence 
Parrbasius, Arcadian, Ovid. Met. viii. 3T.5. Parrhasis, idis, Calisto, lb. ii. 460 
from her frequenting this mountain. Parrbasis aretes, the Ursa Major, Id. Trist. i. 3. 
48. Parrhasia pennx, the winged ssndals of Mercury, Lutein, ix, 660;— PHOLOE, 
•a ihe confines of Etis, 

Near 



Peloponnesus. 



Near Nonacris was the town Phenf.US, Strab. viii. fin. ; 
Virg. JEn. viii. 165. * and south-west of it, Clitor, Pausan. 
viii. 17.; Strab. ib. where was a fountain, the waters of which 
caused a di-gust at win^, Plin. xxxi. 2. \ Vitruv. viii. 5, Ovid 
says that they were wholesome when drunk in the day time •, 
but the contrary when drunk in the night, Met. xv. 332. 

These, and other neighbouring towns, being greatly reduced 
by continual wars, the inhabitants of them were carried to Me- 
galopolis, (i. e. magna urbs,) to people that new city, Strab. viii. 
388. which itself did not exist long, but was destroyed by 
£leomenes, king of Sparta, Polyb. v. 93. 

VI. ARGOLIS (Apyei*). Its chief town was ARGOS, 

c^oftener, plur. Argi, the favourite city of Juno, Virg. JEn, 
i. 24. situate on the river Inachus, which runs into the Argolic 
gulf, defended by two citadels, Liv. xxxiv. 25. * The inha- 
bitants were called Argivi, Ib. often put for the Greeks in 
general. The harbour of Argos was Nauplia, so called from 
its being filled with ships, [a vuvg, navis, et 7rAea;, impleo,) Strab. 
viii. 368. near which was Temenium^ where Temenus, tie first 
of the Heraclidce, that reigned at Argos, was buried, Ib. 
South of this was the lake of Lerna, where Hercules slew the 
dreadful Hydra, and a river of the same name, Ib. & 371. 
abounding in fish, Virg. JEn. xii. 518. Near Lerna was the 
fountain Amym6ne> Strab. ib. ; Ovid. Met. ii. 240. 

North of Argos stood MYCENiE, the city of Agamemnon, 
Virg. JEn. vi. 838. Both Mycense and Argos are celebrated for 
their breed of horses, Hsrat. od. i. 7. 9. After Agamemnon, 
Mycenae sunk in its importance, till at last it was destroyed by 

the Argives, Strab.viu. 377. North-west of this was Nemea; 

and near it a grove, where the Netnean games were celebrated 
every three years. Here Hercules is said to have slain the 
Nemean lion, Ib. 

Near Mycenas was Tiryns, a strong fortress, Homer. II. ii. 
66. the birth-place of Hercules, whence he is called Tiryx- 
THIUS, Virg. JEn. vii. 662. viii. 228. ; Ovid. Met. ix. 66. 268. 
xii. 564. Stat. Silv. iii. 1. 1. Sc 125. Tirynthius heros, 
Ovid. Met. vii. 410. f His mother Alcmena, Tirynthia, Ib. 
vi. ii 2. and his arrows, Tirynthia tela, Ib. xiii. 401. This 
town was also destroyed by the Argives, Pausan. ii. 17. 

* One of the citadels was called Lkrissa, (Larhssm afiex, et verUx, Scit. Theb. i. 
:M i'- *53« iv - 5- * 44-) 

I Fabius Mjxinius, the Roman dictator, «s also called T\rinti>iu$ berts, S3, viii. 

At 



Peloponnesus, 



At the bottom of the Argolic gulf, on the north, stood 
TROEZEN or Troezene, the residence of Pittheus, the grand- 
father of THESEUS, (Pittheia regna, Ovid. ep. iv. 107.) 
where that hero was educated, whence Lelex his companion 
is called Troezenius heros, Ovid. Met. viii. 566. It was 
named from its founder Troezen, the son of Pelops, and brother 
of Pittheus, who succeeded him, Strab. viii. 374. To this 
place and to Salamis the Athenians, when they left their city 
upon the invasion of Xerxes, conveyed their wives and children, 
and most valuable effects, Nep. Themist- 2.; Cic. Off. iii. 11. 
Opposite to Troezen, about half a mile from the land, is the 
island Calauria, vel -ea, sacred to Latona ; hence called 
Calaurea Latotdos art/*, Ovid. Met. 7. 384. where Demosthene^ 
being pursued by his enemies, put an end to his days 
poison *, Strab. ib. \ 

West from Troezen, on the Saronic gulf, was EPID AURUS, 
five miles from which stood the famous temple of AESCULA- 
PIUS, Liv. xlv. 28. % Plin. iv. 5. whence he is called Epidau- 
rius, Ovid. Pont. i. 3. 21. and Epidaurus, his city, Ovid, in 
Win, 408. 

At no great distance from Troezen was the promontory 
ScylUum, so called from Scylla the daughter of Nisus being 
buried there, and the port Bucephalus, Pausan. ii. 34.; Strab. 
viii. 373. both which some place on the Saronic, and some on 
the Argolic gulf. Near Scyllseum was the town Hermione 9 
from which there was said to be a short descent to the infernal 
regions, and therefore no money was put in the mouth of those 
who died to pay Charon for freight (naulwri). The inhabitants 
were called Halieis, because they lived in a great measure by 
fishing, Strab. ib. 

GR^ECIA PROPRIA. 

GrjEcia Propria was bounded on the north by mount Othrys 
and Oeta, which divided it from Thessaly ; on the west, by the 
river Achelous, from Epire ; on the south, by the Corinthian 
and Saronic gulfs, and the Isthmus of Corinth, from Pelo- 
ponnesus ; and on the east, by the JEgean sea, from Asia. ■ 

It was divided into seven parts, Attica, Megaris, Bceotia, Phocis^ 
Locris, Doris, and jEtotia. 

* Here was held a convention of the deputies ef several states, which Strabo calls of 
the Amphictyons, (' A^^xryav/ar/f,) viii. 374. but different from the general assembly 
of that name, held at Delphi and Thermopyhe, lb. ix. 420. 

f Demosthenes was the son of a blacksmith, which employment Juvenal thinks it 
would have been more fortunate for him to have followed, than the profession of an 
•rator, his excellence in which caused his destruction, x. 126. 

I. ATTICA 



Description of Athens. 



I. ATTICA was anciently called Atthis, Actaa^ or AcCe t from 
its maritime situation ; its capital, ATHEN7E, Athens, the 
school of polite learning, arts, and sciences * \ now Selines. 



Description of ATHENS. 

The city of Athens at first consisted of nothing but the 
citadel, built on the top of a high rock sixty stadia> or seven 
rniles and a half round, called CECROPIA, from Cecrops, the 
first king of Athens, afterwards ATHENiE, as it is thought, 
fr<>m the Greek name of Minerva, ('A^vr ; ,) and by way of 
eminence, noXic, or ucttv, the city, Strab. ix. p. 396. When, 
from the increase of inhabitants, the lower grounds were built on, 
the citadel was called Acropolis^ or rj avco 7toAk, the upper city ; 
and the buildings in the plain >j xctroo ttoAic, the lower city, f 

The citadel was in after times surrounded with a strong wall, 
of which one part was built by Cimon, and another by some 
Pe/asgi%, who lived at the bottom of the citadel, Pausan. i. 28. 
There was but one entrance to the citadel by stairs. The vesti- 
bules to it, called Propyl^ea, were built of white marble, and 
are said to have cost 2012 talents, i. e. ,£452,700, Suidas in 
HgotrvX. Their splendid ornaments are described by Pausanias, 
i. 22. 

In the citadel were several magnificent edifices, the chief of 
which was the temple of Minerva, called Parthenon^ (quasi 
xdes virginum,) either because that goddess was a virgin, or 
because it was dedicated by the daughters of Erectheus, who 
were virgins, (nagSt-voi,) Pausan. i. 24. viii 41. It was burnt 
by the Persians, and rebuilt with the finest marble by Pericles, 
lb. & Strab ix. 395. It is still standing, and justly esteemed 
one of the noblest remains of antiquity ; about two hundred 
and twenty-nine feet long, one hundred and one feet broad, 
and sixty-nine feet high. § 

In 

# Hence Athtr.a is put for learning; Juvenal, xv. 1 10. 

f When ihe Athenians, upon the approach of Xerxes, in consequence of an answer 
of thf priestess of Apollo at Delphi, " That they should defend themselves by woid^n 
"walls" had, agreeably to the interpretation of '1 hcmistocles, 2Vtf>.2. betaken them- 
selves to their ships; some understanding the oracle literally, fortified the citadel with 
a stiong wooden pallisado, and remaining there, made a vigorous resistance against the 
Persians, till, overpowered by numbers, they either threw themselves over the wall, or 
were slain by the enemy, Nerodot. viii. 51 — 54 ; Pjman. i. i8. 

} The Pelasgi were so named from their wandeiim:, «tj rn> w> x »rf, N Strjb. ix. 397. 

§ From whatever quarter a person came to Athens, this splendid edifice w«s 
to be scon. The two architects employed by Pericles in building it were, 

13 Ict'mxj: 



Description of Athens. 



289 



In this temple was the celebrated colossal statue of Minerva, 
made by Phidias, under the direction of Pericles, twenty-six 
' cubits, or thirty-nine feet high, of gold and ivory j forty talents 
of gold were used in making it, supposed to be worth £ 123,500 
of our money ; others make it more. 

On the shield of Minerva Phideas made a portrait of himself, 
Cic. Tusc. i. 15. so artfully, that it could not be removed with- 
out destroying the whole, Id. Orat. 7 1 . 

There was in the citadel a number of statues in honour of 
Minerva ; among the rest, one which was believed to have 
fallen from heaven. It was shapeless, and made of olive wood, 
Pans. 1. 26. This image was held in the greatest veneration. 
The different districts or boroughs (%coi) of Attica had each 
gods peculiar to themselves, but they all concurred in worship- 
ping Minerva, Ibid. There was an image of brass erected to 
Minerva after the battle of Marathon, from the spoils of the 
Persians, which was also the work of Phidias, lb. 28. 

The Athenians erected statues in the citadel and other parts 
of the city, not only in honour of the gods, but also of their 
most distinguished citizens ; as, Miltiades, Themistocles, Aris~ 
tides, Cimon, Xantippus, Pericles, Conon, Alcibiades, Thrasy- 
bulus, Timotheus, Iphicrates, Phocion, &c. which was a great 
incentive to virtue. 

In the vestibule of the Parthenon was to be seen the throne 
with silver feet, on which Xerxes placed himself to view the 
battle at Salamis, Demosth. in Timocrat. 

Adjoining to the Parthenon was the public treasury, called 
Opisthodomos, because built behind the temple. It was sur- 
rounded with a double wall ; and treasurers, chosen annually 
by lot, deposited there the sums entrusted to them by the senate. 
The "chief of the Prytanes, or the president of the senate, who 
was changed every day, had the charge of the key, Pollux. 
viii. 8. The treasurers, having once embezzled the public 
money, burnt this edifice to the ground to conceal their vil- 
lainy, Demosth. in Timocrat. & Scholiast. 

The Athenians at first paid the chief attention to husbandry, 
particularly to the cultivation of the olive, but afterwards also 
to commerce. They therefore built a joint temple to Minerva 
and Neptune, with a chapel consecrated to each. On the one 

Zctlnus and Calllcraies. It had a double portico on the two fronts, and a single one on 
each side. Along the exterior face of the nave, or body of the temple, runs a frieze 
or architrave, in which is represented 3 procession, in honour of Minerva, in the most 
jbeautiful basso relievo, 

IT side 



2V0 



Description of A- her 



side was the olive-tree, which sprang out of the earth at the 
command of Minerva ; and on the other a fountain of salt 
water, said to have heen produced by the rtrokc of Neptune's 
trident. These alluded to the contest recorded in fable be- 
tween these two divinities, about giving name to the* city, 
Hygin. 1 64. Ovid. Met. vi. 70. and this common temple, to 
the joint homage which the Athenians afterwards paid to both, 
Herodot. viii. 55.; Pausati. \. 26. (See p. 362.) 

In this temple, before the statue of Minerva, was c uspended 
a famous golden lamp, the work of Callimachus, who hurt hi? 
performances by striving too much to make them perfect, Pausan. 
ibid. & Plih. xxxiv. 8. /. 19. Jin. 

The numerous temples, statues, and other monuments in the 
citadel, have been described by various authors, particularly by 
Pausanias, i. 22, 23, &c. 

Of the temples in the lower city, the most remarkably and 
indeed one of the most magnificent in the ancient world, was 
that of Jupiter Olympius, Liv. xli. 20. It was supported on 
marble columns, the first that were built in Athens, and wl 
Sylla afterwards carried to Rome, Ptin. xxxvi. 6. s. 5. 
temple was four stadia, or half a mile, in circuit. It was fou . 
by Pisistratus ; some say, by Deucalion, Pausa/i. i. 18. but not 
finished till the time of Adrian, about seven hundred years after. 
That emperor, who greatly favoured Athens, completed it, and 
added to it a library and gymnasium, in which last were one 
hundred columns of Lybian marble. He also adorned the city 
with several other works, lb. 

Some vestiges of the temple of Jupiter OlyrhpiuS are 
supposed to remain, but antiquarians differ about their situa- 
tion ; Thucydides says it steed on the south of the citadel, 

Among the principal edifices in Athens was the temple cf 
Theseus, built by Cimon, some years after the battle of Sala- 
mis, of the Doric order, in the form of an oblong square, with 
a beautiful portico round it. Its ornaments are described, 
Paus. i. 17. It is still standing entire-, so also, in a great 
measure, is the Pantheon or temple dedicated to all the gods ; 
a magnificent building, supported by one hundred and twenty 
marble pillars: on the outside was engraved the history of the 
gods, and above the principal gate stood two horses, carved by 
Praxiteles. 

Near the citadel was the temple of Castor and Pollux, where 
slaves were exposed to sale ; and just at the bottom of the cita- 
del was the temple c4 Apollo and Pan, Pausan. i. 28. — In the 

1 ^ same 



Description of Alliens, 



291 



same quarter were the Prytanewn*, a place where those who 
had merited well of the state were supported at the public ex- 
pence, Cic. Orat. i. 54. ; see also Liv. xli. 20. — the Odeum, or 
musical theatre, built by Pericles, where the competitions 
between the different performers for pre-eminence were held, 
Pausan. i. 20. — and the Theatre of Bacchus, at the south-east 
angle of the citadel, in which tragedies and comedies were 
represented. The ruins of it still exist.. It stood at the termi- 
nation of what was called the Street of the Tripods, from brazen 
tripods dedicated there by the victors, each with an inscription*, 
Pausan. i. 20. 

Near the citadel was a fountain called Callirrhoe, the water 
of which they used before marriage, and in other sacred rites, 
Thucydid. ii. 13. 

On an eminence, at a small distance from the citadel, was 
the place of meeting of the Areopagus, Herodot. viii. 52. the 
most ancient tribunal of judges at Athens, famous for its up- 
right decisions, Cic. Att. i. 9. & 13. s. 14. said to be so called, 
because Mars was the first criminal tried before itf . It was 
instituted by Cecrops, and its power enlarged by Solon. Pe- 
ricles lessened its authority, to the great hurt of the state, 
Plutarch, in vita ejus. 

Opposite to the Areopagus, or the hill of Mars, was another 
eminence called PNYX, where the assemblies of the people 
used sometimes to meet. 

But the division of Athens most frequently mentioned was 
that called CERAMICUS, from the pottery work or earthen 
ware made in that place, Plin. xxxv. 12. J". 45. said to have 
been invented by Corsscus, lb. vii. 56. or from Ceramzcus, the 
son of Bacchus and Ariadne, Pausan. i. 3.; but there was another 
place of this name without the city. 

In the Ceram'icus was the Forum or market-place, a large 
square where the people used to assemble, and where commo- 
dities were exposed to sale. It was surrounded with temples 
and various public buildings. Of the porticoes two were re- 
markable ; the one called the portico of the Herma, from 
three statues of Hermes or Mercury ; and the other Poecile, 
(7rotxtA>), sc. (tto«, varia porticus,) from the various engravings 
and pictures on it J. In the latter, Zeno, the philosopher, used 
to teach, whence his followers were styled Stoics, 

* (Quasi rrvfia rrupiuov, tritici promptuarium^) 

f {Apttof truyos,) called by Juvenal, Curia Marti s, ix. 101. and by Tacitus, 
Areum Judicium, Annal. ii. 55. the judges, Areopaglta, Cic. Balb. 12. div. i. 35. 

$ Particularly of the battles with the Medes and Persians; whence it is called 
Braccatit illita Medit Portieus, Pers. hi. 53. 

U 2 Collectors 



292 



Description of Athens. 



Collectors attended in the forum to receive the duties laid 
on every tiling that was sold, and magistrates to superintend 
what passed. If any one reproached another with the mean- 
ness of his trade, or used falsehood for the purpose of exaction, 
he was punishable by law. 

A certain part of the city, from its wetness, was called the 
Marshes, (Ai/xvai,) where was a temple of Bacchus, Thucydid. ii. 
13. on the east side, opposite to that part where the river Ilissus 
or Elyssus ran near the walls*. On the west of the city, 
at some distance, ran the Cephissus, * v. Cephlsus> or En- 
damus, Pausan. i. 19. Both these streams united below the 
city. 

HARBOURS of ATHENS. 

Athens had three harbours, the Piraus, Munichta, and 
Phalerum\. The first, PIRAEUS, was fortified by the advice 
of Themistocles, with a wall inclosing both the town and har- 
bour, sixty stadia, or seven miles and a half in length •, and 
forty cubits, or sixty feet in height. Themistocles wished to 
make it eighty cubits high, Thucydid. i. 93. Its thickness was 
greater than the space occupied by two waggons. It was built 
of huge square stones, fastened on the outside by iron and leaden 
cramps. This harbour consisted of three parts, called Cantha- 
rus, Aphrcdisium, and Zea ; the first, from an ancient hero \ 
the second, from the goddess Venus, who had there two 
temples ; and the third, from bread-corn. This work The- 
mistocles effected with great address, contrary to the inclina- 
tion of the Lacedcemonians, as he did that of surrounding the' 
city with walls, and with considerable hazard to himself, Nep. 
in vit. 6. & 7. ; Plutarch. There were in this port five porti- 
coes, which, communicating with one another, formed one 
great one, called Macra Stoa, or the long portico. 

A1UN1CHIA, or Port us Mutiichius, lay a little east of 
Athens, forming a kind of promontory or peninsula, Strab. ix. 
395. and naturally a place of great strength ; for which reason 
the Lacedxmonians, when they reduced Athens, placed a gar- 
rison in it. 

# It is supposed to communicate with the internal river Styx cr Cocytus, Sict. 

( Th- I'irXUS, Pirimm or Pir,sa y -orum, Cic. Att. \ii/£ qvjsi <ri r -«* rut i*xm, 
/.'»./ lift. . bvfi jncientlv rn ibl.c I. Stub. i. 59. hve miles horn the short-, 

It S; 

PHALERUM, 



Description of Athens, 



293 



PHALERUMy v. -a, -orum, or Portus Phalerius, was an- 
ciently the only port of Athens. It was nearer the city than 
the other two, but small and incommodious, Nep. Them, 6. 

These harbours were joined to the city by two walls, called 
the long walls*-; the one, extending from the Pirzus, on the 
north-west, to the gates of the city, forty stadia, about five 
miles •, planned by Themistocles, and executed under the ad- 
ministration of Cimon and Pericles, Thucydid. i. 107. ii. 13. 
the other, on the south-east, from the city to the Portus Pha- 
lereus, not quite so long, only thirty-five stadia, lb. On these 
walls were a number of towers, which, after the city came to 
be crowded with inhabitants, were converted into dwelling- 
houses. 

Lysander, when he took Athens, demolished these walls* 
Plutarch,; but they were afterwards rebuilt, Nep. in Timoth* 
4. & Plutarch, in Cimon. They were not, however, standing 
in the days of Strabo, when, he informs us, the Pirseus was 
reduced to a contemptible villagef, ix. 395. 

Principal GYMNASIA near Athens. 

A Gymnasium was a large edifice, consisting of various parts, 
fit to contain many thousands of people at once, with proper 
places for the youth to perform their different exercises ; and 
apartments for philosophers, rhetoricians, and all the professors 
of the liberal arts, to deliver their lectures ; surrounded with a 
garden and sacred grove. 

There were several Gymnasia, or places of exercise, in and 
near Athens ; the chief were, the Academia, Lyceum, and Cy- 
nosarges, 

* These walls Strabo calls gKiXn, crura, ix. 395. and Propertius calls the place 
where they had stood, Brachia : hence Scandam tgo Thesea brachia longa via, I will 
go from the Piraeus to Athens, Proptrt. iii. 20. 24. 

f The circumference of the walls of Athens, built by the advice of Themistocles, 
*vas, according to Thucydides, ii. 13. and his scholiast, only sixty stadia, or seven 
miles and a half, which is not more than that of the Piraeus and Munichia \ whence 
probably, as well as for other reasons, it is, that Nepos, speaking of the Pimm, says, 
that it equalled the city in dignity, and surpassed it in utility, Themist. 6. The cir- 
cumference of the city, including the Piraeus and Munichia, is commonly computed 
at one hundred and seventv-eight stadia, or twenty-two miles and a quarter, whence 
Aristides makes it a day's journey. But upon an attentive perusal of Thucydides, 
this computation appears not to be quite correct; for by it allowance is indeed made 
for the distance between -the two points, where the wall of Pirajus on the one side, aitf 
that of Phalerum on the other, terminated in the city-wall, which the scholiast on 
Thucydides makes to be seventeen stadia, but no allowance is made for the distance 
between the point? where these walls joined the wall of Piraeus, 

U 3 The 



Description of Athens. 



The ACADEMIA was only about six stadia north-west 
from the gate of the city called Dipylott, in a tract of ground 
called Ceranf/cus*. It was named from one Academus, whose 
property it had formerly been, Pausan. i. 29. ; Hesyck. & Suid. 
It contained a gymnasium^ a garden, and a grove, surrounded 
with walls, and adorned with delightful covered walks. The 
plane trees here were remarkable for their height, P/in. xii. 1 . 
s. 5. Near this Plato had his residence, on a farm belonging 
to himself. In the academy he taught his scholars, whence 
his followers were called Academics. Such decorum was ob- 
served in this place, that it is said to have been forbidden even 
to laugh in itf, JElian. iii. 35. 

The LYCEUM lay on the opposite side of the city, along 
the banks of the Ilissus. It is said to have been so named 
from LYCIUS or Lycus, the son of Pandion, who gave name 
to Lycia in Asia, from his settling there. Pausan. i. 19. ; 
Strab. xii. 573. xiv. 66]. ; Herodot. i. 173. vii. 77. Here was a 
temple of Apollo, whence that god was called LYCIUS, 
Pausan. ibid. The Lyceum was thought more healthful than 
the Academia. On which account Plato, being advised by the 
physicians to remove to it, said, that he would not remove, 
even to the top of mount Athos, to procure the greatest lon- 
gevity, JElian. ix. 10. Aristotle, the scholar of Plato, after 
his return to Athens from the tuition of Alexander, finding 
the academy occupied by Xeuocrates, chose the Lyceum as 
the place for his school ; and because he taught those who 
attended him walking, (7n-£i7raTc£v,) or in the Peripatos or walk- 
ing place of the Lyceum, hence he was called the PERIPA- 
TETIC, Diogen. Laert. v. i. and his followers, Peripatetics, 
Cic. Acad. i. 4.; Fin. iii. 2. 12. &c. 

* In the part of Ceramicus next the city there were a great many tombs, 
particularly of such as had fallen in battle, Piiusan. i. 29.; Tbucydid. ii. 34.; 
Cic. Fam. iv. 12.; Fin. v. 1. The academy lay near the rivets Oephissus and 
Colonos. 

f Plato was succeeded in the academy, first l»v his nephew Speusippus, and 
then by his scholar XENOCRATES, a native of Chalcedoh, who was so rem.-.rkable 
for his veracity, that when he was called before a court of justice, to give his evi- 
dence upon oath, all the judges declined exacting it, and declared they would be satis- 
fied with his simple affirmation, Laert. iv. 7.; Cic. An. i. 16.; Bulb. 5.; VaL Mam. 
ii. IO. Jin. 

When the ambassadors of Alexander brought him a present of fifty talents he re- 
jected it; but, that he night not seem to despise th« liberality ol the king, he ac- 
cepted thirty minor, Cic. Tusc. v. 32. 

XenocrStes was nf unpolished manners, so that Plato used to exhort him to sacrifice 
to the graces, Plutarch in Man*. 

Aristotle 



Description of Athens. 



295 



Aristotle continued to teach here for twelve years, till the 
death of Alexander; when being accused by Eurymedon y a priest, 
of propagating impious tenets, and apprehending the fate of So- 
crates, he retired to Chalcis, in Eubcea, where he remained till 
he died, Strab. x. 448. in the sixty-third year of his age, B. C. 
323. His body was conveyed to his native city Stagira, where 
his memory was honoured with an altar and a tomb. 

Aristotle was succeeded by his scholar THEOPHR ASTUS, 
who was so popular at Athens, that he is said to have been 
attended at one time by two thousand scholars, Laert. v. 37. 

The CYNOSARGES lay a little north of the Lyceum, on 
a rising ground, containing a gymnasium, a temple of Hercules, 
and a sacred grove, Liv. xxxi. 24. It is said to have been 
named from a white or swift dog (xvwv ugyog v. kvmv Asux>j,) which 
snatched away part of the sacrifice offered to Hercules, Hesych, 
& Pausan. i. 19. In this gymnasium foreigners, or citizens of 
half blood, that is, who had a foreigner for their mother, as 
Themistocles, performed their exercises, Plutarch, in Tbemist. 
princ. Here ANTISTHENES, the philosopher, taught his 
opinions ; and hence, as some say, he was called the Cynic. 
Laert. vi. 13. or, according to others, from his snarling hu- 
mour. From him those philosophers distinguished by their 
rusticity and indelicacy of manners, called Cynics^ derived their 
origin, Cic. Or. 1. 17. Off. i. 35. & 41. 

The purpose of Antisthenes, however, and of his imme- 
diate successors, was to inculcate the love of rigid virtue, 
and a contempt of pleasure ; that every one should study to be, 
as Horace expresses it, Virtutis vera custos rigidusque satelles, 
ep. i. 1. 17. But that poet seems to prefer the accommodating 
manners of Aristippus of Cyrene, the contemporary of An- 
tisthenes, and also a scholar of Socrates, lb. 18. & 17. 

So great was the ardour of Antisthenes for knowledge, that 
though he lived at the Piraus, he came every day to Athens, 
about five miles, to hear the lectures of Socrates. He early 
discovered a propensity to severity of manners, by the mean- 
ness of his dress. The intention of this Socrates is said to 
have perceived, and to have said to him, " Through your rags 
u I see your vanity," Laert. vi. 8.; JElian. ix. 35. 

Antisthenes was succeeded by DIOGENES, a native of 
Sinope in Pontus, hence called Cynicus Sinopeus, Ovid. Pont, 
i. 3. 67. whom Antisthenes, on his first application to become 
his scholar, rejected with threats, and even with blows ; but 
upon his perseverance admitted him, and afterwards made him 
his companion and friend, JElian, x. 16. ; Laert. vi. 21. 

U 4 Diogenes 

3 



296 Description of Athens. 

Diogenes wore a coarse cloak, carried a wallet and a staff, 
made the porticoes and other public places his habitation, and 
depended upon casual contributions for his subsistence. Being 
disappointed in procuring a cell, he took up his abode in a tub 
or large open vessel, Laert. ib.* ; Juvenal, xiv. 308. Alexan- 
der the Great is said to have visited him, and after con- 
versing with him, to have asked, if there were any service he 
could render him. " Yes" says Diogenes, " net to stand be- 
(t tiveen me and the sun /' for he was then basking himself : 
Upon which the king exclaimed, " If I were not Alexander, 1 
" would be Diogenes " Senec. Benef. v. 4.; Cic.Tusc. v. 32. 

The most distinguished philosopher of this sect after Dio- 
genes, was CRATES, whose scholar was ZENO, the founder 
of the Stoics The moral doctrines of these two sects were 
nearly the same; hence they are joined by Juvenal, xiii. 121. 
and are said to differ only in dress, {tunica distarc,) Ib. 122. 
The Stoics were remarkable for wearing their hair short, {lilts 
super -cilio brevior coma , Juvenal, ii. 15.) or rather cut [detonsa) 
to the skin, Pers. iii. 54. 



Division of the Inhabitants and Government of Athens. 

The inhabitants of Athens were of three kinds; citizens, 
(TioXnou,) sojourners or foreigners, (^£tojxo», inquiliniy) and 
slaves (SouAoi). The number of citizens, or of men able to bear 
arms, in the time of Cecrops, was twenty thousand, and under 
Pericles they were hardly so many, Plutarch, in Pericle. By an 
account taken under Demetrius Phalcrtus, the number of citi- 
zens was twenty-one thousand ; of foreigners, ten thousand ; 
and of slaves, four hundred thousand-}-. Athena:, vi. 

The foreigners had no share in the government, but each ' 
put himself under the protection of some citizen, Tcrcnt. Eun. 
v. 9. 9. to whom he was obliged to render certain services, as 
the clients at Rome did to their patrons. £ 

* According to Juvenal, made of earth baked, (testa?) and consequently in no dan- 
ger of fire. If it happened to crack, it was soldered with lead (flurnfo cemmista). 

f JJut some suppose an error in AtheottUS, and that the number of slaves was only 
forty thousand. 

I They paid annually to the st.ite a tribute of twelve Jradms^ (about nine shil- 
lings,) fox heads of families, and six drachnix for their wives and children. Such 3» 
failed might be sold as slaws which is said to have happened to Xenociates the {philo- 
sopher; on which occasion lknn»tnus I'haltreus pui chased him, and then gave him his 
liberty, Laert. iv. 14. ; but Plutarch says he was rescued by Lycurgus the orator, in 
Flamin. p. 375. It was made capital for rtrangeis to intrude themselves into the 
assemblies of the people. 

D \6 The. 



Description of Athens, 



297 



The Athenians treated their slaves with great humanity. 
- There was an asylum for them in the temple of Theseus, Plu- 
tarch, in vita These'u 

The Athenians, according to their fortune, were divided 
into four clabses. Those who had an income of 500 medimni> 
that is, 500 measures of corn or oil, composed the first class, 
and were called Pentacosio-medimni. Those who had 300 me- 
dimni of income, and could maintain a horse for the war, com- 
posed the second class, and were called Horse-men or Knights, 
Those who had only 200 medimni composed the third class, and 
were called Zeugita. Those who had not that income formed 
the fourth class, and, although they had the right of suffrage, 
were excluded from all offices of trust, Pollux, viii. 10.; Plu- 
tarch, in Solone, in Aristide et comp. inter eum et Catonem. 

Cecrops divided the Athenians into four tribes \ Clisthenes, 
the chief of the family of Alcmseon, who had contributed greatly 
to the expulsion of Pisistratus, divided them into ten tribes. 
"When Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, expelled the Mace- 
donians from Athens, two tribes more were added. 

By the laws of Solon, the sovereign power was vested in the 
people, who determined every thing of importance in their 
assemblies, (IxjcAso-jai,) where all the citizens had an equal 
vote, except such as, for any crime, were declared infamous, 
(oLTipoi,) and on that account were excluded. 

To prepare business for the cognisance of the people, and 
to perform various other public functions, Solon instituted a 
SENATE, consisting at first of four hundred members, one 
hundred out of each tribe ; and afterwards of five hundred, 
when the number of tribes was increased to ten, fifty^eing 
chosen out of each. The senators were all chosen by lot, and 
in like manner the persons who presided in the senate, called 
Prytanes. The senate was elected annually, and the president 
changed every day. When the tribes were ten in number, each 
tribe in its turn furnished presidents for thirty-five days, and 
the first four tribes for thirty-six days each, which made up 
three hundred and fifty-four days, the length of a lunar year, 
being that first in use among the Greeks. * 

The senate met every day except on festivals. The place 
where it met was called Prytaneum. Here the senators of that 
tribe whose turn it was to preside, were for the time supported 

* When the tribes were made twelve, the senators of each tribe presided for a 
month ; and then the number of the senate was six hundred ; but this did not take 
place till after Athens had bet its independence, 



at 



29S 



Description of Athens. 



at the public cxpencc. They divided themselves into five decun.r, 
or committees of ten, and the seven seniors of each decur-a 
presided alternately for seven successive days. He who was 
president of the senate, presided also in the assembly of the 
people ; and during the short continuance of his oflice was 
intrusted with the seal of the republic, and with the keys of 
the citadel and of the treasury. 

The assemblies of the people were either ordinary or extra- 
ordinary. There were four ordinary meetings every thirty-five 
or thirty-six days. Extraordinary assemblies^were summoned 
when occasion required. 

The assemblies of the people were held in the Forum y in 
the Pnyxy or in the theatre of Bacchus. There lay an appeal to 
the people from all the decrees of the senate; but the people 
could deliberate about nothing, unless laid before them by the 
senate. 

The chief magistrates of Athens were the nine Archons. 
The first archon was called The ARCHON, by way of emi- 
nence, or Eponymos, from his name appearing at the head of 
all acts and decrees for that v ear P lutcirch. in Aristide : the 
second archon was called BohtiXsv:, or the King t the third, 
the Polemarch ; and the other six, Thesmothet*. These archons 
had each a particular jurisdiction. Their persons were sacred. 
They wore a crown of myrtle as a symbol of their authority. 
Pollux, viii. 9. § 86. 

The chief court of judicature at Athens was the Areopagus, 
so called from the place of its meeting, the Areopagus, or hill 
of Mars.* 

A guard of Scythians, and other barbarians, called Toxatai, 
were maintained by the public, to be in readiness to assist the 
magistrates in executing the sentences of courts of justice, and 
preserving order in the public assemblies, Pollux, viii. 10.; 
Aristoph. in Acharn. v. 54. ; Lysist. v. 434. They were so fond 
of wine that « to drink like a Scythian" became proverbial for 
drinking to excess, Herodot. vi. 84. 

• A body of priests, called EumolpiLe, judeed concerning the violation of certain 
sacred rites, particularly of those of Ceres, and usually wi:h the greatest rigour. Per- 
sons accused of impiety were sometimes tried before courts of justice; thus /Eschylut 
the poet, JEHam. v. 19. Anaxagoras, Laert. ii. 13. ProtagShK having; in the be- 
ginning of a book, expressed a doubt about the existence of the yods. WM baiiafati 
Atliens, and his books burnt in the forum, Laert, ix. 51.J Cic. X.it. D. i.*3« 
cibiades, upon a suspicion of having mutilated the statues of Mercuiy, was condemned 
to die, his estates sold, and tin- priests ordered to pronounce imprecation^ .v-'inst him, 
Aty. 4.; Plutar. b. p. 20 2. liven the slightest transgressions again>t religion were 
sometimes punished capitally, JEi:jm. v. x6. & 17. ; PoUux. 'xx.t. §75. 



The 



Description of Athens. 



299 



The following are a few of the most remarkable laws of 
Solon. 

In public dissensions every citizen was obliged to take a side, 
under pain of death or banishment, Gell. ii. 1 2. ; Plutarch, in 
Solone* 

"Whoever lived an idle life, squandered his father's property, 
or refused to support his parents when in want, was declared 
infamous. But if the father had neglected to breed his son to 
some trade, the son was not bound to maintain his father, 
although in want. Children born of a courtezan were also 
exempted from this obligation. It was incumbent on members 
of the Areopagus to inquire by what means every person sub- 
sisted ; which regulation is thought to have been borrowed from 
the Egyptians, Herodot. ii. 177.; Diodor. i. p. 70. 

Young women, unless heiresses, brought no fortune to their 
husbands, but three suits of cloaths, and some moveables of 
little value, that marriages might not be contracted from inte- 
rested motives. 

An archon who appeared in public with the ensigns of his 
office, in a state of intoxication, was liable to be put to death, 
Laert. in Solon. $ 57. 

Children whose parents had fallen in the service of their 
country, were to be educated at the public expence till the age 
of twenty-one. 

He who kept company with dissolute women, was not per- 
mitted to speak in the assemblies of the people. 

Those who had no children might leave their goods to whom 
they pleased ; which was not formerly the case, but the next 
heirs always succeeded. 

It was prohibited to speak ill of the dead ; and likewise to 
revile the living at sacred solemnities, in courts of justice, or 
at the public spectacles. 

Solon made no law against parricide, to render that crime 
the more an object of horror, by supposing it impossible, Cic. 
Rose. 25. 

The laws of Solon were written on wooden tables, Gell. ii. 
12. and exposed to the view of the citizens. The people bound 
themselves by an oath to observe them for an hundred years. 
Solon then left Athens and went into foreign countries, where 
he remained for ten years, Plutarch. 

* Caftte sanxit } si qui in scditione non alUrius vtrius partis fu'uset. Cic. Att. x. I. 



Description 



300 



Gracia Propria. 



Description of the Country of ATTICA, and of the other 
Divisions of GR^ECIA PROPRIA. 

The chief mountains in Attica were Hymettcs, near 
Athens, famous for producing honey, Pausan. i. 32. ; Herat, 
Od. ii. 6. 14.; Sat. ii. 2. 15. therefore compared to Hybla in 
Sicily, 5/7. xiv. 200.; Martial, vii. 87. 8. and called dutch by 
Juvenal, xiii. 185. also for producing marble*, Strab. ix. 399. ; 

Plln. xxxvi. 3. Sc 5. xvii» I. PentelTcus, likewisefamous 

for its marble quarries, Pausan. ii. 32.; Strab. ib. ; Cic. Att. i. 8. 

LaURIUS, v. -turn, near the promontory of Suniuvi, 

where were silver mines, whence the Athenians derived a con- 
siderable revenue, Thucydid. ii. 55. vi. 91. and which Themis- 
tocles prevailed on them to appropriate to the building of ships, 
Plutarch, in vita ejus, p. 113.; Herodot. vii. 144. These mines 
had faiied in the time of Strabo, ibid. , so Pausanias says, i. 1. 

The other mountains were, BrilessuSy JEgialeuSy Icarius, 
Lycabettus, Plin. iv. n. and Parties or Parnetbus^ all of them 
fruitful in timber and olives, some of them in wine, Stat. Theb. 
xii. 620. 

About ten miles north-east of Athens stood MARATHON, 
famous for the defeat of the Persians by Miltiades, Strab. ix. 
399. A soldier ran from the field of battle to carry the news 
to Athens, but was so spent when he reached the place, that 
having uttered these words, Xarpe-rs, ^aiqo^svy Rejoice^ ive arc 
conquerors^ he fell down and expired, Plutarch, de gloria Athen. 
7. Those who fell in the battle had small columns erected 
over their tombs, with their names inscribed, Pausan. i. 32. 
Near Marathon was a marsh, where many of the Persians, 
being entangled in their flight, were shun, lb. ; most of them 
retreated to their ships, several of which fell into the power of 
the Athenians-}-, Herodot. vi. 115. 

Sixty stadia, or seven miles and a half north of Marathon, 
on the south arm of the Euripus, stood the village or town 
Rhamnusy near which was a temple of Nemesis, the avenger 
of insolence (exos* verba superba De*,) hence called Rham- 
nusia, Ovid. Trist, v. 8. 9. Stat. Silv. iii. 5. 5. or Rhamnusis, 

* Hence tmles Hymcttia-, Cross beams or pieces of Hvmetti.in marble, Horat. ii. 
18.3. Some rake trabes for beams of wood from Hymcttus; but Pliny also has 
trabes ex murmore, xxxvi. 8. s. 14. 

I On this occasion the bravery of one Cyn.rgyrUs is particularly extolled, who, 
having seized | ship with both his hand*, ami ihey being cut oft", took hold of it with 
his teeth, J::stin. ii. 9. ; hut Herodotus m.ly says, "that having taken hold of the 
:.tcrn with his hand, and the hand being cut off" with 1 battle-axe, he fell," vi. 114. — 
A similar instance of courage is recorded of one Iciliui at Marseilles, Suet. Jul. 68. 

-tdis, 



Grcecia Propria. 301 

4dis % Ovid. Met. xiv. 694.*, and in it a statue of that goddess, 
made by Phidias out of a block of Parian marble, which the 
" Persians had brought to erect as a trophy of their victory over 
the Athenians, so confident were they of success f, Pausan. i.33. 

iVbout an hundred stadia, or twelve miles and a half north- 
east from Athens, was the strong fort PHYLE, the first place 
seized on by Thrasybulus with only thirty men, when he freed 
Athens from the thirty tyrants, who had been set over that city 
by Lysander, Diodor. xiv. 32-; Nep. in Thrasyb. 2. 

West from this and only sixty stadia from Athens, was 
ACHARNiE, the chief borough (fypos, pagus,) of Attica, 
where the tyrants encamped when they marched against Thra- 
sybiilus, Diodor. ib. and where formerly the Lacedaemonians, 
under their king Archidamus, encamped, when they made an 
irruption into Attica, at the beginning of the Peloponnesian 
war, Thucydid. ii. 19. &c. 

West from Athens, and south-west from Acharnse, was 
ELEUSIS, v. -in> towards Magara, famous for the celebra- 
tion of the mysteries of Ceres, Cic. Nat. D. i. 42. Spartian. in 
Hadrianoy 13. whence the town is called Cerealis Eleusin, 
Ovid. ep. 4. 67. and the goddess herself, Eleusinia mater, 
Virg. G. 1. 163. Here was a temple of Triptolemus, the fa- 
vourite of Ceres, whom that goddess taught agriculture, Pau- 
san. i. 38. The plain between Eleusis and Acharnae was called 
Cecropia, Thucydid. ii. 19. The boundary between Attica 
and Bceotia was mount CITHiERON, Pausan. ib. 

Among the boroughs (foj^oi) of Attica were, JSrchia, the 
birth-place of Xenophon, Laert. ii- 48. and Gargettus y the 
birth-place of Epicurus, Id. x. i. whence he is called senior 
Gargettius, Stat. Syh. i. 3. 94. ilk Gargettius, Cic.Fam. xv. 16. 

On the road to Eubcea, about one hundred and twenty stadia 
from Athens, and the same distance from the confines of Bceotia, 
stood the fortress of Decelia, which the Spartans, by the ad- 
vice of Alcibiades, fortified to distress Athens in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, Nep. in Alcib. 4. visible all the way from Athens, 
Thucyd. vii. 19. 

On the confines of Boeotia, near the Eurlpus, and not far 
from the mouth of the river Asopus, stood Oropus, which 
Strabo places in Bceotia, ix. 391. and Livy in Attica, xiv. 27. 
About twelve stadia, or one mile and a half from it, was the 
temple of Amphiaraus, the famous soothsayer, (Argivus Au» 

* Ettumldis infesta edit qua numina (i. e. Nemesin) Rhamnus, Lucan. V. »33. 
f Phidias did not inscribe his own name on this statue, but that of figoracritus of 
Pares, his scholar and favourite, Pl'm. xxxvi. 

GUR,) 



S02 



Gracia Propria. 



GUI!,) Horat. od. hi. 16. n. on the spot where he was said to 
have been swallowed up by an earthquake, Strab. ib. 399. ; 
Diodor. iv. 65. Here was an oracle, which those who consult- 
ed were obliged to abstain from wine for three da\s, and from 
all sorts of food for twenty-four hours, Philostrut. in vit. Apol- 
lonii, ii. 37. The other ceremonies are describe, Pausan. i. 34. 
Twenty stadia from Oropus was the harbour Delphinium, 
opposite to Eretria in Eubcea, the passage to which is forty 
stadia, Strab. ix. 403. 

II. MEGARIS, a small country at the top of the Saronic 
gulf, on the north, separating Attica from the territories of 
Corinth, included by some in Attica, Plin. iv. 7./. 11. but by 
most distinguished from it, Strab. ix. pr. 

The chief city was Megara, or plur. -orum, situate on 
a rising ground, eighteen stadia from its harbour, called Ni- 
s.t.a, from Nisus, the son of Pandion, king of Mxgara, it^. 
founder, Pausan. i. 39. which stood on the gulf, and was con- 
nected with Maegara by a double wall, Strab. ix. 391. which 
the Megarenses having recovered from the Athenians, after be- 
ing possessed by that people for some time, levelled with the 

ground, Thucydid. i. 67. iv. 109. On the side of Corinth, 

the first town was Crpmmyon, sometimes possessed by the Me- 
garenses, and sometimes by the Corinthians, Ib. 390. & Th 
iv. 42. only one hundred and twenty stadia from Corinth, lb. 
45. Next to it was a rugged ridge, called the Scironian rocks*, 
from one SCIRON, a noted robber, slain by Theseus, Plutarch. 
In Tbes. seven miles in length, Plin. iv. 7. /. 11. along which 
the road from Attica to Peloponnesus ran, Strab. ix. 391. f 

The other towns of Maegaris, Pag* and JEgisthena> were 
inconsiderable, Pausan. i. 44. 

The people of Mxgara had twenty galleys at the battle of 
Salamis, Hercdot. viii. 45. and three hundred men at the battle 
of Platxa, Id. ix. :8. After this they were frequently engaged 
in war with the Athenians, Thucydid. ii. 31. iv. 66. &c. Diodor. 
xii. 5. 44 & 66. xiii. 65. This was the case in the time 
of Socrates; but notwithstanding, EUCLID, a native of 
Miegara, who had attended that philosopher before the war 
broke out, used sometimes afterwards to come to Athens at 
the hazard of his life. He set out in the evening, disguised in 
the dress of a woman, and having spent the night with So- 

# (Inftimts Scytcne p$tr* t Stat. Theb. i. 333. Scof>ulis nomen Scironis inl-xrti, 
Ovid. Met. vii. 447.) 

' f Megara was anciently called ALCATiiiir, Ovid. JMet. viii. 8. and inhabited by 
the Leleges; liente l^legda littora, the coast of Megara, lb. 6. 

crater, 



Grcecia Propria, 



303 



crates, departed before day-break, The distance was twenty- 
miles, Gell. vi. 10. 

III. BCEOTI A extended on the west of Attica and Maegaris, 
from the Euripus to the Corinthian gulf. It was a fertile 
country, but covered with a thick air, which was supposed to 
render the inhabitants dull, Cici de Fato, 4. ; Divinat. i. 36. 
whence Bceotum in crasso jurares here natum % Horat. ep. ii. 1. 
244. ; so Juvenal, x. 50. The Boeotians attended more to the 
improvement of bodily strength than to the cultivation of the 
mind, Nep. in Alcib, it;; Strab. ix. 401. There were, how- 
ever, many ingenious men produced in this country. 

The capital of Bceotia was THEBiE, v. Thebe y Thebes, 
built by CADMUS the Phoenician, Pausan. ix. 5. who first 
introduced letters into Greece, Herodot. v. 58. from whom the 
citadel was called Cadmea> Nep, Pelopid. 1. surrounded with 
walls forty-three stadia in circumference, having seven gates, 
hence called Heptapylos> Pausan. ib. & 8. ; Juvenal, xiii. 26* 
Stat. Theb. iii. 39. the native place of Bacchus and Hercules, 
Plin. iv. 7. s. 12. of Pindar, Pelopidas, and Epaminondas ; 
situate on the river Ismenus, Pausan. ix. 10. [celer Ismenos^ 
Ovid. Met. ii. 244.) 

The inhabitants of Thebes, as of Athens, were divided into 
three classes ; citizens, naturalised foreigners, and slaves, 
Diodor. xvii. 

There were frequent contests between the favourers of oli- 
garchy and democracy, Thucyd. iii. 62. The exposing of chil- 
dren, usual in other parts of Greece, was prohibited at Thebes, 
JElian. ii. 7. 

The Thebans were long despised by the other Grecian states, 
for having basely joined the Persians when they invaded Greece, 
Herodot. vii. 233. For this they were severely punished by 
Pausanias, Herodot. ix. 85. Afterwards, being jealous of the 
Athenians, and fearing their resentment, they formed an al- 
liance with the Lacedaemonians, to whom they were of great 
service in the Peloponnesian war, Thucydid. But, after its con- 
clusion, the Lacedaemonians, finding a favourable opportunity, 
reduced Thebes under their dominion, established in it their 
favourite form of government, aristocracy, and placed a garri- 
son in the citadel. It was freed by the valour and conduct of 
Pelopidas, Nep. Pel. 1, 

Under Pelopidas and Epaminondas, Thebes was the most 
powerful city in Greece. It was destroyed by Alexander; 
above six thousand were slain, and thirty thousand made prison- 
ers and sold as slaves, Diodor. xvii. 14. Twenty years after it 
was rebuilt by Cassander, Diodor. xix. 54. ; Pausan. ix. 6. & 7. 

In 



304 



Grac'ut Propria. 



In the time of Strabo it was nothing but an inconsiderable vil- 
lage, ix. 402. 

The chief mountains of Bceotia are, Helicon and Pimpla, 
on the confines of Phocis, sacred to the Muses *, near Thebes, 
Thetjmesus, Stat. Theb. viii. 344. On the confines of Mse- 
garis is mount Cith^ERON, on which the Bacchx performed 
the orgies or sacred rites of Bacchus, V'irg. En. iv. 302. There 
are in Bceotia several fountains, often mentioned by the poets 
as sacred to the Muses, Dirce at Thebes, whence Pindar is 
called Dirc&us cygnus y the Dircean or Theban swan, Herat, od. 
iv. 2. 25. Aganippe, v. -is, -tdis, and Hippocrene, at the foot 
of mount Helicon f, Ovid. Fast. v. 7. ; Plin. iv. 7. Juvenal. 
vii. 6. and the small river Permessus^ v. -;>, -tdis. 

About seventy stadia south from Thebes, Thucydid. ii. 5. stood 
PLAT^EA, v. -*<f, at the foot of mount Citheron, on the east 
side of the river Asopus, Strab.ix. p. 412. which, running 
through a beautiful plain, joins the Ismenus, a little below 
Thebes, lb. p. 408. and after running a considerable way flow* 

into the Euripus. Near Platsea, Mardonius, with an army 

of three hundred thousand Persians, was defeated and slain by 
the Lacedaemonians under Pausanias, and the Athenians under 
Aristides, lb. 412.; Herodot. ix. 15. — 77. 

Platiea was founded by the Thebans, Thucyd. iii. 61. but hav- 
ing revolted from them and joined the Athenians, lb. it was 
attacked by the Lacedaemonians and Thebans in the Pelopon- 
nesian war ; and being taken, after a most obstinate resistance, 
was destroyed, and the citizens put to the sword}, lb. 68. 

West from Platsea stood LEUCTRA, famous for the defeat 
of the Lacedaemonians by Epaminondas, the most dreadful they 
ever received, whereby they lost the pre-eminence among the 
Grecian states, which they never afterwards recovered, Strab. 
ix. 414. ; Diodor. xv. 55. & 56, near the lake Copais, so 

* The muses are hence called HcUciniaJcs, Pers. procem. 4.; Lucret. iii. J050. 
(sing. HelicZnis, a poem or song, Stat. Sylv. v. 3. 30.) and PimpleiJts, sing. Pimpleis , 
vocat. Pimplei, Horat. od. i. a6. 9. The common reading here is Pimptea. 

f Said to have been formed by a stroke of the hoof of the horse Perasus ; hence 
called Vatuni conscius amnis Gorgoneo percussus equo y Stat. Theb. iv. 6c. Pons IWcJi.sjui, 
because Pejasus sprung from the blood of the Gorgon Medusa, Ovid. Met. v. 31 1. 

f In the temple of Diana at Platrca was the monument of one Eucbidaty a citizen 
of the place, who, when the Greeks, after the departure of the Persians, were com- 
manded by the oracle of Delphi to extinguish all the tires in their temples, as having 
been polluted by the barbarians, and to fetch new tire from Delphi for sacred purposes, 
went from Plattea to Delphi, took some fire from the altar, and returned the same day 
to Plataa before sun set ; having travelled one thousand stadia, or one hundred and 
twenty-five miles, on foot, but expired a few minutes after his arrival, Plutarch, in 
AristU. p. 331. The Greeks possessed uncommon agility in running, being trained 
to it from ilu ir inf.mcy, Plin. vii. 20. and in most towns couriers were maintained by 
the public, IJci jJot. vi. 105. fcc. 

named 



Grcecia Propria. 



305 



named from the town Covm, situate on the north side of it. 
Strab. ix. 406. & 411. into which the river Cephissus runs, lb. 
On the south side was Haliartus, at the foot of a mountain, 
near the small river Parmessus s destroyed by the Romans in 
the war with Perseus, lb. & Liv. xlii. 63.4 west of which was 
Coronea, on an elevated situation near mount Helicon, Strab. ix. 
411. famous for the defeat of the Athenians and Boeotians by 
Agesilaus, Nep. in Ages. 4.; Biodor. xiv. 85. 

Near this were the most extensive plains in Bceotia, in a part 
of which were marshes, where the river Meias * loses itself, 
I except a branch of it that joins the Cephissus, Plutarch, in Syll. 
On the west side of this plain, near the confines of Phocis, 
Thucydid. iv. 76. stood CHiERONEA, the birth-place of 
Plutarch, famous for the defeat of the Athenians, Thebans, and 
other Greeks, by Philip, which put an end to the liberties of 
Greece, Biodor. xvi. 87. $ Strab. ix. 414. Here also Sylla de- 
feated Archelaus, the lieutenant of Mithridates, with an army 

greatly inferior in number, Plutarch, ib. -Near this was 

Lebadia, now Livadia, whence Grsecia Propria is now called 
; in maps by that name ; as some think, improperly. 

At a small distance from this, on the side of a stream called 
Hyrcina, was a celebrated oracle of Trophonius, the same with 
Mercury, Cic. Nat. B. iii. 22. in a subterraneous cave, lb. & 
Strab. ix. 414. ; Pausan. ix. 39. Particular sounds were heard 
by those who consulted this oracle, Plutarch, in Syll. & de geni& 
Socratis, 40. which usually made them grave through the rest 
of life : hence it was said of a person remarkably melancholy 
and gloomy, " he comes from the cave of Trophonius," Scho- 
liast, in Aristoph. in Nub. v. 108. 

Near Chseronea also was Orchomenos, to which Chssronea 
was once tributary, Thucydid. iv. 76. Here was a fountain called 
Acidalius, where the graces were supposed to bathe, whence 
Venus is called Mater Acidalia, Virg. JEn. i. 720. & Serv. 
in loc. 

On the south of mount Helicon was Thespia, v. -ia 9 sacred 
to the Muses, whence they are called Thespiades De^e, Ovid. 
Met. v. 310. 5 Biodor. iv. 29. Its port on the Corinthian gulf 

was Creusa, Liv. 36. 21. or Creusis, Pausan. ix. 32.- 

About forty stadia from Thespise was ASCRA, a small village, 
the birth-place of Hesiod, Strab. ix. 409. whence he is called 
Ascraus senex, Virg. Eel. vi. 70. 

On theEurlpus stood AULIS, whence the Greeks set sail to 



* Melas was so called, because it rendered the sheep, that fed near it, black : 
Cephissus, flowing from the same lake, made them whire ; Plin, ii. 103. 

X the 



306 



Grcrcia Propria. 



the siege of Troy*, opposite to Chains in Eubcca, and joined 
to it by a bridge, f 

About thirty Stadia from Aulis stood TANAGRA, on an emi- 
nence, near the river Thermodon, the birth-place of Corinna, 
the poetess, contemporary u ith Pindar The natives were 
passionately fond ot cock-fighting, Pausan. ix. 22. 

About five miles from Tanagra was a temple of Apollo, called 
Delium, because built after the model of that in the island 
Delos, Strab. ix. 304 When the Athenians were defeated near 
this place by the Boeotians, Jhucyd. iv. 96. Socrates, who had 
been engaged in the battle, JElian. iii. 17. in his flight found 
Xenophon, who had fallen from his hcrse, lying on the ground : 
upon which, taking him on his shoulders, he carried him for 
several stadia, till he brought him to a place of safety, Strab. ib. 

There were in Bceotia several other places of less import- 
ance ; as Eluthertfy Phera?, Aspledon, Acraephia, Ocalea, Erythra, 
Clissa, Hy/e, Anchoa> &c. The situation of some of these is 
not ascertained. % 

IV. PHOCIS. Its chief town was DELPHI, called also 

Pytho or Pythia, famous for the temple and oracle of Apollo, 
(hence called Delphicus, Ovid. Met. ii. 543. & 677 ) which 
stood on an eminence above the town, at the foot of mount Par- 
nassus, and near the Castalian fountain, (Jons Castalius v. Casta/ia, 
sc. aqua.) Delphi was only sixteen stadia, or two miles in circum- 
ference, Strab. ix. 418. not surrounded by walls, but defended 
on three sides by precipices, Justin, xxiv. 6. In the middle of 
the temple was a small chasm in the ground, whence a vapour 
issued which threw such as breathed it into convulsions. It is 

* After being long detained by contrary winds ; on which account it is thought t» 
be termed, In/qua classibus, Lucan. v. 236. 

f Here Diana was greatly worshipped; whence this town is called Hecatki.i 
Aulis; St at. AclllL i. 447. 

\ The mountainous part of Bceotia, particularly that in which mount Helicon and 
the fountain Aganippe! were included, was called AONIA, from Aon the son of 
Neptune, Lactant. in Stat. Thcb. i. 34. iii. 645. or Tcllus Aonis, ib. vi. 16. and 
the people Aon 1:3, Id. Acbill. i. 10. used also as an adjective thus, AZnas in monies, 
into the Boeotian mountains, Helicon and Citheron, Vir*. Eel- vi. 65. whence Aont- 
des, -dum, plur. the Muses, Juvenal, vii. 59. Aontdes, -«r, sing, the Theban, sc. Eieo- 
cles, Stat. 7heb. ix. 9?. Aon'nr moderator aula, king of Thebes, ib. ii. I. Aor.idum 
tor Aonidarum, i. e. Tbelauorum, lb. ii. 697. Aonius vertex, mount Helicon, Urg. 
C. iii. 1 1 . Aoni* swores, the Muses, Ovid. Ttist. iv. 10. 39. Dens Aonius, Bacchus; 
as being born of Semelc, a Theban, Id. Art. Am. i. 31a. ii. 380. Aonius iiosi'ES, 
Hercules, as being descended from Thebes, Ovid. Ib. 395. A**us aqux, i. e. font 
CaLi.'.'l ius v. Pegatcui, the fountain Hip; ocirnc, O vid. Fast. iii. 456. Aoni* undr, 
that part of the ^Kgean sea bordering on Bceotia, near Aulis, Ovid. Mtt.xxx. 24. Aomis 
lyru, the lyre which Apollo used anion,' the Muses, Id. Amor. i. 1. l%. Aottks du- 
are tanpos v. (§nhtt t to be a distinguished poet, Stat. £;/v. r. 3. y:. 

14 said 



Grcecia Propria. 



307 



said to have been at first accidentally discovered by some goats, 
Diodor. xvi. 26. or shepherds, Pausan-. x. 5 ; Plutarch, defect, 
orac. 6 g. The priestess (PYTHIA, sc. tsgsia, sacerdos ; Phoe- 
BAS, Lucan.v. 128 ) was placed above this opening, upon a 
stool, supported on three feet, hence called a Tripod, Diodor. 
tb. having a covering of a circular form, called oXy.o^ with holes, 
whence the vapour issued, Pollux x. 23 8 1 • Servius on Virgil 
says this covering was made of the skin of the serpent Python, 
JEn. iii. 92 Prudentius calls it Cortina, Apotheos. v. 506. 

The priestess being intoxicated by the prophetic vapour, with 
dishevelled hair, heaving her bosom, foaming at the mouth, and 
having her whole frame agitated in a wonderful manner, Virg. 
JEn. vi. 47. ; Lucdn. v. 165., &c. uttered her oracles usually in 
hexameter verse, sometimes also in prose, Strab. ix. 419. espe- 
cially in later times, Plutarch, de Pyth. orac. 9. 24, 25. &c. 
This oracle was frequently consulted in difficult emergencies, 
not only by the Greeks, but also by neighbouring nations, Liv. 
i.. 56. and the temple was enriched with an incredible number 
of the most valuable presents, Herodot. & Thucydid. passim. $ 
Pausan. x. 9. •, Strab ix. 420. Its riches were famous even in 
the time of Homer, //. i. 404. Xerxes sent a body of four thou- 
sand men to plunder it, part of whom are said to have been de- 
stroyed by thunderbolts and an earthquake, and the rest almost 
all cut off by the people of Delphi, who had fled to the tops of 
Parnassus, upon the approach of the Persians, Herodot. viii. 36. 
&c ; a striking example, as Justin observes, how unavailing 
human strength was against the gods, ii. 1 2. Several ages after, 
an army of Gauls, under Brennus, shared the same fate, Id. 
xxiv. 7. &c. The Phocenser, urged by the exactions of the 
Thebans, seized on the temple of Delphi, and employed the 
riches they found in it, amounting to 10,000 talents, i. e. 
above .?£ 2,250,000, Diodor. xvi. 76. to hire troops to defend 
themselves against their oppressors. The Thebans being de- 
feated, called in the aid of Philip, king of Macedon ; who so 
dexterously availed himself of this war, called the sacred <war % 
as a pretext for interfering in the affairs of Greece, that in the 
end he reduced that whole country under his subjection, Justin. 
viii. 1. &c. He was not a little assisted by the priestess of 
Apollo, who, bribed by money, always gave such responses as 
were agreeable to Philip, whence Demosthenes used to say of 
her, that she philippised, (4>*Aj7T7n£efv, illam cum Philippo facere^) 
Cic. divinat. ii. 57. Anciently the priestess used to be a young 
virgin but afterwards always above fifty. Diodor. xvi. 26. 
When the oracle was most frequented, there were three 
Pythie appointed, Plutarch, de orac. def. 

X % Th? 



808 



Gratia Propria. 



The Pythia was sometimes so overpowered by the exhalatiort 
from the cave, that it proved fatal to her, lb. & Lucan. v. 1 16. 
In ancient times the priestess could be consulted only in one 
month of the year, but afterwards once every mouth, Plutarch, 
qua st. Grac. 9. 

As several oracles gave their responses by drawing lots, hence 
responsa sortium is applied even to the oracle of Delphi, where a 
verbal answer was always returned, Liv. i. 56. called Pythica 
vox, lb.* 

In the time of Cicero, and even long before, this oracle had 
fallen into contempt, because the prophetic vapour was sup- 
posed to have lost its force, Cic. div. ii 57. At length it en- 
tirely ceased, Juvenal, vi. 554. ; Strab. ix. 419. For this Plu- 
tarch assigns various causes, De defect, orac. and Lucan, v. III. 
&c. Some have ascribed it to the influence of Christianity. 
The priestess, however, still continued occasionally to return 
answers, as to Nero, Suet. Ner. 40. ; and although that em- 
peror is said to have destroyed the oracle, Dio, lxiii. 14. having 
first pillaged it of five hundred brazen statues, Pausan. x. 7. 
yet it seems to have existed in the time of Julian, and after 
him. Tbeodoret. hist, eccles. iii. 21. 

Delphi was the place of meeting of the Amphictyons or depu- 
ties of the confederated states of Greece, [commune GracU con* 
silium, Cic. Invent, ii. 23. Amphictyonum, quts precipuum fuit 
rerum omnium judicium. Tacit. Annal. iv. 14.) who met twice 
a-year to deliberate about matters of common concern ; in 
spring at Delphi, and in autumn at Anthela, a village near the 
straits of Thermopylae, Herodot. vii. 200. Strab. ix. 420. ; 
Pausan. vii. 24. hence called Pylaicum consilium, Liv. xxxi. 
32. Pausanias says it was instituted by Amphictyon, the son of 
Deucalion, x. 8. ; Strabo says, by Acrisius, ix. 420. The 
Amphictyonic council consisted of a different number of mem- 
bers at different times. It consisted of thirty in the time of 
Pausanias, who recounts the various changes it underwent, x. 8. 

The temple of Delphi having been ac id entally burnt, the 
Amphictyons appointed that three hundred talents should be 
contributed by the different states of Greece to rebuild ir, 
Herodot. ii. 180. The Mcmm$nda t or family of Alcmrcon, 
who had been obliged to leave Athens upon tfie usurpation of 
Pisistratus, undertook to execute the work for that sum ; and 
being possessed of great wealth, built several parts of the temple 

* So Phjebjeje SORTES, Ovid. Met. iii. 130. Thus also tonmkrt sortei, to con- 
sult the oracle, /./. xi. 413. Utquc jjJutifer.i miserss s-ceurrtrt rtlui sortc if lit, SC. 
PLalut, by a favourable answer, ii>. XV. 63 1. Ccrtas ita Ji.:r e artts , that the unerrirtf 

•nek it. 647. 

in 



Gratia Propria* 



309 



in a more splendid manner than they were bound to do, which 
made them very popular. They are said to have prevailed on 
the priestess, by money, when the Lacedaemonians came to 
consult her, either on a public or private account, always to add 
in her answers to them a request, as if coming from Apollo, 
" that they should free Athens," which at last they effected, al- 
though the state of Lacedaemon was then joined with the 
family of Pisistratus by a league of friendship, Id. v. 62. & 63. 

Delphi was believed to be the centre of Greece*, and of the 
earth, See p. 2. Near it were celebrated the Pythian games, 
at first every nine years, and afterwards every fifth year ; said 
to have been first instituted by Diomedes in his return from the 
Trojan war, Pausan. ii. 32. After being for some time discon- 
tinuedj they were renewed by the Amphictyons, in the third 
year of the forty-eighth olympiad, lb. x. 7. under whose direc- 
tion they were celebrated. The combats at the Pythian were 
much the same as at the Olympic games. There was a contest 
about musical excellence, both on the lyre and on the flute, 
Pausan. x. 7. ; Strab. ix. 42 1, hence Pythia cantare, i. e. in 
Pythicis ludis, Horat. art. p. 414. and Pythaules, -a, such a mu- 
sician, Hygin. 273. ; Senec. ep. 76. sometimes put for one that 
played in the theatre, Vopisc. Carin. 19. There were likewise 
prizes for intellectual merit, Plutarch. Sympos. v. 2. 5 Plw. vii. 
37. — The laurel with which the victors were crowned, accord- 
ing to Lucan, was brought from Thessaly, vi. 409. 

On the Corinthian gulf stood CIRRHA, the port of Delphi, 
sixty stadia distant, Pausan. x. 37.; Strabo says, eighty stadia, 
ix. 418. meaning probably by water up the river Plistus, 
which winded beautifully through a plain, where was the Hip- 
podromus, or course for the equestrian races at the Pythian 
gamesf, Pausan. ib. 

Near Cirrha was Crissa, which gave name to the bay on 
which they both stood, (sinus Crissa?us y ) and Anticirrha or An- 
ticyra, famous for producing hellebore, Strab. ix. 418. which 
Livy places in Locris, xxvi. 26. Hence it was said of a person 

* Otbis in medio pasiti Delphi, Ovid. Met. x. 167. Medium usque ienentss orbis. 
bantu m, ib. xv. 630. Lucan makes Parnassus the centre, (Hesperio tanium } quantum 
semotus Eoo Car din <?,) v. 71. 

f Cirrha is sometimes put for Delphi, or for the abode of Apollo; hence he is called 
Dominus Cirrhje, Juvenal, vii. 64. CiRRHiEUS vates, Ib. xiii. 79. and his 
priestess Cirrhjea virgo, Stat. Theb. iii. 106. Cirrhaa antra, the prophetic cave, 
Lucan. v. 95. Quid t'ibi cum Cirrha ? Quid cum Permessidos undd? What have you to 
do with Delphi ? What with the water of Permessis? (a river in Bceotia, flowing 
from mount Helicon, sacred to Apollo and the Muses, called also Pkrmessus, Virg. 
Eel. vi. 64.) i. e. What have you to do with poetry? Martial, i. 77. n. So 
Oraque Cyrrbea satiarit largitts undd t inspired with the gift of prophecy, Stat. Theb. 
»>• 455- 

X 3 labouring 



MO Gratia Propria. 

i 

labouring under insanity, Naviget Anticyram, he needs a dose of 
hellebore, let him go to Anticyra, Horat. Sat. ii. 3. 82. & 166. 
art. pcet. 300. ; Ovid. Pent. iv. 3, 54. ; Geli xvii. 15. * 

East from Delphi stood Daulis v. -ia, the city of Tereus, 
Thucydid. ii. 29. whence his wife Procne, when metamorphosed 
into a nightingale, (pbilome/a,) is called Daulias avis, i£. & 

Ovid. ep. xv. 154. About seven stadia from Daulis was 

Panopeus or Pa/iopc> said to have been the city of Tityos, 
Strab. ix. 423. *, Homer. Odyss. A. 579. 

The largest city of Phocis, in later times, was EL ATI A or 
Elatea, situate near the river Cephissus, Strab. ix. 424. Near 
the source of that river stood Lil;ea, lb. ; Homer. II. ii. 30. 
Herodotus mentions several other towns on this river ; Drimos, 
Charadray Tet/jronium y Amphicaa, Neon> Tritea, Hyampo/is, Pa- 
rapotamiif and Aba, viii. 33. 

V. LOCRIS, the country of the Locri. The Lccri were 

divided into three parts; — 1. the Locri Ozol.e, i. e. grariter 
olentesy of which name various causes are assigned, Pausan. x. 
38. but none of them satisfactoryf ; inh ibiting the country on 
the west of mount Parnassus, Strab. ix. 418. Their chief town 
was Amphissa, defended by a strong fortress, Liv. xxxvii 6. ; 
2. The Locri Opuntii, so called from the city Opus, Opuntis, 
fifteen stadia from the Euripus, and sixty stadia from Cynos, its 
port, which stood on the sinus Op'/ntius, Str.ib. ix. 42;.-, Liv, 
28. 6.', — And 3. Locrii Epicnemidii, named from mount 
Cnemis ; near which was Naryx or Narycum, the native city 
of Ajax the son of Oileus, called Locrus> to distinguish him 

-from Ajax the son of Telamon, Strab lb. North of this 

was Throniuniy on the river BoagriuSy or Manes, twenty stadia 
from its port on the sinus Maliacus. — North of it Scarpke, 
Scarphea or Scarphia ; Alpenus and Nicaa, Strab. ix. 426. also 
Anthela, where the Amphictyons met once a-year in the 
temple of Ceres, Herodot. vii. 200. 

North of this was the famous pass, called PYLiE, i. e. f>ort* t 
from the gates in a wall built across it, Herodot. vii. 176. or 
Thermopylae, from its hot springs or baths, [therma, i. c. 
ealida aqua, Liv. ib. Ssg[A.a \&rga, Herodot. ib.) justly reckoned 
the key of Greece, about sixty paces broad; Liv. xxxvi. 15. 
where narrowest, only affording room for a single carriage to 
pass, Herodot. vii. 176. between mount Oeta, which here ter- 

* Si Hon eget Antiryra, if he is nor mad, Jui en.-.l. xiii. 07. 

♦ Strabo says they were so named from .1 let ul stream which flow c J from the poin- 
ded bodies of Ncsjus, and the other Cenuuis, who were buried on a little hill called 
'J aphossus, ix. 427. 

m mates 



Grcecia Propria. 



inmates in a precipice ; and the Sinus MaUacus or Malian 
gulf, so called from the Malians, a people of Thessaly, wha 
lived round it, lb. & Strab. ix. 428. where Leonidas *, king of 
Sparta, with a small body of men, thrice repulsed the whole 
army of Xerxes, lb. and where afterwards Antlochus, king of 
Syria, was defeated by Acilius, the Roman consul, Liv. 36. 
19. f The ridges of mount Oeta extend westwards to the 
Ambracian gulf. The part of it next to Thermopylae is called 
CaUidr6mos t Strab. ix. 428. 

* Leonidas at first had, according to Justin, ii, 11. only four thousand men: 
according to Hetodotus, vii. 202. three hundred Spartans; one thousand from 
Tegea and Mantinea ; one thousand one hundred and twenty from Arcndig ; six 
hundred and eighty from Corinth, and the rest of Peloponnesus; one thousand one 
hundred from Bceotia ; one thousand from Phocis : in all five thousand two hundred^ 
besides the Locrians, lb. whom Pausanias makes to amount to six thousand, x. 2G. . 
according to Diodorus, the whole number was seven thousand four hundred, xi. 4; 
Xerxes sent a horseman to discover what the number of the Greeks w^s, and what 
they were doing. Their advanced guard, then consisting of Lacedaemonians, was 
without the wall built across the defile. The Persian saw some of them exercising 
themselves, and others combing their hair ; it being their custom, in great danger, to 
decorate their heads. Xerxes, not expecting that so small a body of men would make 
head against his miriads of troops, waited four days to give them time to escape On 
the fifth day, he sent the Mcdes and Cissians against them, with orders to take them 
alive and bring them before him. Upon the defeat of the Medes, Xerxes sent against 
the Greeks a choice band of Persians, called the Immortals, under the command of 
Hydarnes ; but they also were soon forced to retreat. Xerxes, who was witness of 
the fight, is said to have thrice leapt from his throne, from apprehension for his army. 
Next day the attack was renewed, but with no better success, Herodot. vii. 2IQ. &e. 
Xerxes, in the greatest perplexity, now despaired of being able to force the passage ; 
when he was relieved by one Ephialtes, an inhabitant of Trachys, who undertook to 
conduct the Persians through a secret path over the mountains, which he performed. 
The Phocians, who had been posted on the mountain, fled upon the approach of the 
enemy. The other Greeks at Thermopylae, fearing lest they should he surrounded, 
retired to their respective homes. Leonidas remained with his three hundred Spartans, 
Cic. Fin. ii. 30. ; Pausan. iii. 4. together with the Thespians and Thebans. The 
Spartans and Thespians all fell, after making a dreadful slaughter of the enemy. 
The Thebans, who had been retained against their will, upon making their submission, 
were spared, lb. 233. A monument was erected over those who fell, with an in- 
scription. That over the Lacedaemonians was, O Stranger! tell the Lace. 

DiEMO NIANS, THAT "WE LIE HERE OBEDIENT TO THEIR LAWS, lb. 2%6. ; 

Strab. ix. 429. 

When Leonidas bid his soldiers take dinner speedily and prepare for battle, he 
added, "We shall sup with Pluto," Diodor.xx. 9.; Cic. Tusc.'u^z.; Val. Max. iii. 1. 
ext. 3. ; Senec. ep. 82. When a Trachinian, to induce them to surrender, had said, 
that they would not see the sun for the multitude of the Persian darts, Then? 
says a Spartan, ive shall fght in the shade, Herodot. vii. 26.; Cic. ibid. 

Two Spartans, who by some accident were not present at the battle, having returned 
to Lacedaemon, were treated with such contempt by their countrymen, that one of 
them strangled himself; and the other afterwards wiped off his disgrace at the battle 
of Platsea, by rushing among the thickest of the enemy, where he was slain* 
Herodot. vii. 231. 

f And his lieutenant Cato, afterwards Censor, Plutarch, in vita Catonis. 



X 4 VI. DORIS 



312 



Grcecia Propria. 



VI. DORIS or Do rica, the country of the Dores, Dorii, 
or Dorienses, one of the most ancient tribes of the Greeks, Cic. 
Flacc. 27. hence Dcrieus, Grecian, Virg. JEn. ii. 27. Cicero 
reckons only two other original tribes, the Athenians, called also 
Iones, and the JEoles, lb. whom Strabo makes the same with 
the Dorians, viii. 333. 

Doris was of small extent, along the foot of mount Oera, 
Plin. iv. 7. s. 13. and mount Parnassus, Strab. ix. 417. It was 
called Tetrapolis, from its four cities, Erineon v. -eos, Boion v. 
-os, Pindus, and Cytinium, none of them remarkable, lb. ; Pliny 
adds Sperehhs, which is also mentioned by Strabo, viii. 373. — 
Herodotus says, that the Dores were a tribe of the Pelasgi, who 
frequently changed their habitations, i. 56. 8c 57. They 
were named from Dorus, the son of Hellen, the son of 
Deucalion, lb. They assisted the Heraclldae in the conquest 
of Peloponnesus, and many of them settled there, Thucydid. 
i. 12. 

VII. iETOLIA, the country of the JEtoli, a warlike people, 
extending from the top of the gulf of Naupactus or Lepauto, 
to the river Achelous. — Their chief towns were CALYDON, 
on the river Evenus, seven miles and a half from the sea, 
Plin. iv. 2. an ancient city, Virg. JEn. vii. 306. ; Stat. Theb. i. 
401. and beautifully situated, Virg. JEn. xi. 270. the birth- 
place of Tydeus ; hence he is called Calydonius heros, Stat. 
Theb. ii. 476. So Diomedes, his son, Id. Achill. i. 538. also 
Meleager, Ovid. Met. viii. 324. and Dejanira, Calydonis, Adis, 
Id. ix. 112. Ovid calis the river Achelous arr.nis Calydonius, 
Id. viii. 727. ix. 2. as if Calydon had stood on it. But Caly- 
don is also put for the country, Lucan. vi. 366. anciently 
called JEolis, Thucydid. iii. 102. having few towns, as the 
people lived chiefly in villages, lb. 94. 

Near the mouth of the Evenus stood CHALCIS, on the 
Ionian sea, Stat. Theb. iv. 106. not far from a mountain of 

the same name, Strab. x. 451. West from Calydon were 

Pleuron, sacred to Mars, (Marti A,) Stat. Theb. ii. 727. and 
Oltnos, mentioned by Homer, //. ii. 146. and Statius *, 
Theb. iv. 105. near mount Aracynthus, Strab. x. 450. & 460. 

* Near Otetm the goat Amalthcra was produced, which is said to have nursed 
Jupiter, lit. and therefore Qlenos \s said to contend with Ida for the honour of having 
ic.tred him, Stat. Thtb. iv. 104. whence she and her kids, when changed into stars, 
are called Olrmum pecus, Ovid, ep xviii. i88.)ieisclf OUnia CmfeU.i, Id. Fast. v. 113. 
O/enU siditt pluviute CafistU, Id. Met. iii. 594. and the kid-, 0. ' —. . n 1 ..!>:, Stat. 
Theb. iii. 25. Hence Olcniis manant cornibus iuibrcs^ lb. vi. 423. because the lising 
and setting of the kids was usually attended with rain, Virg. J&n. ix. 668. 

1 1 which 



Gi'cecia Propria. SIS 

which Virgil calls Acteus, Eel. ii. 24. i. e. rocky and steep, as 
some explain it ; as others, near the shore : So Servius, who 

places Aracynthus in Bceotia, lb. North of this were 

Thermus v. -ma, Conope, Stratum, Metropolis, Lysimachia, 
Trichonium, Phateum vel -tea, Agrinium, &c. Polyb. iv. 63. & 
64. v. 7. & 8. 

On the north-west extremity of the Corinthian gulf stood 
NAUP ACTUS, now Lepanto, so called from the ships built 
there*, Strab. ix. 427. placed by some in Locris, lb. The 
part of the sea on which this town stood is now called the 
gulf of Lepanto, famous for a great naval victory gained by 
the Spaniards and Venetians, under Don John of Austria, over 
the Turks, who are said to have lost above thirty thousand men, 
A.D. 1571. 

Near Naupactus were Erythra and Naupalium, Liv. xxviii. 8. 
and Pylene\ called Scopulosa by Statius, Tkeb. iv. 102. 

South-west from Naupactus is the promontory Antirrhium, 
opposite to Rhium in Peloponnesus, whence it has its name : 
both of them are now called the Dardanelles of Lepanto. Here 
the strait which joins the gulf of Corinth to the Ionian sea is 
scarcely a mile broad ; Strabo says five stadia, a little more 
than half a mile, viii. 335. 

After Lacedaemon and Athens had enfeebled each other by 
their mutual quarrels, the JEtolians became the most powerful 
state in Greece, and possessed several cities beyond the limits of 
their own country. They seem to have made little figure in 
the time of Herodotus, as that historian takes no notice of 
them ; they are, however, frequently mentioned by Homer. 
Thucydides represents them as a people remarkable for their 
courage, and in particular for their agility. They wore light 
armour f, iii. 94. In the Peloponnesian war the Athenians 
attacked them, but were repulsed with great slaughter, lb. 98. 
The JEtolians chiefly distinguished themselves, first as the allies, 
and afterwards as the enemies of Rome, Liv. xxvi. 24. &c. 

xxxv. 12. &c. They were esteemed the best cavalry in Greece, 
Liv. xxxiii. 7. Livy represents them as restless, xxxi. 28. 
barbarous, xxxiv. 24. fickle, quarrelsome, and ungrateful, 

xxxvi. 17. Dissatisfied with the treatment they had met with 
from the Romans, Liv. xxxiv. 23. they tried to excite different 
princes against them, xxxv. 12. at last they openly joined An- 

* 'A^o t'as vavrfnyius rtis Ixtt yivepuns . 

t There were several tribes of the jEtolians, Apodot'i, Opbionenses, and Eurytanes y 
who used a dialect different from the rest of Greece, and are said to have eaten ra\r 
flesh, hence called aftoQayot, Thucydid. ib. also the CureUs, Strab. ix. 429. 

tiochus, 



314 



Grcecia Propria. 



Uochus, Ib. 33. & xxxvi. 9. Being defeated by Fulvius the 
consul, they were obliged to submit to such terms of peace as 
the victors chose to prescribe, Ib. xxxviii. j 1. They afterwards 
suffered severely from their own internal discords, Id. xli. 25. 
xlii. 5. and from the cruelty of the Romans, lb. xlv. 28. 31.; 
Cic. Pis. 37. 



EPIRUS. 

The chief parts of Epirus were, Acarnania, Thesprotia, Mc- 
lossisy and Chaonia. 

1. ACARNANIA, extending from the river Achelous to the 
A?nbracia?i gulf, (sinus Ambr actus ,) Strab. x. 450. was anciently 
included in Gr.ecia Propria*, lb. & Liv. xxxiii. 17. 

At the mouth of the Ambracian gulf, on the south, stood 
ACTIUM, a small place, near a promontory of the same 
name, where was a celebrated temple of Apollo, Thucydid. i. 
29.; Strab. vii. 325. hence called ACTIUS, Virg. JEn. viii. 
704. near which Augustus defeated Anthony and Cleopatra in 
a naval battle ; and built a city on the opposite side of the 
strait, which, to commemorate his victory, he called Niccpo/is 
(i. e. Victoria tirbs) and instituted games which were cele- 
brated in a grove near it every five years, called the Action 
games, (ludi Actiaci,) Dio, li. 1.5 Suet. Aug. 18. There 
were anciently solemn games at Actium, at which the Lace- 
demonians used to preside, Strab. ib. ,• to these Virgil alludes, 
jEn. iii. 278. There were also solemn games instituted at 
Rome in memory of the victory at Actium, Suet. Tib. 6. ; 
Dio> li. 19. liii. 1. liv. 19. Augustus granted particular pri- 
vileges to the inhabitants of Nicopolis, so that it soon became a 
flourishing city, and the towns in the neighbourhood of course 
declined, Strab. ib. 

About forty stadia above Actium, on the same gulf, was 
Anactorium v. -ia, Ib. & Plin. iv. I.; Strab. x. 451. then 
Limnaa, Polyb. v. 5. and Argos, called Amphilochicum, Liv. 

* The people were called Acarnanes^ slug. Acaman^ because they did not cut their 
hair, {ha to dxoupn{ fuXxr<rti* rtt; KifotXaj,) Stm6. x. 465. This being attended 
with inconvenience, when they came to close quarters with an enemy, some of them 
cut the hair off the fore part of their head, whence thc>e were called Curgtej, {aw$ 
rxf xv{r,(> a ttmura,) Strab. ib. Homer says that they were formerly called Abantes, 
1L ii. 54a. This manner of cutting the hair was named TitiSi t facia Theseus who 
used it, JflutanL. in vita cjuj, fr, 

xxxviii. 



Epirus, 



313 



Xxxviii. io. from Amphilochus, the son of Amphiaraus, who 
founded it, after his return from the Trojan war, Thucydid. ii. 
68. Strabo says it was founded by his brother Alcmseon, vii. 
325. 

The chief city of Acarnania was STRATUS v. -os, Thu- 
cydid. ii. 80. which Livy places in iEtolia, xliii. 21. above two 
hundred stadia, or twenty-five miles from the mouth of the 

river Achelous, Strab. x. 450. Near the mouth of it was 

Oeniada, Liv. xxvi., 24. ; Poiyb. iv. 65. Astacus and Nasum, 

lb. At a distance from the sea were, Metropolis, Thyreum, 

P alar us, &c. 

The capital of Acarnania in later times, was LEUCAS, 
Liv. xxxiii. 17. built by a colony from Corinth, Thucydid. i. 30. 
on the isthmus which joined the peninsula of Leucadia to the 
main land, Id. hi. 94. iv. 8. This isthmus was dug through 
by the inhabitants, probably after the time of Thucydides, for 
he speaks of ships being carried over the isthmus, iii. 81. ; and 
thus Leucadia became an island, Liv. ib. called also LEUCAS, 
Ovid. Met. xv. 289 ; Flor. iv. 11. and anciently Neritis, as 
the town was Neritum, Plin. iv. 1. or Nencon, Homer. Od. a). 
376. joined to the continent by a bridge, Strab. x. 452. The 
artificial strait was called Dioryctos, i. e. perfossus, three stadia 
long, Ib. & Polyb. v. 5. 

On the south-west point of Leucadia was a high mountain, 
called Leucata vel -ates, now St, Maura; whence a white rock 
(Asujoj Trerga,) projected into the sea towards Cephalenia, 
which is thought to have given name both to the mountain 
and the island*, Strab. x. 452. j Serv. in Virg. JEn. viii. 677. 

near 

* Here was a temple of Apollo, whence annually, at a solemn sacrifice, to avert ths 
divine wrath, some criminal was thrown into the sea, with feathers of various kinds s 
and birds suspended from his body, to lighten his fall; to which Ovid alludes, ep. xv, 
179. If he escaped death he was banished from that country, Strab. x. 45a. The 
appearance of this temple is said by Virgil to have been formidable to mariners, JEn, 
iii. 275. because it was customary to sacrifice some one of them, Sew. in loc. or rather 
from the danger of sailing round the promontory, Ib. & Cic.Att. v. 9. 

From this rock was the famous lovers leap, which was supposed to cure those 
who took it, of their hopeless passion, {ro aX/act ro rous Ipuras nuvitv tfiirifsvptvov,) 
Strab. ib. whence several persons are said to have thrown rhemselves, Cic. Tusc. iv. 
18.; Ovid. ep. xv. 167. Among the rest, SAPPHO, the celebrated poetess of 
Lesbos, who being seized with a violent passion for Phaon, and being treated by 
him with disdain, threw herself from this precipice and was killed, Strab. x. 45a. 
Phaon is said to have been a ferryman, to whom Venus, on account of his atten- 
tion to her, gave a box of ointment, which rendered him the most beautiful 
of men ; so that all the women of Mitylene fell in love with him, which in the end 
proved fatal to himself, Mlian. xii. 18. Pliny ascribes his beauty to the effect of a 
certain herb, xxii. 8. s. 9. Ovid supposes Sappho to have been distressed during the 
absence of Phaon, who had gone to Sicily, from an apprehension of his neglect s 
and before she had recourse to the desperate cure of Leucate, to have written a letter 

to 



316 



Epirus. 



near which the battle of Actium was fought, Juvenal, viii. 
241. 

2. THESPROTIA vel *is ; the inhabitants Thesproti. 

Chief towns; AMBRACIA, which gave name to the gulf, 
situate near the mouth of the river Arethon or Arachthus. 
At some distance from the top of the gulf, the royal seat of 
Pyrrhus, Strab. vii. 325. Liv. xxxviii. 3. & 4. j Mel. ii. 3. 
built by a colony from Corinth, Thucydid. ii. 80. The inha- 
bitants were called Ambracienses or Ambraciot*. The gulf is 
thirty-nine miles long and fifteen miles broad ; at the entrance, 
only about half a mile broad, Pliti. iv. 1.5 Strabo says, little 
more than four stadia, vii. 324. Polybius makes the gulf 
three hundred stadia long, and one hundred stadia broad, iv. 63. 

It has good harbours all around, Strab. ib. Near Ambracia 

was a strong place called Ambracus, situate among marshes, 

Polyb.ib. North from the gulf stood Elatia, Liv. xxxii. 

24. or Elatria, Strab. ib. 

On the strait which separates Corcyra from the main land 
were, Posidium, Buthrotum v. -us, Portus Pelodis v. Peloeis, 
i,e. canosus, [a TYjXo;, canum vel lututn,) the promontory of 
Thyamis, called from a river of that name, near which Atticus, 
the friend of Cicero, had an estate (pradia), Cic. Att. vii. 2. 

South of it was Chimxrium, and Ephyra or Cichyrus, 

near the lake Acherusia, through which the river Acheron 
ran* into a bay called Portus, or Sinus Glycys (ykvxv;), from 
the sweetness of its water, Strab. ib. ; Thucydid. i. 47. ; Pausan. 
viii. 7. Into the Acheron, or near it, flows a stream of a 
very disagreeable flavour, named Cocytus, Pausan. i. 17. ; and 
not far distant is the lake Aornus or Avernus, which exhales 
pestilential vapours that infect the air, Id. ix. 30. Pausanias 

to him, ep. xv. Horace represents Sappho in the infernal regions as complaining 
of the girls of her country, oJ. ii. 13. 25. according te some, because Phaon showed 
a preference to them ; but more probably because they did not gratify, M 
she wished, her criminal passion for themselves, OviJ. Trist. ii. 365.; ep. xv. 15. 
&c. 

On nccount of this base passion, Sappho is supposed to be called Mascula, by 
Horace, *p. i. 19. 28. hut more probably for the manly vigour of her genius, which 
all the ancients admired, Strab. xiii. 617. The same epithet is applied to her by 
Ausonius, EJyll. vi. 24. because, as some think, she was the first woman that leapt 
from Leucates, iitrab. x. 45a. none but men having attempted it before, whence she 
is said laltus ingrcsja •viriles, Stat. Sylv. v. J, 154. To thai leap Virgil is thought to 
allude, Eel. viii. 59. Servius speaks of persons in hii lime, who used annually 
to engage for hire (<c auttorare) to throw themselves from this rock, ad. JEi*. in. 
a 79- 

* Quern ex MolouiJe jluentem in Si-i^na Lifirna *< cipit j'l ' . fretiui iiruj, Liv. v:ii. 
04. Some take Life ma Stagma here to be « proper name, put for Acherusia, from 
the vulgar opinion, that the river Acheron sunk Co the infernal regions, while it ran 
through that lake. 

think. 



Epirus. 



317 



thinks Homer took the names of his infernal lakes and rivers 

from those of Thesprotia, i. 1 7. — A little above the sea were 

Buchatiuniy Pandosia y and Batia. Strabo calls this the country 
of the Cassopxi, along the left or north-west of the Ambraeian 
gulf, vii. 324. 

3. MOLOSSIS, -idis, v. ujfrh the country of the Molossr, 

north-east from Thesprotia. The most remarkable town was 

Dodona, at the foot of mount Tomarus, Pirn. iv. 1. famous 
for the temple and oracle of Jupiter, the most ancient in Greece 3 
Herodot. ii. 52. placed by some in Thesprotia, Pausan. i, 17.; 
Strab. vii. 328. built by the Pelasgi, who are said to have called 
their gods by no other name than that of rulers of all things. 
They borrowed the names of their deities from the Egyptians # s 
Herodot, ib. 

The other places of note in Molossis were, Passaro, where 
the kings, upon their accession to the crown, used to swear that 
they would rule according to the laws ; and the people of 
Epire, in like manner, swore that they would defend the king- 
dom, Plutarch, in Pyrrho ; Tecmon, Phylace, Horreum, Liv. 
xlv. 26. 

* There was 3 grove of oaks near Dodona which were supposed to speak, and 
thus to declare the answers of Jupiter, Lucan. vi. 47,6.; Stat. Theb. iii. 475. ; Ovid, 
Amor.\\\. IO- 9. called qucrcus Pelas&x. Id. art. am.'\\. 541. hence habita Gratis 
tracula quercus, Virg. G. ii. 16. Pigeons also perching on these trees were said 
to utter oracles ; because, as it is thought, in the Thessalian tongue, Peleiades de- 
noted both female diviners and doves, Serv. in Virg. eel. ix. 13. as oaks were 
supposed to speak, because the priests of this oracle used to give their answers 
from the tops of these trees. Homer mentions only one oak, Od. xiv. 328.; so 
Pausanias, i. 17. Cicero, Att. ii. 4. and Herodotus, one prophetic dove, ii. 57, 
—-At first the answers of the oracle were given by men, but afterwards three 
©Id women were chosen for that purpose, Strab. vii. 329. Ambassadors from, 
Bceotia being provoked by an improper answer returned by one of these priestesses, 
threw hsr into the fire ; whereupon it was determined that men only for the future 
should pronounce the responses of the oracle to Boeotians, Strab. ix. 402. These 
oaks ceased to give responses, after the prophetic pigeons were driven away; whence 
they are called Silentes, Lucan. iii. 179. 

The celebrity of this temple was increased by two wonderful things which it con- 
tained. — 1. A cold fountain which extinguished burning torches when immersed in 
it, like other fountains, but kindled torches not burning when brought near it. It al- 
ways became dry at mid-day, and then gradually increasing, overflowed at mid-night, 
Plin. ii. 103. s. 103.; Mel. ii. 3. /. 71. It is called by Ovid AthamSnis, Met. xv. 
311. And — • 2. A brazen cauldron, which, from whatever cause, always sounded; 
as Pliny thinks, from the agitation of the wind,xxxvi. 13. s. 20.; so Strabo, Supplem. 
vii. 329. Servius on Virgil, JEn. iii. 466. says there were several vases of brass, 
which all sounded together if one was touched. In the time of Strabo, the oracle of 
Dodona, as well as others, had ceased, Ib. 327. The prophetic oak had long before 
been cut down, Serv. ib. This oracle was sometimes consulted by drawing lots, Of, 
Div. i. 34. ii. 32, 



4/CHA- 



S18 



Epirus. 



4. CHAONIA, the inhabitants CHAONBS. The chief 

towns along the coast were, OriCUM, Ortcos v. -us y situate in 
a plain, Liv. xxiv. 40. north of the mountains called CERAU- 
NII or Acroceraunii vel -ia, from their tops being struck with 
thunder, (xe&tvvo$ 9 ) surrounded with rocks, which projected in- 
to the sea, and were dangerous to mariners, Ca?s. b. civ. iii. 6. 
hence called tnfamesy Horat. od. i. 3. 20. From this was the 

shortest passage to Italy, Virg. JEn. iii. 507. North of On- 

cum was Pa!<este> where Csesar landed, when he crossed with 

his army in pursuit of Pompey, lb. & Lucan. v. 460. In 

the middle of the Cerauninn mountains was the harbour Pa- 
NORMUS, Strab. vii. 324. then ONCHESMUS, opposite to the 
west corner of Corcyra, lb. said to be named from Anchises, 
Diotiys. i. p. 41. whence a wind favourable to those who sailed 

for Italy was called Onchesmites, Cic. Att. vii. 2. South 

of this Cassiope, one thousand seven hundred stadia from Brun- 
dusium, and then Pa/acrum, at the same distance from Taren- 
tum, Strab. ib. 

The inland towns of Chaonia were, Antigonea, Polyb. ii. 5. ; 

Pha?nlce, Ib. &c. Chaonia is said to have been named from 

Cbaofi) the brother or companion of Helenus, the son of Priam, 
whom Helenus inadvertently killed in hunting*, Serv. in Virg. 
JEn. iii. 334. 

Strabo includes in Epire the AthamaneSy JEthices^ Tymphai, 
Or est £y Perrhabiy Parroraiy AtintaneSy Sec. vii. 3^26. some of 
whom others join to diiferent countries, Plin. iv. 2. ; Liv. 
xxxviii. 1. — 33, 34. Se veral of these nations lived near mount 
Pindus ; some of them extended as far north as the mountains 
of Illyricum, Strab. ib. 

Mount Pindus consists of several ridges, which run between 
Epire, Thessaly, and Macedonia. 

• Cbaonius, an adjective, often put by the poets for Epircticus ; thus, Ctttmim 
eolumta, the pigeons of DodSna, Virg. Ed.'ix- 13. Froudes Cbaonier, the oaks of 
Dodoiu, Sl.it. Tbeb. iii. 475. ; so Cbaonium nemus , Id. vi. 99. Pairis Cbaonii gta$utts t 
i. e. Jovit Virg. ii. 67. Victus Cbaonius, acorns, on which men were supposed 
to live beloic the invention of husbandry, Claudian. de rapt. Prcserp. 3. 47. the 
same with Cbaonia glans Virg. G. i. 8. Cbaonii J'amula Jovh, the stern of the ship 
Argo (tutcla Carina,) supposed to be made of an oak of Dodotia, (ex DodontJe 
gucrcu,) and therefore endued with the gift of prophecy, Val. Place. i. 303. [utpott 
fatidieis uvulsa silvit,) ib. 304. seep. 317. Apollodorus makes it the prow, i. 9. 
x6. 



HIES- 



Thessalia. 



$19 



THESSALIA. 

Thessaly, according to Herodotus, vii. 129. was every- 
where surrounded by mountains ; on the east, by Pelion and 
Ossa ; on the north, by Olympus ; on the west by Pindus s and 
on the south, by Othrys and Oeta. Herodot. vii. 129. ; Lucan. 
vi. 33. The plain between was called Thessalia^ watered by a 
number of rivers, the chief of which were, the Peneus, Apida- 
nus, Onochonus, Enlpeus, and Pamlsus ; all of them at last 
uniting in one stream, called the PENEUS, which runs by a 
narrow passage between Olympus and Ossa to the Sinus Ther- 
maicus, or the gulf of Salonichi. Thessaly is said anciently to 
have been covered with water, when there was no outlet for 
these rivers into the sea. The passage between Olympus and 
Ossa is supposed to have been opened by an earthquake j or, as 
the Thessalians alleged, by Neptune, lb. according to the 
poets, by Hercules, Lucan. v. 347. whence it is called Her- 
cules fauces, Id. viii. 1. 

Along the banks of the Peneus, between Ossa and Olym- 
pus, was a delightful vale, called TEMPE, Strab. ix. 
430. about five miles long, of different breadth in different 
places. * 

Into the Peneus, on the north, near Tempe, ran a river, is- 
suing from mount Titarus, contiguous to mount Olympus, call- 
ed Titaresus v. -sius or Eurotus, Strab. ix. 441. Pliny calls 
it Orcos, iv. 8. j". 15. the water of which being impregnated 
with oily particles, did not incorporate with the waters of the 
Peneus, but swam on the surface, lb. & Homer, ii. 754. 

* Pliny makes the breadth of Tempe, a sesquijugerum, or an acre and a half, 
i. e. one hundred and eighty feet broad, Plin. iv. 8. s. 15. ; iElian makes it only 
a plethrum, or one hundred feet wide, where narrowest, iii. 1. Modern tra- 
vellers inform us, that in some places it is above a quarter of a mile broad. It 
is described by Pliny and iElian, ib.\ also by Livy, who represents it only as a 
difficult defile, surrounded with dreadful precipices, xliv. 6. The poets celebrate 
it as one of the most delightful places in the world, Ovid. Met. i. 569. and call 
it Thessala Tempe, plur. Ib. vii. 222.; Horat. od. i. 7. 4. Pen'iia Tempe, 
Virg. G. iv. 317. to distinguish it from other pleasant spots of the same 
kind ; as, Heloria Tempe in Sicily, Ovid. Fast. iv. 477. see p. 263. Theume- 
sia Tempe, in Boeotia, Stat. Theb. i. 485. which seems to be the same with what 
Ovid calls Cycneia Tempe, Met. vii. 371. from a boy who threw himself from 
a rock, probably on mount Teumessus, and was metamorphosed into a swan, 
(cycnus,) Ib. 379. TEMPE (q. rs/xsnisa plur. contracte npvn, loca arbustis 
consita, JEolice nf/.Tfi,) is put for any agreeable place, particularly for a vale on 
the side of a river, shaded with trees and surrounded with rising grounds, 
hence frigida Tempe, Virg. G. ii, 469. Zephyris agitata Tempe, Horat. od. 
Ii. 1. 24^ 

whence 



Tlicssalia. 



whence it was supposed by the poets to flow from the Stygian 
lake, and therefore to Terrain uncontaminated # , Lucan. vi. 

37 8 - . 

Thessaly, in later times, was divided into five parts, Phthiotis, 
Pelasgibtis, Thessaiiciis, or Thcssalia Propria, Estiaotis, and 
Magnesia, the limits of which are uncertain, f 

North of Thermopylae, at the foot of mount Oeta, stood 
Heraclea, Liv. xxxvi. 22. named from Hercules, who is said 
to have thrown himself into a burning pile on the top of mount 
Octa, near this place, six stadia from the ancient city Trachin 
or Trachis, by which name Heraclea was also called •, built by 
the Spartans, Strab. ix. 428. *, Thucydid. iii. 92. a place of great 
strength, taken from the ^Etolians by Acilius the Roman con- 
sul, after a vigorous defence, Liv. ib. 24. situate near the river 
Ashpits, and the sinus Maliacus, lb. into which the Asopus, 
after being joined by the Phoenix, runs, fifteen stadia from 

Thermopylae, Strab. ix. 428. ; Lucan, vi. 374. At a small 

distance is the river Me/as and Dyras ; which last is said to 
have tried to extinguish the funeral pile of Hercules, Strab. ib. 
& Herodot. vii. 198. 

The chief river in the south of Thessaly is the SperchIus 
V. -eus, which runs into the top of the Maliac gulf. Near 
its mouth was A?iticirrha or Anticyra, Ib. and thirty stadia 
north of it, LAMIA, Strab* ix. 433. ; Liv. xxxix. 23. west 
from which, on the Sperchius, was Hypata, Liv. xxxvi. 14. & 

26. North of it, Thaumftci, Melitaa, and Ccronaa. 

East from Lamia, was Larissa, called Cremaste, i. e.pensi/is, from 
its sloping situation, to distinguish it from Larissa on the Pe- 
neus, Liv. xxxi. 46. twenty stadia from the sea, Strab. ix. 435. 
the city of Achilles, therefore said to have been olim pctt-ns, 

* Eluvii contagia 'vilis nolle pat: superumque sibi seri al e timorem , i . e. Di cujus jurarr 
timi/it et fallere nume/i, hy which the gods were afraid to sweaf and violate their oath, 
Virg. JEn. vi. 324. 

* Strabo reckons only the four first divisions. Pbtblotis included the parts on the 
south, and Eitiadtis on the west. Homer, who often mentions Thessaly, divides 
it into ten parts or dynasties, Strab. ix. 430. Estiar'iis was anciently called Doris. 
Its name was changed hy the Perrbiebi, who having destroyed Etti^a in Eubaa, 
transplanted the inhabitants into this part cf Thessaly, which they h ul seized on, 
Ib. 437. Phthiotis w.is named from its capital PHTHIA, Virg. JEn. I. 284. the 
city of Achilles, whence he is called Pbtbius Acbillcs % Horar. od. iv. 6. 

Thessaly is often called hy the poets EMATHIA, Virg. G. I 492. iv. 390. and 
iEMONIA or HJEMONIA, from two of its Icings, whence JEmoniut and Eraatbius 
Thessalian, Ovid. Met. v. 306. & 313. It was called Tbessalia from Tbessalus, the 
sen ot iEmon, Strab. ix. 443. So from Kin^ Grmcus, GR./EC1A was named ; 
and from Hellen, the inhabitants H*Uena t whom Homer also, calls Myimidlnes and 
A'b*i, PUn. iv. 7. s. 14. 

Lucan. 



Tkessalia. 



321 



Lucan. vi. 355. whence that hero is called Larissjeus, Virg, JEn> 
ii. 179 xi. 404. in the vicinity of Phthia, Serv. ib. Most of 
these places were possessed by the Melienses (MvjAjek, divided 
into three tribes, the Pataiii, Hierenses, and Trachimi, Thu- 
cydid. iii. 92. ), who gave name to the Meliac or Maliac gulf, 

which vas also called Sinus Lamiacus y Pausan. i. 4. On the 

Sinus Pegasaus or Pegasicus, which flows up into the land op- 
posite to the north of Eubcea, stood Pagas^e, which gave name 
to the gulf * ; the port of PHERiE, the capital of the tyrant 
Alexander, whom Pelopidas conquered, but after the victory 
he died of his wounds, Diodor. xv. 80. •, Nep. Pel. 5. 

Twenty stadia from Pagasa, and seven stadia from the sea, 
stood IOLCOS, the city of Pelias and jason and not far from it 
Aphet^:, whence the Argonauts set sail, Strab. ib. & Herodot. 
vii. 193. and where afterwards the fleet of Xerxes was stationed, 
while that of the Greeks was within sight, at Artemisium 

in Eubcea, lb. & 173. Near Iolcos was DEMETRIAS, 

built by Demetrias Poliorcetes, which became the most con- 
siderable city in that country, Strab. ib. and by the advantages 
of its situation, attracted such a number of people that the 
neighbouring towns were thinned of inhabitants, Strab. ib. ; 

Liv. xxxix. 23. About ten miles north of this is the lake 

Bebeisy near Pher<£> at tjie foot of mount PELION. This 
mountain ran from south to north, between the Pagassean and 
Thermaic gulfs, through the country called MAGNESIA, 
the inhabitants Magnetes-f ; the most eastern point of it formed 
the promontory SEPIAS, where a number of the ships of 
Xerxes, while at anchor, were destroyed by a storm, Herodot. 

vii. x 88. ; Strab. ix. 443. North of this was MELIBCE A, 

Ib. & Liv. 44. 13. the city of Philoctetes, Lucan. vi. 354. noted 
for the manufacture of purple, Virg. JEn. v. 251.*, Lueret. 
ii. 499. But some apply this to the island Meliboea at the 

mouth of the Orontes in Syria. In the Pagassean gulf was 

the town and island Cicynethus ; and east from Magnesia are 
several small islands, called Sciathus, Peparethus^ Icus, Halonesus % 

* Pagasa is said to be named from the ship Argo having been built xhexe ) Propert. 
s. »O.I7.; Strab. ix. 436. whence Pagasaa ratis, i.e. Argo, Lucan. ii. 715. or 
rather from its numerous fountains {a-xo ruv wytuv), Strab. ib. In these parts was 
the fountain Lebethra, sacred to the muses, whence they are called Lebethrides, 
Virg Eel. vii. 21. 

f Sing. Magnes, -etis ; fern. Magnessa ; whence Maghessa Hippolyte, the wife 
of Acastus, king ol Magnesia, who fell in love with Peleus, the father of Achilles ; 
so called to distinguish her from Hippolyta t the Amazon, the wife of Theseus, Horat. 
<gd. iii. 7 18, Magnetis Argo, the ship of Jason, Ovid, ep, xii. 9. genit. Magnet z- 
des Argus. 

Y and 



322 



Thessalia. 



and SCYROS, the seat of Lycomedes, with whom Achillei 

lived in disguise when he was discovered by Ulysses, Strab. ix. 

43 6 - 

At the foot of mount Othrys, the abode of the Centaurs, 
Virg. JEn. vii. 675. and LapTth;e, Plin. iv. 8. s. 15. stood 
Alos or Halos, washed by the river Amphrysus, which ran 
through the Crocian plain into the west side of the Pagasxan 
gulf, Strab. ix. 435. Along this river Apollo used to feed 
the flock of Admetus *, whence he is called Pastor ab Aphryso, 
the Amphrysian shepherd, Virg, G. iii. 2. Near its mouth 
was THEBiE, Phthia or Phthioticte, Liv. xxviii. 7. xxxix. 25. 
an hundred stadia from Alos, Strab. ix. 433. to which Lucan 
ascribes the fabulous events which are said to have happened 

at Thebes in Bceotia, vi. 356. South of it was Phylace, 

the city of Protesilaus, who was the first of the Greeks that 
landed on the Trojan coast, and was slain, lb. 352.; Strab. 
ix. 433. At no great distance from Phylace were Pteleum 
v. -eos, and Antron, lb. also Dorion. f 

The chief towns on the Peneus, were, Gonnus, Liv. xlii. 
54. or Gonni, in the very entrance to the defile of Tempe, 
Liv, xxxvi. 10. j above it, Gyrton and Phalanna, Liv. xxxvi. 
10. ; xlii. 54. About twenty miles above Gonni stood LA- 
RISS A, the chief city in those parts, lb. ^ 3 1 . 46. Ten miles 
above it, ATRAX, Liv. xxxii. 15. Towards the springs of 
the Peneus, and near the foot of mount Pindus, whence that 
river flows, stood GOMPHI, the frontier town of Thessaly, 
on the side of Epirus, Cas. civ. b. iii. 80. which Csesar took 
and plundered, bell. civ. iii. 80. East from it were Itheme, 
Tricea, Metropolis, and Perinna, Strab. ix. 437. 

Adjoining to Larissa was a plain of surprizing fertility, (La- 
rissa campus opinue,) Horat. od. i. 7. 11. except in the low- 
grounds near the Jake Nesonis, Strab. ix. 440. This plain 
was called Campus Pelasgiotis, from the Pelasgi who in- 
habited it, lb. 443. extending one hundred and sixty stadia to 
Pbera, Pclion, and Ossa, lb. 436. 

South from Larissa was Pharsalus, on the river Enipeus, 
which joined the Apidanus, Lucan. vi. 273. •, Strab. ix. 432. 
where Cxsar defeated Pompey in a memorable battle in the 

* — ■ Flumtne puro 

Irrigat Ampbrytos fumulantis pascua Flitbi. Lucan. vi. 367. 
f Here THAMYRIS, v. -us y {*f>*r<>( iffaunt \fSu appmv*,) a famous musician, 
is said to have challenged the muses, and being defeated by them, to have been 
deprived of his eight and musical powers, ApolloJcr. iii. 3. 3.; Homer. It. iL 594. 
v. 599.; DioJur. iii. 66. ; Ovid. Am. iii. 7. 6l. ; Art. Am. iii. 399. ; Lutam. v. 35a.; 
h A Pausanias says this happened at Daurium in Mcssen'u, iv. 33. 

plaint 



Tkessalia. 



323 



plains of Pharsalia. Pompey fled to Larissa, Cas. bell. civ. 
iii. 96. 

Pharsalia is sometimes confounded by the poets with Philippi, 
a city on the confines of Thrace, where Antony and Augustus 
defeated Brutus and Cassius, Ovid. Met. xv. 823. ; Virg. G. i. 
489.5 Lucan. i. 680. 694. vi. 582. vii. 591. 872. ix. 271. 
Juvenal, viii. 242. 

North of Pharsalus was SCOTUSSA, Liv. xxxvi. 14. near 
which were rising grounds called Cynoscephala, (xuvoj xeOaXa^ 
i. e. canis capita,) Liv. xxxiii. .6. & 7. where Philip, king of 
Macedonia, was defeated by Quinctius Flaminius, the Roman 
consul, lb. 10. ; Strab. ix. 441. 

There were many other places in Thessaly which are men- 
tioned by Livy, Strabo, Pliny, &c. Cranon, Oloosson, Phastum, 
Phaleria, Cyretia?, Limnaia, JEginium, Ericinum, Si/ana, Phary~ 
cadon, Cypara, Phacium ; Azorum, Pythium, and Doliche, which 
last three towns were called Tripolis, Liv. xlii. 53. Erineum, 
Coronea, Eretria, Proerna, Alon> Nelia, Ormenium, Casthan<za 9 
Glaphyra> Sycurium, &c. 

Towards the confines of Macedonia was mount Pierus, sa- 
cred to the muses, Plin. iv. 8. s. 15. whence they are called 
PIERIDES *, Virg. Ed. iii. 85. vi. 13. viii. 63. ix. 33. x.72, 
and Chorus Pierius, Lucan. ad. Pis. 232. 5 Martial, i. 77. 3* 
or Grex Pierius, Id. ix. 88. 3. 

The women of Thessaly were remarkable for their skill in 
magic or sorcery. By their charms or spells, that is by repeat- 
ing a set form of words, and by the use of certain herbs, they 
pretended to perform the most incredible things f , to excite or 
appease tempests, to recall the dead to life, or precipitate the 
living to the tomb 5 even to arrest the sun in his course, and 

* Cicero says the muses were called Piendes, because they were the daughters of 
Pierus v. -ius, and Anticpa, Nat. D. iii. 21. ; so Ovid. Met. v. 302.; sing. Pieris s 
voc. Pieri, Horat. od. iv. 3. 1 8. Pieridum sacris imponere manum^ to apply to 
poetry, Ovid. Trist. iv. I. 2%. Pieridum studio teneri, Id. Pont. ii. 5. 63. Pieridum 
lumen, prasidiumque forty a distinguished poet and advocate, Ib.iv. 1 6. 42. Studiis 
Pieriis pollere, Claudian. consul. Prob. et Olyb. IJO. Gratia regum Pieriis tentata 
modis, the favour of kings sought or courted by poetry or verses, Horat. art. p. 404. 
The muses are said to refresh Augustus in a cave on mount Pierus, because that 
emperor, when he had leisure, used to amuse himself with reading poetry, and some 
times composing verses, Horat od. iii. 4. 40.; Suet. Aug. 84, 85. & 89.; Suet. 
Tiber. 21. Calabra Pierldes, the poems of Ennius, who was born at Rudia; in Ca- 
labria, Horat. od. iv. 8. 20. Novi Pieridum fores, poems newly composed, Stat. 
Silv. iii. 1. 67. Pieria pellex, a girl, either born in Pieria, a part of Macedonia 
on the confines of Thessaly, near mount Pierus, or skilled in music and poetry, 
lb. iii. 10. 15. Dies Pier.ii, time spent in retirement and study, Stat. Sito- i- 3« 
23. ; so Pierii recessus, Martial, vii. 62. 3. 

f Hamontdum, (i. e. Thessalarum sagarum,) quicquid tton creditur ars ttt, 
Lucan, vi. 436, 

Y 2 to 



Thcssalia. 



to draw the moon down to the earth *, Laert. viii. 59. ; Plin. 

xxx. i. Virg. Eel. viii. 69. ; Horat. ep. od. xvii. 78. ; Ovid, ep. 
vi. S5, &c. ; Lucan. vi. 435. — ad Jin. 

The plains of Thessaly were very favourable for breeding 
horses; hence the Thessalian cavalry were always distinguished, 
Liv. ix. 19. xlii. 59. During the wars of the Romans with 
Philip, and his son Perseus, kings of Macedonia, and also with 
Antiochus king of Syria, Thessaly was dreadfully ravaged, Liv. 

xxxi. &c. So afterwards in the civil war between C?esar and 
Pompey, Cas. b. civ. iii. ; Lucan. vii. 847. 



MACEDONIA. 

The limits of Macedonia were different at different times. 
It was divided into four parts by Paulus ./Emilius, who made 
it to extend from the mouth of thePeneus to the iiver Nessus, 
or Nestus in Thrace ; including on the east the countries bor- 
dering on the Egean sea, and surrounding the Thermaic, To- 
ronxan, Singitic, and Strymonic gulfs. But the boundaries 
on the other sides are not ascertained, Liv. xlv. 29. & 30. 

The chief rivers which run into the Thermaic gulf are, 
the EfiipettSy Aliacmon, which Cresar makes the boundary from 
Thessaly, de. bell. civ. iii. 36. Li/dias, Axius, and Chidorus or 
EchedoruSy which last is said not to have been sufficient to sup- 
ply the army of Xerxes with water, Hercdot. vii. 127. 

The country from the mouth of the Peneus to the Ludias 
was called PIERI A ; according to Strabo, it extended from 

the Haliacmon to the Axius, vii. 330. The towns along 

the sea-coast were Heraeleum v. -ea, Phila, near the river Eni- 
peus or Apilas, which flows from a valley of Mount Olympus, 
and five miles north of it, DIUM, Liv. xliv. 2. & 8. ; Plin. 
iv. 10. s. 17. 

North of the river Haliacmon stood PYDNA, near which 
Paulus ./Emilius defeated Perseus, Liv. xliv. 42. ; Veil. i. 9. and 

• Hence Tbessala vencna, magic herbs or drugs, Horat. od. i. 27. IX. fox 
Tbessala, for voces, charms or incantations, Id. Epod. v. 45.; Ep. i. 1. 34. Portent* 
Tbessala, magic wonders, Id. art. p. 209. Mulier Tbessala, a sorceress; and simply 
Tbessala or Tbesslilis, -)dis, Lucan. vi. 451. 565. 605. 762. Carmen Tbessalidum, the 
form of words they used, lb. 4J2.; so Sabella carmina et Mars a ruenia, the charms 
used by the Sabine and Marsic women, who were the most remarkable for sorcery in 
Italy, Horat. epod. xvii. 28. 

In performing their majic rites they sometimes were guilty of horrid crimes, putting 
to death children with the greatest cruelty, See. Lucan. vi. 507. 556. &c. Horat. 
epod. v, 

where 



Macedonia. 



where Cassander confined Olympias } the motherof Alexander 
the Great, and afterward- put her to death, Diodor. xix. 49. ; 

Justin, xiv. 6. North of this was Methone, at the siege of 

which Philip lost his right eye *, Diodor, xvi. 34. and Alorus. 

The country north of Pieria, and along the Axius, was called 
P^EONIA or EMATHIA, Liv. xl. 3. xlv. 29.-, Justin. 

vii. 1. Its chief towns were PELL A, the birth-place of 

Philip, who greatly enlarged it, Strab. vii. 330. xvi. 752. and 
of Alexander, MeL ii. 3. hence he is called Pell&us ptvenis % 
Juvenal, x. 168. situate on the river Ludias or Lydias, which 
is navigable in this place, one hundred and twenty stadia from 
the sea, Strab. fragm. vii. 330. a town of great strength, de- 
scribed by Livy, xliv. 46. The country round it is called by 
Herodotus Bottijeis, -idis s vii. 123. ' Pella continued to be 
the capital of the kingdom, till it fell under the Romans, 
Liv. xxxvii. 7. xlii. 51. The residence of the kings before 
Philip, and afterwards their burying-place, Plin. iv. 10.; 
Diodor. xix. 52. was EDESSA, called also JEge, JEg^, or 
j£ge<2, from a flock of goats, by following which, Caranus > 
the first king of Macedonia, was led to take possession of the 

place, Justin, vii. 1. It lay west of Pella. South of Edessa 

stood BERiEA, at the foot of mount Bermius, Strab. ib. 

mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles^ xvii. South of it 

Cyrrkus, the people called CyrrSeste 3 and the country Cyr- 
rhestis. Near this, Idotriem and Goriynia^ or Gordyiia, Thu- 
cydid. ii. 100. f 

That part of Pseonia which lies above the conflux of the 
rivers Axius and Erigon, or Erigonus, was called Deuriopus, 
Liv. xxxix. 53. extending to mount Bora. 

Near the mouth of the Axius and Chidorus stood THER- 
MA, which gave name to the Thermaan or Thermaic gulf, 
[Sinus TherhumSy Thermaicus vel Macedoniais,) afterwards 
called THESSALONICA, by Cassander, in honour of his 
wife Thessalonica, the daughter of Philip, and greatly increased 
by Cassander, Strab. vii. 330, & 323. now SALONTCHI, 
the chief town in that country \ the place of Cicero's residence 

* During the siege one ASTER, a dexterous archer, came to offer Philip his 
service, and as a proof of his skill, told the king that he could hit a bird in its most 
rapid Sight. Then says Philip, / -will employ you ichen I make -war on the birds. 
Aster, provoked at this answer, joined the townsmen ; and having one day 
the king from the walls, shtft an arrow at him with this inscription, To the right 
eye of Philip. The king ordered the arrow to be returned, with this inscription, Philip 
will bang Aster when hi takes the to-.cn; and was as zood as his word, L~:ian. rU 
nwcrtf. Histor. c. 58.; Justin, vii. 6. 

r t On the Axius stood Amy den, which sent auxiliaries to the Trojans, Homer. II. ii, 
S49. mentioned by Juvenal, hi, 69, 

Y 3 while 



326 



Macedonia. 



while in banishment, Cic. Plane. 41. To the Christians of 
this city the Apostle Paul wrote his two epistles inscribed to 

the Thessalonians. The country around the mouth of the 

Axius is called Amphaxitis, -idis> Polyb. v. 97. That north 
of this river, Mygdonia *, Plin. iv. 10. to which Thucydides 
joins Grcstonia and Anthetnus, ii. 99. & 100. \ so Herodotus, 
vii. 124. 

The chief towns on the north-east side of the Thermaic 
gulf were Ainea, said to have been built by -^Eneas, Liv. 
xl. 4. fifteen miles from Thessalonica, Id. xliv. 10. Herodotus 
mentions Simila y Campsa, Gigonus, Lisa, Combrea, Lipaxus, 
vii. 123. The chief towns in later times were ANTIGONEA, 
Liv. xliv. 10. and POTIDiEA, afterwards called Cassandria, 
Ib. 11.; Plin. ii. 58. iv. 10. founded by a colony from Corinth, 
Thucyd. i. 56. This town having revolted from the Athenians 
on account of ill treatment, and being besieged by them, gave 
the first ostensible reason for the beginning of the Peloponnesian 
war f , Ib. 66. &c. 

The country between the Thermaic or Macedonian and To- 
ronaic gulfs was called PALLENE, (ager Pallenensis, Liv. xliv. 
11.) from a town of the same name, Plin. ib. anciently PHLE- 
GRA, Herodot. vii. 23. supposed to be the country of the giants, 
Strab. vii. 330. where they fought with the gods, Propert. iii. 
9. 47. 

On the top of the Toronjean gulf stood OLYNTHUS, 
the largest city in that part of the country, Diodor. xvi. 53. 
opposite to Potidsea, only sixty stadia distant, and visible from 
it, Thucyd. i. 63. The isthmus between them used sometimes 
to be fortified with a wall, lb. 64. Olynthus was long either 
subject to Athens or in alliance with it. Being taken through 
treachery by Philip ; whence he is called callidus emptor Olyn- 
THI, Juvenal, xii. 47. ; it was destroyed, and the inhabitants 
reduced to servitude, Diodor. xvi. 63. ; Justin, viii. 3. ; Strab. ii. 
121. This gave occasion to the fatal war between the Athe- 
nian? and that prince, Ib. 

At some distance from Olynthus stood Torone, which gave 
name to the gulf. This town was called Torone ChalcidTce, 

* The MygdSnes ru-e said to have emigrated from Macedonia and Thrace to Phrygia, 
or a country adjoining to it in Asia Minor, Strut/, vii. 295. x. 575. xii. 564. whence 
MygJon'ttM ofes % the wealth of Phryc'ta or of Mygdonia, a part of Phrygia, Hordt. 
od. ii. 12. 22. So MygJonii cam/>i y the plains of Phrygia, Id. iii. 16. 41. 
Mygdonium marmor, Ovid. ep. xv. 1 42. From the !>ame people, that part of Meso- 
potamia where Nulh'u stood was called Mydonia, Strab. xi. 517. xvi. 747. 

■f It held out above two years, and did not submit till reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremity ; some even fed on human flesh, TLu.yJid. ii. 70. 

Thucyd. 



Macedonia* 



827 



Thucyd. iv. no. because the country around was so named, 
lb. 109. from CHALCIS, an inland town near Olynthus. 
Herodotus calls this country Sithonia, vii. 122. 

The SINGITIC gulf was named from Singus, a town on 
the top of it. Between the Singitic and Strymonic gulfs is 
mount ATHOS, or Athon, which projects into the sea from 
the plain seventy-five miles \ its circumference is one hundred 
and fifty miles. There were on it several towns ; one on its 
top called Acrothoon, v. -own, v. -oos, or Ouranopolis, i. e. the city 
of heaven, from the salubrity of its air : the other towns were 
Dium, Olophyxus, Thysus, Palaorium, Cledna, and Appollonia^ 
the inhabitants of which were called Macrobii, from their lon- 
gevity, Mel. ii. 2. which explains the saying of Plato, p. 294. 
The two gulfs approach each other so near towards the west 
side of mount Athos, or towards the continent, that they leave 
an isthmus only of a mile and a half, or twelve stadia over. 
Through this Xerxes dug a navigable ditch or canal, so broad 
and deep that two ships could pass one another, Herodot. vii. 
21, 22, 23. & 121. \ P/in. iv. io. ; hence Athos is said to have 
been sailed over, velificatus Athos, Juvenal, x. 174. The canal 
began near Acanthus *, on the Strymonic or Pierean gulf, 
where Xerxes pitched his standing camp, Herodot. vii. 117. and 
ended at Sane on the Singitic gulf, Thucydid. iv. 109. The 
pretext of Xerxes for this work was, to avoid the danger of 
sailing round mount Athos with his fleet, where three hundred 
Persian ships had formerly been wrecked in a storm, and near 
twenty thousand men perished, Herodot. vi. 44. but the true 
reason was, the vanity of leaving a monument of his power, 
Id. vii. 24. 

Between Acanthus and the mouth of the Strymon stood 
Stagira, the native place of Aristotle, whence he is called the 
Stagirite. Both these cities were founded by colonies from the 
island Andros, Thucyd. iv. 84. & 88. 

On the Strymon, near the place where it divides into two 
branches, stood AMPHIPOLIS, built by a colony of Athenians, 
Thucydid. iv. 102. called anciently Novem via (Evvsa d&oi), Id. 
I. loo. ; Herodot. vii. 114. 

The country above this, on both sides of the Strymon, was 
called Bisaltica, Thuc. iv. 109. or Bisaltia, Herodot. vii. 115. 
the people Bisalm, Virg. G. iii. 461.5 Liv. xlv. 30. A 
small port south of the Strymon was called Heraclea Sintica, 
lb. 29. \ Cas. b. civ. iii. 79. and the country around Sintiqe., 
Liv. xliv. 46. 



* Strabo places Acanthus on the Singitic gulf, vii. fin. contrary to the express 
assertion of Herodotus, vi. 44. 

Y 4 The 



Macedonia. 



The country between the Strymon and Nessus used anciently 
to be considered as a part of Thrace, but was by Philip annexed 
to Macedonia. It was called Edonica, or Edonis, -idis, and 
the inhabitants Edones, orEDONi*, Herodot. vii. 1 1 4. ^ Thucyd. 

i. 100. ii. 99. iv. 102. & 109. 

About thirty miles north-east from Amphipolis stood Nea- 
polis, and above it PHILIPPI, Acts, xv. 11, 12. built by Philip 
king of Macedon, as a defence against the Tliracians, Appian. 
bell. civ. iv. 650. near Symbolum, where mount Pang&us joins 
mount Hsemus, Dio. xlvii. 35. In the adjoining plain Brutus 
and Cassius were defeated by Antony and Augustus, f 

Philippi is sometimes confounded by the poets with Pharsalia, 
Virg. G. i. 490. Juvenal, viii. 242. see p. 323. 

The western or inland part of Macedonia, called Macedonia 

* The Edcnes are often put for the Thracians in general, who, it seems, were 
fond of drinking to excess; hence Non ego sanius bacchabor Edonis, Horat. od. 

ii. 7. 27. Matres Edoiudes, 'I hracian matrons, i. e. bacchanals, Ovid. Met. xi. 69. 
sing. Edlnis, a bacchanal, Propert. i. 3. 5. Lucan shortens it, i. 675. so Silius 
Italicus, iv. 778. — Eddnus vel. -tut Boreas, the north wind blowing lrom Thrace 
over the Egean sea, Virg. JEn. xii. 365. Eddna hiemes, cold winters, as those in 
Thrace commonly are, Stat. Tkeb. v. 78. Eddnus Bacchus, worshipped in Thrace, 
Ovid. Rem. Am. 593. 

f In this battle Brutus, who was opposed to Augustus, gained the victory, and took 
the camp of Augustus. But Antony on his part was victorious, and took the camp of 
Cassius. Cassius, having retreated to some rising grounds adjoining, sent a centurion 
to inquire what Brutus was doing, for the dust intercepted his view. This centumn 
fell in with a body of cavalry, whom Brutus had sent in quest of Cassius, and returned 
slowly with them, as if there was no danger. Cassius seeing these cavalry approach, 
and taking them for the enemy, ordered Pindarus, his freedman, to kill him. The 
centurion, seeing the consequences of his delay, also slew himself. 

Brutus, who now became commander of both armies, wished to decline battle : 
and if he had done so, Augustus and Antony must have yielded, as they were in 
want of provisions and of every thing. But fearing the desertion of his men, 
whom Antony and Augustus used every method to seduce, he was led to risk a 
general engagement; in which, after an obstinate contest, he was completely de- 
feated. Hearing that a number of his troops had joined the conquerors, and seeing 
no hopes of safety, he fell on his sword, which one of his friends presented to him, 
repeating this saying of Hercules : " Virtue ! thou art an empty name ! I hat e 
* worshipped thee as a goddess, but thou art the slave cf fortune." Liv. epit. 1 24. ; 
Dio. xlvi. 42. — ad. fin.; Veil. ii. 70.; Flor. iv. 7. To this saying Horace alludes, 
tp. E. 6. 32. fc IO. 41. 

It is remarkable that. Brutus and Cassius fell by the swords with which they 
slew Caesar, Dio. xlviii. [. Most of the other conspirators likewise perished by a 
violent death, lb. 8t Suet. Cees. 89.; yell. ii. 88. A great many of them, and 
also of the principal nobility, after this defeat, laid violent hands on themselves ; 
or being taken, perished by the cruelty of Augustus and Antony, Dio. xlvii. 49.; 
Eutrop. vii. 2. 

This battle, as Dio Cassius observes, was the mo^t important of all that were 
fought during the civil wars, as it determined the fate of Roman liberty. Hence- 
forth the contest was not for freedom, but what master the Romans should serve, 
Dio. xlvii. 39. The army being now mostly composed of mercenaries, sided with 
that party which they thought would pay them be t , hence Lucan says. Nulla 
fides pictasqwc niris, qui eastra sequuntur, Venalciquc manus ; ibi fas, ubi maxima 
vcrcesy X. 407. 

Superior, 



Macedonia, 



329 



Superior, was possessed by various tribes ; the Lynceste, Heli- 
vniote, Eordi vel Eordai, Sec. Thucyd. ii. 99. ; Strab. vii. 326. 
This part of the country was cold, rough, and mountainous, 
Liv. xlv. 30. One of these ridges was called Candavia, Cic* 
Att. iii. 7. ; Cas. b. civ. iii. 79.; Senec. ep. 31. seventy-eight 
miles from Dyrrachium, Plin. iii, 23. Strabo makes Candavia 
a mountain of Illyricum, vii. 327 

The country north of the Ceraunian mountains in Epire, 
along the bottom of the Hadriatic sea to Lissus, on the river 
Drilo or Drinus vel Drinius, was anciently reckoned a part of 
Illyricum, Strab. vii. 316. but was afterwards included in Mace- 
donia, Dio. xli. 49. As it was mostly possessed by Greek 
colonies, it was called Illyris Gr^ca. The barbarian inha- 
bitants, as they were called, were the Taulantiz, Bulliones, Par- 
ihini, Dassarete, Sec. Strab. vii. 326. ; Plin. iii. 22. & 23. 
Thucyd. i. 24.; Mel. ii. 3. This country is now called Albania. 

The chief towns were, APOLLONIA, built by the Corin- 
thians and Corcyraeans, ten stadia north of the river Aous or 
Aeas or AS as, and sixty stadia from the sea, Strab. vii. 316. ; 
Plin. iii. 23. regulated by good laws, lb. & Cic. Phil. xi. 1. 5 a 
city in which learning was much cultivated; whither Augustus 
was sent to study by Julius Caesar, his grand-uncle, when the 
latter was about to set out on an expedition against the Par- 
thians. Veil. ii. 59. ; Suet. Aug. 8. and where he was when he 

heard of Caesar's death, lb. The inhabitants were called 

Apvlloniata. vel -ates ; the country, ager Apollinas, Liv. xlii. 36. 

Near Apollonia was a rock, called Nymphaum, which 

emitted flames, and below it, springs which sent forth hot 
bitumen, Strab. vii. 316.; AElian. xiii. 16. ; Plutarch, in SylL 
p. 468.; Plin. ii. 106. where was an oracle, Dio. xli. 45. Near 
this Caesar first landed with his army in Greece, Cas. bell. civ. 
iii. 26. j Lucan. v. 720. 

North from Apollonia was the river APSUS, where Caesar, 
having got possession of Oncum and Apollonia, pitched his 
camp, Cas. civ. b. iii. 12. & 13. " Over against him was the 
camp of Pompey, at a place called Asparagium, lb. 30. & 76. 
where Lucan says these two commanders first were encamped 
in sight of each other, v. 461. 

At a considerable distance north from Apollonia was DYR- 
RACHIUM, now Durazzo, the common landing place from 
Brundusium, hence termed Hadria taberna, Catull. 34. 15. 
founded by a colony from Corinth, Thucyd. i. 24. almost sur- 
rounded by the sea, Strab. ib. formerly called Epidamnus, 
Thucyd. ib. which name the Romans changed, as they thought 
it ominous, Plin. & Dio. ib. 3 Mell. ii. 3. Here all strangers 

12 who 



330 



Macedonia, 



who chose it were permitted to reside ; the contrary of which 
was the case at Apollonia, ^Slian. xiii. 1 6. This place is 
celebrated for the warlike operations of Pompey and Caesar. 

A little south of Dyrrachium is a small river called Panya- 
sus, near the mouth of which, at a place called Petra, Pom- 
pey being excluded by Csesar from Dyrrachium, pitched his 
camp, Cas. b. civ. iii. 42. Caesar, unable to force Pompey to 
an engagement, drew a kind of circumvallation around him ; 
which he effected by building forts on the rocky hills, of which 
there is a great number in that neighbourhood, and drawing a 
rampart and ditch through the intervening vallies for the space 
of fifteen miles ; thus shutting up an army much more nume- 
rous than his own *, lb. 43. & 44. 



Islands of Greece. 

In the Ionian sea is CORCYRA, separated by a narrow 
strait from Thesprotia, a part of EpIrus, ninety-seven miles 
long, called by Homer Scheria and Phaacia, Plin. iv. 12. s. 19. 
TibulL i. 3. 3. or the land of the Phaeacians, (4>ai>jxcov ya*a,) 
Odyss. v. 34. containing a city also called Corcyra, Lucan ii. 
623. termed by Homer the city of the Phaacians, lb. vi. 3. the 
seat of Alcinous, lb. vii. possessed by a colony from Corinth f, 
Thucyd. i. 25. 

Here were the famous gardens of Alcinous^ Homer. Odyss. 
vii. 117. &c. Virg. G. ii. 87. ; Plin. xix. 4. s. 19. ; Ovid. dm. 
1. 10. 56. ; Pont. iv. 2. 10. and his orchards bearing fruit twice 
a year, {bifera pomaria,) Stat. Sylv. i. 3. 81. or all the year over, 
Juvenal, v. 15 1, called Phaaca sitva, Propert. iii. 2. 13. 

There was another town in the north end of the island, called 

* Here mnny fierce combats took place, in which Pompey on the whole, had 
greatly the advantage. He, however, always avoided a general action, according to 
the advice of Cicero, Ut bellum duceret, Fam. vii. 3. Whereupon Cxsar was obliged 
to evacuate his forts and withdraw his forces, Cas. B. Chi. 45. — 74. Having 
crossed the Genusus, he retired to his former camp on the Apsus, opposite to Aspa- 
ragium ; whither Pompey followed him, and, in like manner, took possession of 
his former station, lb. 76. Caesar then transferred the seat of war into Thessaly, 
where Pompey, by the importunity of his officers, was prevailed on, against his own 
opinion, to drop his former prudent measures of defence, and to risk a general engage- 
ment in the plains of Prursalu, which proved fatal to himself and his party, lb. 86. ; 
Plutarch, in tita ejus ; Lucan. vii. 85. &c. see p. 242. 

f From the luxurious manner in which the courtiers of Alcinous lived, {In cutt 
lurandd plus aquo oferaia juwntus Alcinoi y Horat. ep. i. 2. 29.) as described by Ho- 
mer, Odyss. viii. PH-flSAX is put for a person in good case, or in a thriving state of 
body from good livir.g, Herat, ep. i. 15. 24. also for credulous and foolish ; as Alcinous 
and his people (P/wax populus)> were in believing the strange stoiies of Ulysses, 
Juvenal, xv. 23. see Cic, dt clar. Orat. 18. 

Cassiope, 



Islands of Greece, 



SSI 



Cassiope*, Cic. Fam. xvi. 9. This island is now called Corfu, 
- and, having been subject to the French for several years, is now 
declared free and independent, f 

There are two or three small islands between the south-east 
part of Corcyra and Epirus, called Sybota, Thucyd. i. 52. op- 
posite to Leucymna, a promontory of Corcyra, Strab. vii. 324. 

North of this is the promontory Phalacrum, lb. where 

the ship of Ulysses, which he received from Alcinous, was by 
Neptune converted into a rock, Homer. Odyss. xiii. ; Plin. iv. 

12. ; Ovid. Met. xiv. 564. Near Leucadia are two small 

islands called Paxi or Paxa, and several others, Plin. ib. 

Leucadia was formerly a peninsula, and has been already 
described, see p. 315. 

Before the mouth of the river Achelous are a number of 
little islands, called Echinades, Thucyd. ii. 102. ; Ovid. Met, 
viii. 587. said to have been formed by an accumulation of earth 
brought down by that river, Plin. ii. 85. s. 87. among which 
Strabo ranks DULICHIUM, viii. 335. 340. but Mela distin- 
guishes it }, ii. 7. Near 

* The high lands and fortresses of Corcyra are called fey Virgil Aerie Phaatum 
arcesy JEu. iii. 291. 

The people of Corcyra (Corcyrai), although originally descended from Corinth, did 
not always live in friendship with their mother country, Thucydid. i. 25. ; on the 
contrary, there were often fierce wars^betwixt them, Ib. 29. 49. &c. The Cor- 
cyrzeans were assisted by the Athenians, and the Corinthians, by the Lacedaemonians, 
Ib. 45. The Corinthians on the whole had the advantage. In the Peloponnesian 
war some Corcyrseans, who had been captives at Corinth, being released without ran- 
som, undertook to detach Corcyra from the alliance of the Athenians. With this 
view, having gained a number of the wealthier citizens, they, by an unexpected 
attack, slew Pit hi as, the chief magistrate of the city, and sixty others who favoured 
the interests of the Athenians. Upon the arrival of a galley from Corinth, atid an 
embassy from Sparta, they fell upon the populace and slaughtered a great number of 
them. The people, in their turn, having, by the aid of the Athenians, regained their 
superiority, exercised dreadful vengeance on the nobility, Thucydld. iii. 70. — 81. 
This contest between the supporters of the people, who favoured the Athenians, and 
the partisans of oligarchy, who favoured the Lacedemonians, which first began at 
Corcyra, spread over almost the whole of Greece, and afforded a pretext for the com- 
mission of the most atrocious crimes, as it is finely described by Thucydides, Ib. 82. — • 
86. ; Diodor. xiii. 48. 

Soon after the end of the firsc Punic war, Corcyra having fallen under the power 
of Teuta, Queen of the Illyrians, to free itself from her oppression, surrendered to 
the Romans, Polyb. ii. II. and proved ever after a secure station for the Roman navy 
in all their wars with the eastern nations, Liv. xxvi. 24. xxxi. 18. 22. 44. xxxii. 6. 
xxxv. 42. xiii. 37. 

T The islands of Corfu, Paro, Santa Maura, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Zante, and Cerigo, 
commonly called the seven Ionian ishiids, contain in all 135 English square miles, and 
200,000 inhabitants. They formerly belonged to Venice, hut in 1790 became subject 
to the Turks ami Russians, under the name of the Republic of the Seven Islands ; 
and immediately previous to the treaty of Paris, in 1814, were under the power of 
France. By that treaty they were again made a republic, and the executive govern- 
ment vested in the King of Great Britain. 

\ Dulichium is an island of greater extent than the other Echinades ; it was subject to 
Ulysses ; whence Dultibie rates % the ships of Ulysses, Virg. eel. v. 76. Rex Duliehius, 

13 Ulwses, 



332 



Islands of Greece. 



Near Dulichium on the west, is ITHACA, the island of 
Ulysses, hence called Ithacus, Virg. JEn. ii. 104. twenty-five 
miles in circumference*, Plin. iv. 12. rocky and unfertile, Cic, 
deorat. i. 44. ; Horat. ep. i. 7. 42. in which is mount NerTtos f, 
Plin. ib.: Homer. Odyss. ix. 21. There was here also a town 
called Ithaca, at the foot of mount Neius, Homer. Od. iii. 81. 
thought to be the same with Nentos, Eustath. ad. Odyss. ix. 21. 
but about this Strabo is doubtful, x. 454. Pliny says that hares, 
when brought to Ithaca, died on the very shore, viii. 58. s. 83. 

About fifteen miles from Ithaca is CEPHALENIA or Ce- 
phalkniay called also SAME, from its chief town, Virg. JEn. 

iii. 271. or Samos, Homer. Od. i. 246. iv. 671. ; and Epirus 
NIGRA, Ib. xiv. 97. xxi. 109. or Mel^ena, (i. e. Mskcam,) Plin. 

iv. 12. s. 19. ninety-three miles in circumference, lb. the abode 
of Antony, the colleague of Cicero, while in exile, Strab. x. 
455. Same was taken by M. Fulvius the Roman consul, after 
a siege of four months, and plundered, Liv. xxxviii. 29. There 
were other three towns in it, but all of them inconsiderable, 
Plin. ib. ; Thucyd,. ii. 30. Between Cephalenia and Ithaca is a 
small island called Asteria, Strab. x.456.; Homer. II. xiii. 12. 

About seven miles and a half, or sixty stadia, south of Ce- 
phalenia, is ZACYNTHUS, now Zante> above one hundred 
and sixty stadia in circumference •, woody and fertile, Homer. 
Od. ix. 24. 5 Virg. JEn. iii. 270. ; Strab. x. 458. in which was 
a town of the same name, Ib. & Liv. xxvi. 24. 

About thirty-five miles south-east from Zacynthus are two 
small islands, named Strophades, the islands of the Harpies, 
Virg. JEn. iii. called also Plot^e, (TrXwra*, i. e. Jluitantes v. na- 
tantesy) Plin. ib. four hundred stadia from the continent of 
Peloponnesus, Strab. viii. 359. 

The next island of any consequence is CYTHERA, about 
forty stadia from the promontory of Malea, and two hundred 
and fifty stadia from Crete, Strab. viii. 363. called anciently 
Porphyry, Plin. ib. sacred to Venus J, Ovid. Fast. iv. 285. ; 

Amor. 

Ulysses, Stat. Silv. v. 3. 115. Dulichii /roc/, the suitors of Penelope, Ib. i. 58. Duli- 
sbia tuba, the trumpet of Agyrtes, the trumpeter of Ulysses, Stat. Achil. i. 6. 

* Strabo makes it only eighty stadia, or ten miles round, x. 455. ; it is thought, by 
mistake. 

■f Neiitos is put by Virgil for the island itself, (Neritos ardua saxis^) JEn. iii. 271. 
Silius Italicus, the imitator of Virgil, mentions both the island and mountain, xv. 303. 
& 305. Mela makes Neritos a distinct island, ii. 7. 

\ Hence Venus is called Cytherea, Virg. JEn. \. 25 J. 557. iv. 128. v. 800. 
viii. 523. 615. quia in Cytheram v. -a, pr'tmum devecta esse dicitur concha, quum in 
mart esset concefta, Festus ; Quia mater Amoris nuda Cytberiacis edita fertur aquis, 
Ovid, en. vii. 60. JEneas 3 her son. Heros Cytkereius, Ovid. Fast. iii. 611. the 

month 



Islands of Greece, 



333 



Amor, ii. 17. *, Virg. JEn. i. 680. x. 51. 86. It contained one 
city of the same name, Plin. ib. and another called Scandea, 
both of them possessed of excellent harbours, strongly fortified 
and carefully guarded by the Lacedaemonians, because of great 
use to that state, Thucyd. iv. 53. The Athenians, therefore, in 
the Peloponnesian war, having reduced the island, transplanted 
the inhabitants to another place, Ib. 54. 

There are several other small islands round Peloponnesus, but 
none of them of great importance. 

In the Saronic gulf is iEGINA, now Engia, about twen- 
ty-two miles and a half in circumference, near ten miles from 
Attica and Argolis, Strab. viii. 375. and twenty miles from the 
Pineus, the harbour of Athens, Plin. iv. 12. the island of 
Mcicusy who called it JEgitia, from the name of his mother, 
Strab. viii. 375. Itwas before that called ^//&//^,Ib.orOENopi a, 
Ovid. Met. vii. 473. It is of difficult access on all sides, on ac- 
count of hidden rocks, Pausan. ii. 29. The inhabitants (JEginetx) 
were anciently rivals of the Athenians by sea, Strab. ib. ; He- 
rodot. v. 82, 83. & 89. vi. 9.; Tkucyd. i. 14. on which ac- 
count the Athenians, having conquered them, are said to have 
cut off their thumbs, Cic. Off. iii. II. In the battle of Sala- 
mis, they had the greatest number of ships of any state next to 
the Athenians ; and the prize of valour was decreed to them, 
that is, they were judged to have fought the most bravely, 
Herodot. viii. 93.; Strab. ib. From the plunder of the Persians 
slain in the battle of Platcea they acquired great riches. Hero- 
dot, ix. 79. But their wealth arose chiefly from the cultivation 
of commerce. They are said to have been the first people that 
coined money, /Elian, xii. 10. Being oppressed by the Athe- 
nians, they joined the Corinthians in prompting the Lacedse- 
monians to undertake the Peloponnesian war, Thucyd. i. 67. 
The Athenians, therefore, having vanquished them in a great 
naval battle, in which they took seventy of their ships, landed 
on the island, Ib. 105. ; and having wholly subdued it, expel- 
led the inhabitants, with their wives and children, and peopled 
the island with a colony from Athens. The Lacedaemonians 
gave the JEginetz lands to possess in the district of Thyrea, on 
the confines between Argea and Lacomca, Ib. ii. 27. Even 
here the Athenians attacked them, took and plundered their 

month of April, as being dedicated to Venus, mensh Cytbercins, Ib. iv. 195. and 
pigeons, as being sacred to her, Cytbersiades coiumba, Id. Met. xv. 386, so Cytberiaca 
ayrtut, Id. Fast. iv. 1 J. 

city, 



Islands of Greece, 



city, and treated such of the inhabitants as fell into their hands 
with the greatest cruelty, Ib. iv. 57. After the Athenians, in 
their turn, had been completely subdued by the Lacedaemonians, 
the JEgtneta were replaced in their native island, but never re- 
covered their former power, Pausan. ii. 29. ; Strab. ib. 

West from ^Egina, and opposite to Eleusis, is SALAMIS, 
8eventy or eighty stadia long, containing a town of the same 
name, Strab. ix. 393. the island of Teldmon> the father of Ajax 
and Teucer. * 

There are several islands around Salamis and jEglna, but 
none of them considerable, Strab. ib. In the strait between 
Salamis and Eleusis is a small desart rocky island, called Psytta- 
lia> where Aristides displayed his valour in cutting to pieces 

* When, after the taking of Troy, Teucer returned to Salamis without avenging 
the death of his brother Ajax, Telamon would not admit him on shore. On which 
account Teucer went with his companions, and built another city in Cyprus of the 
same name, which Horace calls Salamis ambigua, Od. i. J. 29. and the old Sala- 
mis is called vera, Lucan. iii. 83. Senec. Troad. 844. 

Near Salamis the Greeks, under the command of Eurybiades, the Laceda;- 
monian, gamed a memorable victory over the fleet of Xerxes, chiefly by the able con- 
duct of Themistocles, who commanded the ships of the Athenians. By his persuasion 
Eurybiades, and the other leaders of the Greeks, were kept from leaving their ad- 
vantageous position in those narrow seas; and by false information Xerxes wasinduced 
to take such measures as made their escape impossible. Themistocles was greatly 
assisted in the accomplishment of his designs by ARISTIDES, who, although for- 
merly banished by means of Themistocles, yet dropping all private enmities for the 
sake of his country, passed with great hazard through the enemy's fleet, and joined 
Themistocles the night before the battle, Herodot. viii. 79. &c. ; Plutarch. inAristid. 
While Themistocles urged his opinion with great keenness in the council of war, 
Eurybiades, offended at what he said, raised his staff as if to strike him, " Strike, but 
" bear me" cried Themistocles. This moderation contributed not a little to pro- 
duce the conviction he desired, Phtareh. 

As the pre-eminence in point of valour in the battle of Salamis had been adjudged 
to the people of -ffigina, so Themistocles was, by unanimous consent, allowed to have 
been the most meritorious individual. At the first Olympic games after the victory, 
when Themistocles appeared, all present pointed him out to one another, as the Pre- 
server of Greece. Of the victory at Salamis Cicero says, Ante Salaminem ipsam Nep- 
tSttus ebruet, quam Salaminii troftzi memoriam y Tusc. Q. i. 46, 

When the Athenians, upon the approach of the Persians, deserted their city, and 
conveyed their effects, their old men, their wives, and children, to Salamis and 
Troezen, a dog belonging to Zantippus, the father of Pericles, not bearing to be left 
behind, leapt into the sea, and swam along by the side of the galley, till he reached 
Salamis, and then expired. The Athenians erected a monument to him, which was 
called the Dog's grave, Plutarch, in Themist. et Cato. Censor. Xerxes, after the 
battle, attempted to make a mound of earth from the continent to the island of Sa- 
lamis, that thus he might transport thither his land forces ; but being secretly in- 
formed, by the contrivance of Themistocles, that the Greeks intended to break down 
his bridge of boats over the Hellespont, he dropt that undertaking, and posted to the 
Hellespont with great expedition, lest his return should be intercepted, Plutarch, 
Justin. 1. 13. Strabo says Xerxes attempted to make this mound before the battle, 
ax. 395. which seems more probable. 



Islands of Greece. 



335 



the Persians who had taken possession of it, except a few prin- 
cipal persons who were made prisoners*. Around this island, 
it seems, the greatest stress and fury of the battle lay ; and, 
therefore, after the victory, a trophy was erected in it, Plu- 
tarch, in Aristid. 

North-east from the promontory Sunium is the island He- 
lena, extending in length near the coast of Attica sixty stadia, 
uninhabited and rocky ; where Paris first landed with Helen, 
{cum ea pr'imo coibat>) after he left Sparta. It is thought to 
have been formerly called Cranae, Homer. II. iii. 444. ; Strab. 
ix.399. 

Along the north-east coast of Attica and Bceotia is the island 
EUBGEA, now Negropont, about one hundred and fifty miles 
long, in no part above forty miles broad, three hundred and 
sixty-five miles in circumference, Plin. iv. 12. J. 21. separated 
from the continent by the EURIPUS, remarkable for the ir- 
regularity of its tides, Cic. Mur&n. 17. said to ebb and flow 
seven times each day and each night, Strab. ix. 403. ; Mel. ii. 7. 
as Livy says, not so often, nor at stated times, xxviii. 6. Be- 
tween Aulis and Chalcis, where it is narrowest, there was a 
bridge, (ye<pup<x hnXeSpog duorutn jugerum, Strab. Ib.) In the 
Peloponnesian war, while the Athenians were masters at sea, 
•the people of Bceotia and Eubcea made a mound of earth over 
this strait, to preserve a communication between the two 
countries, that they might thus unite in defending the island 
against the Athenians, Diodor. xiii. 47. who had formerly pos- 
sessed it, Thucyd. i. 114. and from whom it had repeatedly re- 
volted, Ib. & viii. 5. & 95. Diodorus writes as if there had 
been no bridge over the Euripus before this mound was 
made, f 

The chief promontories of Eubcea were, on the south, GE- 
RiESTUS, towards Attica, and CAPHAREUS, towards the 
Hellespont : on the north, Cenjeum, towards Thessaly, Plin. 
iv. 12. s. 21. Between Gersestus and Caphareus was Carys- 
tus, near mount Ocha, noted for producing fine marble, 

* Among these were three sons of Sandauce, the sister of Xerxes, whom Aristide * 
sent immediately to Themistocles ; and, it is said, that at the command of a certain 
oracle, by the direction of Euphrantides the diviner, they were sacrificed to Bacchus 
Plutarch, in Aristid. 

f From the narrowness of the strait, artificial aqueducts or canals used to be called 
EurTpi, and also Niti, from the canals cut from the river Nile in Eeypt, to water 
that country, Cic. Ugg. ii. 1. ; ad. Q. fratr. iii. 1. ; /»/;„. p. i. 3.. Senee. ep. 83. 
fc yo. So the canal which Caesar made round the circus at Rome was called EurIpu9, 
But. Cas. 39. ; PUn. viii. 7. ; Spartian. Heliog. 33. 

Strab. 



336 



Islands of Greece, 



Strab. x. 446. * seven stadia from which was Amarynthus,. 
where Diana was much worshipped, Liv. 35. 38. 

The chief towns on the Euripus were, ERETRIA ; its in- 
habitants, Eretrienses, Strab. ib. s then CH ALCIS, the me- 
tropolis of the island, both built by the Athenians before the 
Trojan war, Ib. the inhabitants Chalcidenses, Liv. xliii. 7. 

and next to it, Oreus or Istm, Pausan. vii. 26. ■ East from 

Centum, on the north of the island, was ARTIMISIUM, 
near which the Greeks first engaged with the fleet of Xerxes, 
Diodor. xi. 12.; Nep. Themist. 3. 

From Eubcea to the south of Peloponnesus, and near Crete > 
the sea was called mare Myrtoum, Strab. ii. 124. vii. 323. 
/ East from Eubcea is SCYROS, inhabited by the Dolopes, 
Thucydid. i. 98. called Scyria pubes, Virg. JEn. ii. 477. where 
Achilles lay concealed with Lycomedes, the king of the island, 
and where Theseus died in exile, Plutarch, 

In the Egean sea, or Archipelago, a contraction for Egia 
Pelago., its, name in modern Greece, are the CrCLADES and 
Sporades. 

The CYCLADES are so called because placed in the form 
of a circle (x.vx\o$) round DELOS, Strab. x. 485. *, Plin. iv. 12. 
s. 22. Authors differ about their uumber. At first only twelve 
were called by that name; afterwards more, Strab. ib. They lie 
so close to one another, that Virgil beautifully calls that part of 
the Egean sea Freta crebris constta terris> uEn. iii. 127. 

The SPORADES are so called because they lie more scat- 
tered [sparse per aquor^ Ib.), chiefly on the coast of Asia, to 
which country they properly belong. There are several islands 
sometimes ranked among the Cyclades, and sometimes among 
the Sporades ; the chief of both were, 

DELOS, called also Ortygia -j-, Virg. JEn. iii. 124. & 
143. the birth-place of Apollo (natalis, sc. locus Apollinis y 
Horat. od. i. 21. 10.), and of Diana, whence the former is call- 
ed DELIUS APOLLO, Ib. iii. 4. 64. 5 Virg. JEn. iii. 162. 
Delius vates, Ib. vi. 12. and the latter Delia, Id. eel. iii. 67. 
vii. 29. Delia dea, Horat. od. iv. 6. 33. vel dea Ortygia, 
Ovid. Met. i. 694. — hence Ortygia boves, the cows of Apollo, 
Id. Fast. v. 694. Deliis foliis ornatus y crowned with laurel, 
sacred to Apollo, Horat. od. 14. 3. 7. — also CYNTHIUS, 

* Lucan places Carystos 011 the Euripus; thus, Qua maris angustat fauces saxose 
Carystos, Lucan. v. 232. contrary to the account given of its position by ancient 
geographers and historians. 

•f- Quia in en primo 'visa sunt coturnices, quas Graci ogrwyetg vacant, Solifl. 18. pri 
also Pyrpole, igne ibi primitm reptrto t Plin, iv. iz. s, %%. 

Virg. 



Islands of Greece* 



337 



Virg. Eel. vi. 3. G. iii. 36. Horat. od. i. 21. 2. and CYNTHIA, 
lb. iii. 28. 12. ; S&tf. x. 365. from Cynthus, a mountain 

in the island, Virg. JEn. i. 498. iv. 147. Delos abounded 

in fine brass ; hence vessels made in that island {Deliaca vasa) 
were held in the highest estimation, and are joined with those 

of Corinth, Cic. Rose. Am. 46. ; Verr. ii. 34. & 72. iv. i. . 

The people of Delos were remarkable for rearing hens, and 
making profit by that means, Cic. Acad. iv. 18. ; Varr. de re 
Rust. iii. 9. 2. as most of the Greeks were, Columell. viii. 2. 4. 
Delos is said anciently to have been a floating island, which 
Apollo fixed by binding it to My cone v. -nus> and Gyaros> two 
neighbouring islands, Virg, JEn. iii, 75. and so called because 
it suddenly appeared above the water, (quoniam repente apparu- 

erit enata,) Plin. ib. # To Gyarus vel -r^, as being a small 

barren island, Strdb. x. 487. j Cic. Nat. D. i. 31. the Roman 
Emperors used sometimes to banish criminals, Juvenal. 1. 73. 
x. 170.; Tacit. Anna/, iii. 68. & 69. Pliny says, on the au- 
thority of Varro, that the inhabitants of this island were once 

expelled by mice, viii. 29. s. 43. Seriphus <y<?/-os, a small 

rocky island south of Gyaros, was another place of banishment 
for Roman criminals, Tacit. Annal. iv. 21.5 Juvenal, vi. 564. 
Ovid calls Seriphus a plain island, {planamque Seriphon^) Met. 7. 
464. Here frogs are said not to have croaked, Plin. viii. 58. 
s. 83. whence Rana Seraphia is applied proverbially to a person 
of great taciturnity, f 

Near Eubcea, on the south-east, is Andros; and a mile from 
it, Tenos, fifteen miles from Delos, Plin. iv. 12. s. 22. 

Near Sunium, the promontory of Attica, is CEOS, or Cea $ 
lb. a fertile island, Virg. G. L 14. the birth-place of Simonides, 
the first writer of elegies. J 

South 

* It is said no dogs were allowed to be brought up in Delos, Strah. x. because they 
tore to pieces Thasus the son of Anius, priest of Apollo, Hyg'm. 247. Ovid, hi 
Ibin. 479. 

-f When a native of Seriphus said to Themistocles, that he had obtained renown by 
the glory of his country : True, answered Themistocles, / should not have become illus- 
trious, if I had been a Serif hian ; nor you, if 'you had been an Athenian, Cic. Sen. 3. 

+ Hence Cea Camence, the poems of Simonides, Horat. od. iv. 9. 8. Ne Cea re~ 
trades munera names, Do not attempt to compose c-kgie?, Horat. od. ii. I. 38. 

Simonides flourished under Pisistratus and his son Hipparchus, JElian. viii. 2. He 
was a distinguished philosopher as well as a poet. Being asked by King Hiero, What 
God is? he demanded a da) to consider of it; when the same question was put to him 
next day, he required two diys; and so went on, always doubling the time. The 
king, surprised, asked him why he did so ? Because, said Simonides, the longer I con~ 
sider the matter, the more difficult it appears to me, Cic. Nat. D. i. 21. SimonTdes had 
a remarkable memory, Id. Tusc. i. 24. and is said to have invented what is called -he 
art of local memory, Cic, orat. ii. 86. ; Fin. ii. 32. He wrote a poem upon the 
Greeks who fell at the Straits of Thermopyte, Id. Tusc. i. 42. and Herodotus speaks 
•f his writing verses on those who conquered at the public games, v. iQi. He com- 



338 Islands qf Greece, 



South of Ceos was CYTHNOS, where, after the death of 
Nero, a slave who personated that emperor appeared, Tacit, hist, 
ii. 8. but was soon put to death, lb, 9. 

South of Cythnus is Seriphusy already mentioned ; then 
Siphnus and Melos, the country of Diagoras the Atheist, 
(atheos, qui dietus est,) Cic. Nat. D. i. 1. 23. & 42. iii. 37. Near 
it Olearos vel Oliaros, Virg. JEn, iii. 1 26. and Cimolus, Plin. 
iv. 12. s. 23. Strab. x. p. 484. whence Cimolia terra vel creta, 
fuller's earth, Plin. 35. 17. s. 57. — East from Seriphus is 
PAROS, which produces the whitest marble, whence it is called 
Nivea, lb. the birth-place of PHIDIAS and Praxiteles, 
illustrious statuaries # . Here is mount Marpesus y whence 

Marpesia cautesy a block of marble, Virg. JEn. vi. 474. 

East from Paros is NAXOS, fruitful in wine, and therefore 
sacred to Bacchus, hence said to be frequented by bacchanals 
on the tops of its mountains, (bacchata j-ugis,) Virg. Mx\. iii. 

125. Near Naxos is Donysa> called viridisy either from the 

colour of its marble, or because covered with trees, lb. ; and 
south of it Amorgus; both places of banishment for illustrious 
Romans under the emperors, Tacit. Annal. iv. 30. — South 
of Naxos is los, in which Homer is said to have been buried, 
Strab. x. 484. ; Plin, iv. 12. s, 22. About twenty-five miles 
south of los is THERA, now Santoririy lb. and near it Anaphe 9 
Therasiay Hiera or Automate, and Thia y all of which are said to 
have been raised at different times, by the force of earthquakes, 
Senec. quasi. Nat, vi. 21. ; Plin, ii. 87. In like manner a new 
island rose from the sea near Saritorin in 1707. The sea 
between these islands and Crete was called Mare Creticum. 

CRETA, Cretey now called Candia from its capital, is by 
far the largest of the Greek islands. It extends in length from 
cast to west two hundred and seventy miles, never exceeding 
fifty miles in breadth. It is all over mountainous and woody, 
with fertile yallies interspersed. Its promontories are, on the 
north west, Cimaros or Cyamon ; near it prom. Dictynnaum ; 
and on the south-west, Criu*Metopon ; on the east, Samonium, 
Strab, x. 475. ; Mel. ii. 7. called also Salmone, Acts y xxvii. 7, 
The chief promontory on the north is DIUM, near the island 

pleted the Greek alphabet by adding four letters, |, >?, &>, Plin. vii. 56. ; Hygin. 
<2jj. He is said to have been miraculously preserved from the fall of a house, which 
crushed those he was in company with, Cic. or. ii. 86. ; Val. Max. \. 8. cxi. 7. by the 
favour of Castor and Pollux, Ovid, in JHn,^i4. Ovid here calls him Leoprepidcs, 
from his father Leoprepes, Mlian. iv. 14. 

* Thft statues of Phidias were so dexterously formed, that the ivory was said to be 
alive, Phidiacum <vivebat ebur, Juvenal, viii. 103. 

Dia, 



Islands of Greece. 



339 



Dia, now Standie. The sea on the north is called mare Creti- 

cum; on the south, Lybicum; and on the east, Garpathium. ■ 

In the middle of the island, where broadest, is mount IDA, 
(Mons Id^US,) Virg. JEn. iii. 105. the highest in the island, 
Strab. x. 475. and the Idaan forest, Virg. ib. 112. On the east 
part of the island is mount DICTE, in a cave of which (Dictao 
sub antro) Jupiter is said to have been nursed, Virg, G. iv. 152. 
Pliny mentions three other mountains, Cadistut, Dictynnaus 9 
and Corycus, iv. 12. s. 20. probably the same with what Strabo 
calls Leuci montes 9 (Ksvxu 0^, i. e. albi montes y ) in the west part 
of the island, Ib, 

Crete is said anciently to have contained an hundred cities, 
Plin% ib. [Centum urbes habitant magnas, sc. CHETES, Virg. Mn» 
iii. 106. Centum urbibus quondam habitat a Crete, Mela, ii. 7. 
Centum potens urbibus Crete, Horat. od. iii. 27. 33. vel nobilis^ 
Id.epod. ix. 29. Centenis Creta populis> Lucan, iii. 184.) there- 
fore called 'xaroproAij, Homer. II. ii. 649. but in the Odyssey 

it is said to contain only ninety towns, Strab. x. 479. The 

three chief cities were, GNOSSUS, GortIna, and Cydonia, 
Strab. x. 476. GNOSSUS, or Cnossus, was situate in a plain 
about twenty-five stadia, or three miles from the sea on the 
north, near mount Ida* in the middle of the island, thirty stadia 
in circumference; the seat of Minos, Ib. Its harbour was called 
Heracleum v. ea y now Candia, the present capital. * 

On the opposite side of the island stood GORTINA, in a 
plain ninety stadia distant from its port Lybene on the Lybian 
sea, about fifty stadia in circumference; the river Lethe (Lethaus 
fluvius) ran through the middle of it, Ib. 478. Here was the 
famous labyrinth built by Daedalus, below ground, in imitation 
of that in Egypt, representing, however, only the one hundredth 
part of itf, Plin. xxxvi. 13. s. 19.; Diodor. i. 61, & 97. ; Virg. 
JEn. v. 588. vi. 27. j Ovid. Met. viii. 158. 

Near the north-west point of the island stood CYDONIA; 
now Canea, built by a colony from Samos, Herodot. iii. 44. and 
59. which Florus calls the metropolis of the island, [urbiunv 
mater \ y ) iii. 7. 

* Hence Gnossia regna, for Crete, Virg. JEn. iii. 115. Gnossia corona, the crown 
of Ariadne, when converted into a constellation, Id. G. i. %%%. who herself is called 
Gnossis, -zdis, Ovid. ep. xv. 35. 

f Some suppose the labyrinth to have been at Gnossus. There is still a subterra- 
neous cavern near Gortyna, which modern travellers take for the labyrinth; but 
Pliny says that no vestiges of the labyrinth remained in his time, Ib. and so Diodorus, 
i. 61.; but he says the contrary, Ib. 67. 

\ Whence Cydonius vel. -cus, -a> -urn ; thus Cydonia spicule, Cretifl! arrows, Virg. 
Eel. x. 59. Cydonius arcus, a Cretan bow, Horat. od. iv. 9. 17. Cydonia arundes, a 
Cretan arrow, Sil, x. 261, Cydonea pbaretra, OvyJ, Met, viii. %%. 

Z 2 The 



340 



Islands of Greece, 



The towns of inferior note were, Lebena, near the premoni- 
tory Leon, south of mount Ida ; — Minoa v. -ou?n 5 near the port 
of Drepanum, on the north side of the island ; — Pergamus or 
Pergamea, built by iEneas, Virg. JEn. iii. 133. or Agamemnon, 
V ell. i. 1. — Miletus ; Aptera, Lappa v. Lampe; Lyctus or Lyttus, 
built by the Lacedsemonians, said to be the most ancient city in 
Crete, Polyb. iv. 54. ; — Phastum v. -us ; Oaxus, Herodot. iv. 
154. on the river Oaxes, as it is thought, Virg.ecLi. 66. ; Rhi- 
tymna, now Retimo ; — Thence, near Gnossus ; Arcades or 
Arcadia, where the fountains are said to have ceased when the 
city was destroyed, and again to have flowed six years after, when 
the city was rebuilt # , Senec. Q. Nat. iii. 11. 5 Pirn. xxxi. 4. 

There 

* The first inhabitants of Crete, according to Diodorus Siculus, were called Eteo- 
Cretes, from their king Cres. Those who dwelt round mount Ida were called 
Dactyli Zdtsi. They discovered the use of fire, and the art of working in iron and 
brass. After them were the Curetes, who lived in woods and caves. From one of 
these and Titaa were born the Titan es, six brothers, Saturnus or Cronus, Hyperion, 
Caus, Iapetus, Crius, and Oceanus ; and five sisters, called TitanJdes, Rbea, Themis, 
Mnemosyne, Phabe, and Thetys. Saturn became king of the island. He and his chil- 
dren, on account of their inventions and beneficence, were worshipped as divinities, 
Diodor % v. 64. — 80. as will be shewn in its proper place. Many ages after this, dif- 
ferent parts of the "island were possessed by the Pelasgt, the Dores, the Acbeans, the 
Ar gives, and Spartans, lb. 80. 

The laws of Crete are highly extolled by the ancients, They were composed first 
by Rhadamanthus, and after him by Minos, as they both gave out, by the directions 
of Jupiter. Hence Minos is said to have spent nine years in the cave of Jupiter, 
Strab. x. 476. xvi. 76a. and therefore Homer calls him Hvnugos &to$ oagnrtot, novennis 
Joiiis confabulator vel discipulus, Odyss. xix. 1 79. Some say he went thither every 
ninth year, (2t sneers Ivm, nono quoque anno, Plato in Minoe,) that is, he revised and 
corrected his laws at that time. Valerius Maximus says, every year, i. 3. ext. 1. 

The lawgiver of Crete considered liberty as the greatest blessing of a state, without 
which property could not be secure. For slaves can call nothing their own. To pre- 
vent avarice and luxury, which never fails to excite discord, the youth were brought up 
together in companies, (iyiXiu, greges,) and the men, divided into what were called 
Andrei a, ate in public ; so that the rich and poor fared alike. From their earliest 
years they were trained to arms ; inured to cold and heat, and all the hardships of war. 
they were exercised in shooting the arrow, and in dancing to music completely 
armed; which custom was introduced by one Cures, and called Pyrriche, the 
Pyrrbie dance. The boys were taught letters, to repeat passages from the laws in 
verse, and particular kinds of music. Every man at a certain age was obliged to 
marry. At stated times the companies of young men engaged in mock fights, in 
which they used to give and receive severe blows. These, and various other particu- 
lars, are recounted by Strabo, 1,480, &c. 

Minos divided the island into three parts, and built a city on each. He was the 
first who obtained the sovereignty of those seas. Some represent him as a good 
lawgiver ; and* others, as a tyrannical prince, lb. 476. It is at least certain that the 
Cretans anciently enjoyed excellent Laws; which were copied, as Strabo observes, by 
the wisest of the Greeks, particularly by the Lacedaemonians, x. 477. The Cretans, 
however, after being subjected to tyrants, greatly degenerated, lb. During the 
Trojan war, as the auxiliaries of Menelaus, they made a considerable figure, but after 
its conclusion sustained great calamities, Herodot. viL 171. In the Peloponnesian war 
they served as mercenaries to the Athenians, Tbusyi, vii. 57. In after times Polybius 

represents 



Islands of Greece, 



341 



There are a number of small islands around Crete, but none 
of them remarkable, PHn. iv. 12. s, 20. 

The islands in the east part of the iEgean sea were called 
SPOR ADES, and commonly annexed to Asia, although peopled 
by Greeks. 

East from Crete is Carpathus, which gave name to the 
Carpathian sea, PHn. v. 31,. s. 36. ■— — East from it, and near 
the coast of Lycia, is RHODUS, Rhodes, said to have risen 
from the sea, PHn. xi. 87 one hundred and twenty-five miles in 
circumference ; which contained three towns, LINDUS v. -its, 
Camirus, and Jalysus, afterwards called RHODUS, lb. an- 
ciently famous for its power by sea, and for the brazen Colossus, 
or image of the sun, seventy cubits high, about one hundred and 
five feet, Plm. xxxiv. 7. It was the work of Chares, born at 
Lindos, a city in the island, and employed him for twelve 
years. The expences of it were defrayed by the money which 
the Rhodians received from the sale of the warlike machines 
which Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, had employed in 
besieging them, and of which he made them a present upon 
raising the siege. It was thrown down by an earthquake 
eighty-five years after its erection, and lay on the ground till 
Rhodes was taken by the Saracens under Mahias, A.D. 653. 
who sold the brass of it to a Jew of Emessa, by whom it was 
transported to Alexandria in Egypt on the backs of nine hun- 
dred camels. 

The knights of St. John of Jerusalem being obliged to retire, 
from Palestine, took this island from the Turks 1309, and de- 
fended it against all the power of that empire till 1522, when 

represents them as disgraced by piracy, robbery, and almost every crime, Polyb. iv. 8.? 
so Strabo, x. 477. Their constitution was then democratical, quite different from that 
of Lacedasmon, Polyb. vi. 44. & 45. They were frequently agitated by internal 
seditions, lb. iv. 53. &c. ; Liv. xli. 25. and at one time obliged to have recourse to 
Philip King of Macedon, to settle their differences, Polyb. de virt. & •vitiis. After 
this they were reduced by the Cilicians, and at last subjected to the Roman yoke by 
MetelluS) hence called Creticus, Strab. x. 477.; Liv. epit. xcix. ; Fler. iti. 7. after 
a vigorous resistance for above two years, lb. nor has Crete ever since regained its 
independence. 

In the year 1194 Crete became subject to the Venetians, under whose mild govern- 
ment it flourished greatly. It was unexpectedly attacked by the Turks, A.D. 1645, ln 
the midst of a profound peace. The siege of Candia was begun in 1646, and the city 
did no; surrender till the 4th of October 1670. We may judge of the bravery of the 
besieged f- om the length of their defence. The reduction of the island is said to have 
cost the Turks above two hundred thousand men. The Cretans are now subjected to 
the same state of servitude with the rest of the Turkish empire : industry is discouraged, 
and of course population greatly diminished. 



it 



Islands 6f Greece. 



it surrendered to Soliman, after repulsing many furiou3 assaults* 
in which great numbers of the Turks were slain. 

Rhodes is surrounded by a number of small islands which 
were dependent on it, but none of them remarkable, Plin. ib. 

North of Rhodes is COS or Coos, now Lango, fifteen miles 
from the city of Halicarnassus on the coast of Caria ; one hun- 
dred miles in circumference, lb. the country of HIPPOCRA- 
TES, the physician ; of the painter Apelles *, and the poet 
Philetas, Strab. xiv. 658. the writer of love songs, Ovid. Art. 
Am. iii. 329. Rem. 760. — celebrated for producing excellent 
wine, Plin. xv. 17. and for the manufacture of cloth of a 
very fine texture (Co a vestes> 1. e. tenues vel pellucida) ; Horat. 
od. iv. 13. 13.; Sat. i. 2. 101. ; Tibull. ii. 3. 57. 

North of Cos are Leros and Patmos, now Palmossa, where 

St. John wrote the Revelations. Near Miletus on the coast 

of Caria, at the bottom of the bay formed by the river Msean- 
der, is Lade ; and not far from it Pharmacusa, near which 
Julius Csssar, when a young man, was taken by the pirates, 
Suet. C<£S. 4. 

Opposite to mount Mycale on the coast of Ionia, and the 
promontory Tngilium, is SAMOS, the favourite island of Juno, 
Virg. JEn. i. 16. the country of Pythagoras 5 whence he is 
called vir Sam jus, Ovid. Met. xv. 60. famous for its wine, and 
earthen ware f , (vasa Samia,) Plin. xxxv. 12. J". 46.5 PlauU 
, Capt. ii. 2. 41. ; Men. i. 2. 65. 

West from Samos is Icaros or Icaria, which gave name to 
the.Icarian sea around it, Plin. iv. 12. s. 23. ; but others say 
this sea was named from Icarus, the son of Daedalus, who was 
drowned in it. It was sometimes violently agitated by the 

south-west wind, Horat. od. i. 1. 15. North of Icaros is 

CHIOS, one hundred and twenty-five miles in circumference, 
famous for its wine, Horat. od. iii. 19. 5. \ Sat. i. 10. 24. and 
marble, Plin. v. 31.x. 38. 

About five hundred stadia north of Chios is LESBUS v. -ox, 
five hundred and sixty stadia long, and one thousand five 
hundred stadia in circumference, Strab. xiii. 617. &c. cele- 
brated for its beauty, Horat. ep. i. 1 1. i* Insula nobilis et amana s 

* Alexander the Great was so partial to Apelles, that he prohibited by an edict 
any other person to paint him ; and granted to Lysippus the same exclusive privilege 
of making statues of him, Horat. ep. ii. I. 239.; Cis. Fam. v. 12. ; Plin. xxxiv. 8. 
ncxxv. 10. 

-* Here the art of making figures of clay {an plastlca v. plasties) is said to have 
been invented ; according to others, at Corinth, whence it was introduced into Etruria 
by twopofers ( fguli,fctores v.plasta) who went into Italy with Eemaratus, the 
father of Tarquinius Priscus, Jit. s. 43. 

14 Tacit. 



Islands of Greece, 



Tacit. Anir. vi. 3. and for its wine, Herat, od. i, 17. 21* 
ipod. ix. 34.; Gell. xiii. 5. produced near the town * Methymna* 
Ovid. Art. Am. i. 57. ; Virg. G. ii* 90, ; Horat* sat. ii. 8. 504 
Property iv. 9. 1 2 ; whence Methymnaa Lesbos, Ovid. Met. xi. 
55. Methymniades, the women of this place, Ovid, ep, xv. 15* 
The chief city was MitYlehe, by which name the island is 
now called. The Mitylenians having, in the Peloponnesiaa 
war, repeatedly revolted from the Athenians, after being re« 
ditced, were condemned to be all put to the sword ; and a ship 
was dispatched from Athens to P aches y their general, with thi* 
cruel decree. But that fickle people having next day repented 
of their severity, reversed their former sentence,, and sent 
another ship with the intelligence. The ship sailed, with 
such celerity, that it arrived at Mitylene just after the 
Athenian general had notified his first commands, and was 
about to execute them j which changed the grief and despair 
of the Mitylenians into the greatest joyf, Thucydid. iii. 

35 — S°- 

Nbrth 

* Methymna was the native city of Arion, a most famous musician, hence called 
Metbymnaus mates, Stat. Silv. ii. 2. 60.; Martial, viii. 51. 15. who, having resided 
some time with Periander, the tyrant of Corinth, went over into Italy; and having 
there acquired by his profession a large sum of money, he proposed returning with it to 
Corinth. For this purpose he hired a Corinthian vessel from Tarentum. The ma» 
riners, on account of his riches, determined to throw him overboard. He having first 
obtained permission to play a tune, plunged into the sea, and is said to have been car- 
ried by a dolphin to cape Tenarus ; whence he made his way to Corinth, which the 
mariners had reached before him. They wese instantly seized and crucified, Herodot. 
i. 23. & 24.; Serv. in Virg. Eel. viii. 56* Ovid, Fast. ii. 83.; Propert. ii. 26. 18.; 
Gell. xvi. 19.; Flirt, ix. 8.; Hygin. 1 94. 

f Mitylene was the native place of Pittacus, one of the seven wise men of 
Greece; of the poet ALCJEUS, and the poetess SAPPHO, who were both con- 
temporary, Strab. xiii. 617. They excelled chiefly in lyric poetry r or in writing 
poems to be sung in concert *with the lyre : whence Horace, who first introduced lyric 
poetry at Rome, calls it JEolium carmen, od. iii. 30. 13. iv. 3.12. (because Mitylene 
was built by a colony of iEolians from Greece, Herodot. i. 149. and Strabo calls- 
Lesbos as it were the metropolis of the JEolic cities, xiii. 616 & 622.) So Sappho 
is called JEolia puella, Horat. od. iv. 9. X2. the lyre, ,Molia Jides, lb. ii. 13. 24. or 
Lesbous barbitos, lb. i. 1. 34. said to have been first played on by Al«eus, \Lcsbi» 
frimum modulate civi, lb. i. 32. 5.) as being the first lyric poet, lb.; the quill or in- 
strument used in striking the strings, Lesbium plectrum, lb. i. 26. 11.; the measure of 
lyric verse, Lesbius pes, lb. iv. 6.35. Lesbides JEolid tuomina dicta lyrd, Lesbian* 
women celebrated by the lyre of Sappho, Ovid. ep. xv. 200 Horace seems to value 
himself chiefly in being the first lyric poet at Rome, [princeps JEolium carmen ad Italos 
deduxisse modos, od. iii. 30. 13. Romance jidken lyra, lb. iv. 3. 23. Nvn ante vul- 
gatas per aftes, lb. ix. 3.) ep. i. 19. 32. 

Alcseus not only composed love-songs, Cic. Tust. iv. 33. biit also the boldest 
invectives against tyrants, whereby he animated his countrymen to expel them; whence 
his poems are called minaces Camcente, Horat. od. iv. 9. 7. and were so much admired 
that he is said to have struck his lyre with a golden plectrum, Id. ii. 13. 26. ; 
Quhctil. x. 1. and from the sublimity of his sentiments and style, sonare plenius t sc. 

Z 4 guam 



344? Islands of Greece. 

North of Lesbos is Lemnos, now Stalimene> the island of 
Vulcan Val. Flacc. ii. 78 & 95. whence he is called Lemnt us 
pater, Virg. j5Ln. viii. 454. ; its circumference is one hundred 
and twelve miles, Plin. iv. 12. j. 23. It contained two cities, 
Hephcestia and Murina. On the forum or public place of the 
latter, mount Athos, distant eighty-sevui miles, at the solstice 
cast its shadow, lb. 

About fifty-six miles east from Lemnos, and forty stadia 
from the coast of Troas, is TENEDOS, Virg. JEn ii. 21. 
eighty stadia in circumference, Strab. xiii. 604. named from 
Tenes or Tennes, one of its kings, Diodor. v. 83. who, on ac- 
count of his virtues, was after his death worshipped as a god, 
lb. £sf Cic. Verr. hi. 19. Nat. D. iii. 15. anciently called also 
JLeucophrySy Phanice, and Lyrnessus, twelve miles from Sigeum, 
Plin. v. 31. s. 39. It had one town, inhabited by iEolians, 
where was a temple of Apollo Smintheus, Strab. ib. & Homer. 
II. i. 37. 

The islands north of this belong to Thrace, 



THRACE. 

THRACIA vel Thrace, Thrace, now Romania or Rume/ia, 
was separated on the north from Masia by mount HiEMUS \ 
on the east it is bounded by the Euxine sea, the Thracian Bos- 
porus, the PropontiSy and the Hellespont ; on the south by the 
Egean sea ; and on the west by Macedonia, from which it was 
anciently separated by the river Strymon, and in later times by 
the Nessus. 

HiEMUS or JEmus, is a ridge of mountains extending 
from the Euxine sea a great way westward, so lofty, that the 
Euxine and Hadriatic seas are said to be visible from the top, 
Mel. ii. 2. *, Liv. xl. 22. ; Plin. iv. 11. s. 18.; but Strabo says 

this is impossible, vii. 313. There are two other high 

mountains south of Haemus, which run nearly in the same 

quam Sappho> Horat. od. ii. 13. 26. grandius sonare, Ovid. ep. xv. 29. None of his 
works now remain but a few fragments preserved by Athenseus. In a battle with the 
Athenians he lost his armour, which they suspended in the temple of Minerva at 
Sigaeum. Herodot. v. 95. 

To Mitylene Pompey sent his wife Cornelia, before the battle x>f Pharsalia, 
Lucan. v. 725. and went thither after his defeat, lb. viii. 40. 108. &c. Cas. b. 
civ. iii. 102. 

15 direction 



Thrace, 



direction with it, through the middle of Thrace, RHODOPE 
and PANGiEUS, plur. -aa. Rkdtipe runs from the Euxine 
sea to the sources of the Nessus and Pangseus, from thence 
into the north of Macedonia, where it joins Mount Hsemus, 
Dio, xlvii. 35. & 40. whence Dio places Philippi at the foot of 
Pangseus, lb. and Lucan, of Hsemus, i. 680. These mountains 
are often mentioned in the story of Orpheus, Virg. Eel. vi. 
30. viii. 44 G. iv. 461. *, Horat od. i. 12. 6. whence he is 
called Rhodopeius vates> Ovid. Met. x. 1 1 vel heros, lb. 50. 
Rhodope was much frequented by bacchanals, lb. vi. 589. 
Horat. od. iii. 25. 12. Rhodope, in fable is said to have been 
the daughter of Strymon and wife of Haemus, king of Thrace, 
who were both converted into mountains for having equalled 
themselves to Jupiter and Juno, Ovid. Met. vi. 87. There is 
another mountain in Thrace, often mentioned by the poets, 
called Ismarus, v. -or, plur. near the mouth of the river 
Hebrus, fruitful in wine, Virg. G. ii. 37. with which Ulysses is 
said to have intoxicated the Cyclops Polyphemus, Odys. ix. 197. 
whence Ismarius, -0, -urn^ Thracian, Virg. JEn. v. 620. ; Ovid. 
Met.ii. 257. ix. 641. xiii 530. x. 305. ep.'x. 46. thus Ismarius 
Itys, as being descended from Tereus, a Thracian king, Ovid. ep. 
xv. 154. Near the mountain was a town called Ismara, Virg. 
JEn. x. 351. 

The chief river in Thrace is the HEBRUS, which flows into 
the iEgean sea opposite to the island Samothrace, by two 
mouths; remarkable for the coldness and limpidness of its water, 

Horat. ep. i. 16. 13. and for its rapidity, Virg. JEn. i. 321. ■ 

On the east mouth stood Aenos or jEnos, said to have been 
built by ^Eneas, Mel. ii. 2. where was the tomb of Polydorus y 
,the son of Priam, Plin.'w. 11. 5 Virg. JEn. iii. 18. &c. see 
p. 188. near the lake Stenttiris, -tdis, Herodot. vii. 57. Around 

the Hebrus lived the Cicones, Mel. ii. 2. ; Plin. iv. 11. On 

the left branch of it stood DORISCUS v. - in the plains of 
which (Doriscus Campus) Xerxes numbered his forces, Herodot. 
vii. 59. & 108. ; Plin iv. ii.; Mel. ii. a. Through the west 
side of this plain ran the river LISSUS, between two towns, 
Mesembria and Stryma, which was not sufficient to supply the 

army of Xerxes with water, Herodot. ib. ; Juvenal, x. 177. 

Between Stryma and Mar one a was the lake Ismaris, -tdis ; and 
near Dicaa y the lake Bistonis, - tdis, into which two rivers, Tra- 
vus and Compsatus, run, Herodot. vii, 109. 

Near the mouth of the Nessus, on the east side, stood Ab- 
dera, founded by a colony from Teos in Ionia, Id. i. 168. ; 
Strab. xiv. 644. infested with thick air, which was supposed to 

render 



345 



Thrace. 



render the inhabitants dull, hence called Vervecum patria*, 
Juvenal, x. 50. the native city of Democritus, called the 
laughing philosopher, because he used to laugh at the follies of 
mankind f, Ib. 33. ; JElian. iv. 20. see p. 16. and of his scholar 
Protagoras, hence called AbderItes j who having expressed 
some doubt concerning the existence of the gods, was banished 
from Athens, and his books publiclv burnt, Cic. Nat. £>. i. r. 
& 23. 

Near Abdera was the residence of Diomedes, king of the 
Bistones, who fed his horses on human flesh, and was slain by 
Hercules. Abdera is said to have been built by that hero, who 
called it after Abderusy the son of Mercury, his favourite, who 
had been devoured by the horses of Diomed, Apollodor. ii. 5. 8. \ 
Plin. xxv. 8. /. 53. — Near this also was Scaptesyle, where 
were mines of silver and gold, Plutarch, in Cimone ; Lucret. vi. 
8 1 o. Here Thucydides had possessions, and here he is said to 
have written his history of the Peloponnesian war, Plutarch, ib. 
Isf de exilioy 19. 

Opposite to the mouth of the Nessus is the island THASUS 
or Thassosy anciently called Aeria or ^Ithria ; twenty- two 
miles from Abdera ; sixty-two miles frcm Athos, Plin. iv. 12. 
s. 23. mountainous, but fertile, Plutarch, deexilio, 16. remark- 
able for its wines and marble, Ib. & Senec. ep. 86. 

Opposite to the mouth of the Hebrus is the island SAMO- 
THRACE, -ca vel -day i. e. Samos Thracia v. Threiciay Virg. 
jEn. vii. 208. to distinguish it from the island Samos, Diodor. 
v.47. from a colony by which it was peopled, Strab. x. 457. 
formerly called Melita, Ib. 472. thirty-two miles in circum- 
ference ; thirty-eight miles from the continent of Thrace, and 
twenty-two miles from Lemnos, Plin. ib, where Cybele wa* 
greatly worshipped, Ib. 49. ; also Ceres and Proserpine, Strab, 
iv. 198. whence Dardanus is said to have brought the worship 

* The horses fed near Abdera are said to have been seized with madness, Plin. xxv. 
8. s.53. whence Abdera is put by Cicero for Stultus senatus, Att. iv. 16. and 'aC^s- 
Tixav, ioxstultum, foolbhj/i. vii. 7. Abderitana pectora plebis ttabes, you are mad or stupid. 
Martial, x. 25. So the notions of Democritus concerning the gods, which Cicero 
condemns as absurd, are said to be patrid Democriti, quam Democriio digniora, Id. Nat. 
D. i. 43. This city was without provocation taken by storm, its chief men beheaded, 
and its citizens sold for slaves, by Hortensius,the Roman Prator. But the senate con- 
demned his conduct, and restored the city to its former privileges, which it seems to 
have enjoyed to the time of Pliny, whence he calls it, libera civitas ; iv. 1 1. 

f Democritus travelled through different countries in quest of knowledge. Before 
he set out, he divided his patrimony among his brothers, reserving only what was re- 
quisite to defray his travelling charges, JElian. iv. 20. Democritus laughed at theactions 
of men, because he thought them the effect of folly ; and Heraditus wept, because he 
thought them productive of misery. Juvenal therefore contrasts them, x. 28. 

of 



Thrace, 



3*7 



of Cybele to Troy, Id. vii. 33 1. From him the island is some- 
times called DareIania, Plin. iv. 12. /. 23. About twelve 

miles south of it is the island IMBROS *, lb. 

On the HebruSj in the interior part of Thrace, stood Traja- 
nopolis, built by Trajan ; and north of mount Rhodope Adria- 
nopolis, built by Adrian, the capital of the Turks in Europe 
before they took Constantinople. 

North-east of the mouth of the Hebrus and the island Samo- 
thrace the jEgean sea terminates in a bay called the bay of 
Melas, ( sinus Meias, -finis, the Black Bay,) from a river of that 
name which runs into the top of it, Plin. iv. 1 1. 

This bay, approaching the Propontis within thirty-six stadia, 
about four miles and a half, forms a peninsula called the Cher- 
sonesUS, extending four hundred stadia, about fifty miles, be- 
tween the bay and the Hellespont. Hither the Athenians sent 
a colony under Miltiades, who built a wall across the isthmus, 
called /xaxpov Tei^oc, longus murus, to repel the incursions of the 
Absinthians f, Herodot. vi. 34. &c» 

On 

* Anciently the people of Thasus and Samothrace possessed several towns on the 
continent, Herodot. vii. 108. The Thasians were so powerful as to contend with the 
Athenians by sea, Tiueydid. i. IOO. Being defeated in several engagements, and be- 
sieged above two years, they were at last obliged to surrender, lb. 101. 

f This Miltiades was the son of Cypselus, deriving his origin in a long line from 
JEacus and ^Bglna. The Dolonci Thracians, who then possessed the Chersonesus, 
being hard pressed by the Absinthians, their neighbours, sent their chiefs to Delphi to 
consult the oracle about the war. The priestess directed them to choose, as the 
leader of a colony to their country, the person who should first invite them to his house. 
They passed through Phocis and Bceotia without receiving any invitation. As they 
went through Athens, Miltiades was sitting in his vestibule, and seeing by their arms 
and dress that they were strangers, called to them, and gave them lodging and enter- 
tainment. They communicated to him the answer of the oracle, and intreated him to 
do what it enjoined. Miltiades, dissatisfied with the government of Pisistratus, who 
then ruled at Athens, readily complied. The priestess of Apollo, whom he consulted, 
confirmed his resolution. Having therefore collected such Athenians as were willing 
to accompany him, he set sail with the Dolonci. Upon his arrival he was created King 
(rvptnes.) He first fortified the Isthmus; and having thus checked the Absinthians, 
he made war on the people of Lampsacus. They, by an ambush, took him prisoner ; 
but upon the application of Croesus, king of Lydia, who had a favour for Miltiades, he 
was liberated. 

Miltiades dying without issue, left his government and fortune to Stesagoras, the 
son of Cimoii, his brother by the mother's side; and Stesagoras being soon after slain, 
his brother, the great MILTIADES, who afterwards defeated the Persians at Mara- 
thon, was sent by the sons of Pisistratus (Pisistratida) to succeed him. He, upon his 
arrival, kept himself at home, as if to mourn for the loss of his brother. The chiefs of 
the country who came to condole with him he put in prison, and thus became master 
of the whole country. To strengthen his interest, he married Hegesipyle, the daughter 
of Olorus, a king of the Thracians, by whom he had Cimon, Plutarch, ih Cimone princ. 
Three years after he was obliged to fly, upon the invasion of the Scythians ; but upon 
their departure he was restored by the Dolonci. Darius, king of Persia, having 
reduced the lonians, sent a fleet of Phenicians to subdue the Chersonesus, and the 
islands around it. Upon their approach, Miltiades, having loaded five triremes with 



Thrace. 



On the end of the isthmus next the gulf of Melas was 
CARDIA, the birth-place of Eumenes, hence called Cardia- 
nus, Nep. ; and on the Propontis, Pactye, lb. tsf Plin. iv. 
II. Lysimachus destroyed Cardia, and in its stead built at 
some distance a much larger city, called from himself LYSI- 
MACHIA *, Pausan. i. 9. often mentioned in the wars of the 
Romans, Polyb. 5. 34. ; Liv. xxxii. 34. xxxiv. 57. xxxiii. 38. 
& 40. xxxv. 15. xxxviii. 40. 

At the bottom of the gulf of Melas, opposite to the island 
Imbros, stood Alopeconnesus, near the promontory Mastusia y 
Mel. ii. 2. which Pliny places on the south-east corner of the 
Chersonesus, near the town Eleus or EUus> and opposite to the 
promontory Sigseum on the coast of Asia, at the south-end of 
the Hellespont f, iv. I IV 5 Liv. xxxi. 16. 

The Hellespont, or Sea of Helle, (<EAA>j£ novTo^} is so called 
from Helle, the daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, who is 
said to have been drowned while crossing it with her brother 

his most valuable effects, set sail for Athens. Metiochus, his eldest son by a former 
wife, who commanded one of the gallies, fell into the hands of the enemy ; and being 
carried to Darius, was treated by him with kindness, married a Persian woman, 
and settled in that country. Miltiades reached Athens in safety, Herodot. vi. 
34—43- 

Cornelius Nepos, in his life of Miltiades, differs greatly from the account of Hero- 
dotus. He makes Miltiades, the son of Cimon, to plant the first colony of Athenians 
in Chersonesus, 1. & 2. without taking any notice of his uncle or brother; and 
then to reduce Lemnos and the Cyclades, lb. 22. In other particulars they both 
agree. 

* Lysimachus was one of the generals of Alexander. He incurred the displeasure 
of that prince by shewing compassion to his old master Callisthenes. This philosopher 
had strongly expressed his disapprobation of Alexander for adopting the manners of the 
Peisians; on which account, under pretext of being privy to a conspiracy against the 
king's life, after having his ears, his nose, and lips cut off, and all his members dread- 
fully mangled, he was shut up in a cage with a dog, and thus carried about as a public 
spectacle. Lysimachus, moved with pity for so great a man suffering innocently, gave 
him poison, to free him from pain and ignominy. Alexander was so offended, that he 
ordered him to be exposed to a fierce lion. But when the lion furiously sprung at 
Lysimachus, he having wrapped his hand in his mantle, thrust it into the lion's mouth, 
and teai'ing out his tongue, killed him. The wrath of Alexander was turned into 
admiration ; and Lysimachus continued ever afterwards to be one of his chief 
favourites. After the death of Alexander he became king of Thrace, Justin, xv. 3.; 
Pausan. i. 9. ; Plin. viii. 16. s. 21. ; Senec. de Ira, iii. 1 7. clem. i. 25. ; Val. Max. ix. 
3. ext. i. ; Plutarch, in Demetrio, p. 901. But Curtius thinks this story a mere 
fable, viii. 1. 14. and simply says that Callisthenes was put to death by torture, lb. 8. 
21. Concerning the manner of his death authors differ, lb. & Cic. Tusc. iii. 10. v. 9. ; 
Pabir. Post. 9.; Arrian. iv. 14. ; Plutarch, in Alex. p. 696. 

f On this promontory stood the tomb of Hecuba, called Cynosskma, Tbucyd.vm. 
JO4. & 105. (i.e. to xuvos cvpec, canis tumulus,) Strab. xiii. 59J.; Plin iv. 11. as it 
is thought from her abusive language to the Greeks after she became * captive, 
Dionys. Cret. v. or rather from her being metamorphosed (in canem), Hygin. iii.; 
Juvenal, x. 271.; hence Locus extat, et ex re ttomen habet, Ovid. Met. xiii. 569. 
Here also was the tower and temple of Protesilaus> the first of the Greeks that landed 
on the Trojan shore, and who was slain by Hector, Plin. ib.; Hygin. 103.; Ovid. 
Met. xii. 67. 

Phryxus. 



Thrace. 



34* 



Phryxus. It is about sixty miles long in a winding course, and 
at a medium about three miles broad ; where narrowest, not 
quite one mile over (seven stadia, Herodot. iv. 85. vi. 34.; Strab. 
ii.p. 124. ; Plin. iv. 11. 375 toises). Here stood SESTOS on 
the European side, opposite to Abydos in Asia, famous for the 
loves of Hero and Leander # , Mel. ii. 2. whence the strait is 
called amore notatum JEquor, Lucan. 9. 954. ; south of which 
are now two castles to guard the straits, called the Dardanel- 
les. Near this Xerxes made a bridge of boats to transport his 
army. Helksponium junxit et maria ambulavit } Cic. Fin. ii. 34. 
Enropamque Asia, Sestonque admovit Abydo f, Lucan. ii. 674. 
{Cum stratum classibus tsdem supposiiumque rotls solidum aquor, 
Juvenal, x. 17$-) 

North of Sestos is Madytos and Cissa on the A EGOS PO- 
TAMOS J, or the Goafs River, (JEgos Jlumen,) at the mouth 
of which the Athenians under Philocles were defeated by the 
Lacedemonians under Lysander, with so great slaughter, that 
they lost their liberty and their all, Nep. Lysand. i. ; Alcib, 8. ; 
Conon. 1. and near it Chidria, whither the Athenians fled after 

their 

* Leander was a native of Abydus, (Abydenus,) and Hero of Sestus ; hence called 
Sestias, -adis, Stat. Theb. vi. 547. They became greatly enamoured of each other; 
and when their parents opposed their urrion, Leander used in the night-time to swim 
over to Hero, and return before morning ; whilst Hero held a burning torch on the 
top of a tower to direct his course. After doing this for a long time, Leander, in a 
tempestuous night, was drowned; and his body being cast on the Thracian shore, Hero, 
in despair, threw herself from her tower and perished in the waves, Musxus de Leand. 
4t Hero ; Ovid. ep. 1 8. & 1 9. ; Virg. G. Hi. 258. 

•j- When the bridge was first finished, a great tempest arising broke it to pieces. 
Whereupon Xerxes, greatly enraged, ordered the Hellespont and the winds to be 
chastised with three hundred lashes, and a pair of fetters to be thrown into the sea to 
chain it. Juvenal, x. 180. Those who had the charge of the work were beheaded, 
Herodot. vii. 34. & 35. The second attempt was successful, the bridge being con- 
structed with greater art, c. 36. The army took up seven days and nights in passing 
it, c. 56. Xerxes, observing the Hellespont covered with his ships, and the shores on 
both sides with his troops, is said to have shed tears when he reflected, that no one of 
so great a number should be alive an hundred years after, c. 45. & 46. This prince 
was actuated by very different passions at different times. One Pythius, a Lydian, 
who was so rich as to entertain Xerxes while at Sardis, and his whole army, besides 
offering to furnish him with money for carrying on the war ; observing the kiug pleased 
with his liberality, presumed to ask, that as all his five sons were in the army, the 
eldest might be left to take care of him in his old age. But Xerxes, highly offended 
at the request, ordered the young man to be put to death, and his body divided in 
two ; one half to be placed on the right side of the way, and the other on the left, and 
the whole army to pass between them, lb. 2,7. — 41. 

\ Stephanus de urbibus makes this place a city, and expresses it in the plural num- 
ber ; thus, 'aITOX -rorctfAoi, voXts tv 'EhXtio-vrovrw : so Tzetzes Chiliad. 'ii. 894- and 
most Greek writers; Plutarch, in Aicibiade, p- ail. f. et in Lysandro, p. 438. & 
439. Pausan. 3. 8. & ii. & 18. 9. 32. 10. 9. But Herodotus uses it in the singular, 
9. 118. ro the Latin writers, Nep. ibid. Plin. 2. 58. & 4. II. — It is commonly 
thought to be a river as its name imports ; or a station for ships, which Plutarch says 
shere anchored, i» *Atyes fforuftois ,ib.; so Diodorut, 13, 106. Probably there was 



Thrace, 



their defeat, Xenoph. de reb. Grae. ii. init. as also to * Sestos, 
Diodor. xiii. 106. 

At the junction of the Hellespont with the Propontis stood 
Callipolis, now GalliptSli, the first town in Europe possessed 
by the Turks, A.D. 1357, opposite to Lampsacus in Asia, at 
the distance of forty stadia, Strab. xiii. 489. 

The PROPONTIS, -idis, so called from its situation before 
the Pontus Euxinus, is one thousand four hundred stadia, or 
about one hundred and seventy-five miles long ; and five hun- 
dred stadia, or sixty-two miles broad, Herodot. iv. 85 ; now 
called the Sea of Marmora, from an island in it, abounding in 
marble , anciently Proconnesus, Strab. xiii. 588. called also 
Elaphonesus, from the number of deer on it, Plin. ib. s but some 
make this a separate island. 

On the Propontis were Bisanthe, Gams, Perinthus or Heraelea, 
Diodor. xvi. 77. and Selymbriaf, Mel. ii. 2. none of them re- 
markable. 

The sea between the Propontis and Pontus Euxinus, was 
called THRACIUS BOSPORUS or Bosphorus, (i. e. Boo* 
-arogoj, bovis transitu*, the passage of an ox or cow,) as it is said 
from Io crossing it in the form of a heifer, Apollodor. ii. 1. 3. ; 
Diofiys. 140. It is one hundred and twenty stadia, or sixteen 
miles long, and a mile and a half broad ; where narrowest, 
only five hundred paces, Plin. iv. 12. Herodotus says, four 
stadia, iv. 85. It was anciently called Mysius Bosporus, from 
the Mysi who lived on the east of it ; their country, Mysia, 
Strab. xii. 566. 

Near the junction of the Bosporus stood BYZANTIUM, 
now Constantinople or Stambol, called, by way of eminence, 
the Porte, from the excellence of its harbour*, whence the 
narrow sea is called The Straits of Constantinople. Near Byzan- 
tium, Darius, the father of Xerxes, made a bridge of boats 
for transporting the army which he led against the Scythians, 
Herodot. iv. 88, 89. &c. ; Plin. ib. The origin of this city 

both a river and a maritime town at the mouth of it. — Near this town or river 
(ad Acgts Jlumen,) a stone is said to have fallen from the sun ; according to the pre- 
diction of Anaxagoras, the philosopher, Plutarch- in Lysandro> p. 4:9. Tzetzes t Cbil. 
%. 89a. Plin. 2. 58. s. 59. 

* The Athenians were taken by surprise. Most of their vessels lay at anchor. 
These were either captured or destroyed. Only ten of the commanders escaped : 
among these was Conon, who fled to his friend Evagoras, king of C\ [>rus. Philocles 
fell into the hands of the enemy, and was put to death. Those who fted to Sest<* 
were obliged to submit, Diodor. ib. 

f Some suppose that this town is called by Ovid Imbria terra, Trist. i. 9. 18. 
but as Tbreicia Samos, i. e. Samotbracc, is mentioned immediately after, the island 
Imbros seems to be meant. The truth is, Ovid's account of his voyage in his elegy is 
not easily reconciled to the real situation of places. 

is 



Thrace, 



351 ^ 



is ascribed to different states, Justin, ix. i. ; Veil. ii. 15.; it was 
certainly founded by Greeks, Strab. vii. 320. The advantages 
of its situation are enumerated at great length by Polybius, iv. 
38. &c. which many ages after determined Constantine to 
make it the seat of the Roman empire, and to call it after his 
own name. It was anciently called Lygos, Plin. iv. 11. 

The chief cities along the Euxine sea * were Phinopolis, Phi- 
lea or Pbilia, Salmydesws or Halmydessus, Thynia, near a pro- 
montory of that name ; Apollonia, founded by the Milesians, 
whence Lucullus brought a colossal statue of Apollo to the 
Capitol at Rome, Strab. vii. 319.; Plin. xxxiv. 3. ; Anchialos 
and Mesembrza, built by a colony of Megarensians, at the south 
end of mount Hsemus, Strab. ib. This part of Thrace, along 
the Euxine sea, was called Pontus, Plin. ib, and the country 
extending to the mouth of the Danube, whence Ovid inscribes 
his letters from Totni ; Ex Ponto. So the kingdom of Mithri- 
dates in Asia, Cic. Manil. iii. 8. & 15. ; Virg. G. i. 58. 

The chief tribes of the Thracians were, the Edones, Madi, 
Bistfines, Cicones, Cam, Bessi, Caleta, Denseleta, Asta or Astii, 
and the Odrysje f, whose empire, Thucydides says, extended 

from 

* The Euxine sea is almost every where surrounded with mountains, more or less, 
distant from the shore: said to be eleven thousand one hundred stadia, or one thousand 
three hundred and eighty-seven miles and a half long; and three thousand three hun- 
dred stadi2, or four hundred and twelve miles and a half broad, Herodot. iv. 85. Strabo 
makes its length eight thousand eight hundred stadia, or one thousand one hundred 
miles; and its circumference, twenty-five thousand stadia, or three thousand one hun- 
dred and twenty-five miles, ii- 125. It receives about forty rivers, some of them very 
large, I'd. 7. 298. These cover it with flakes of ice in severe winters, mitigate the 
saltness of its waters, and convey into it a vast quantity of mud and vegetable substances, 
which attract and fatten the fish. Tunny, turbots, and almost every species are found 
here in great abundance, Strab. vii. 310. and the more so, as this sea nourishes no vo- 
racious or destructive fish, Arist. hist. anim. viii. 19.; Plin. ix. 15. s. 20. The Euxine 
sea is frequently enveloped in dark fogs, whence it is called the Black Sea. It is often 
agitated by violent tempests. It was anciently called Axenos by the Greeks, from the 
inhospitable and savage disposition of the people who dwelt near it, (ab inhospitall feri- 
tate, Plin. vi. I.), and afterwards by a more auspicious name, EuxTnus, Ovid. Trist. iv. 
4. 55. v. 10. 13.; Plin. 4. 12. s. 24. or because the people who settled on it, many of 
them Greeks, were more hospitable ; which, however, Ovid denies. It is not deep, 
except towards the eastern part, where there are gulfs which cannot be fathomed, 
Strab. i. 50. and where it was supposed to communicate with the Caspian sea below 
ground. It is divided, as it were, into two parts, by two promontories projecting from 
the European and Asiatic sides, opposite to each other; that on the European side called 
Crlu-Metopon (i. e.arietes /tons, the forehead of a ram) ; and on the Asiatic, Caram- 
bis, Strab. vii. 309. ; only one hundred and seventy miles distant, Plin. iv. 12. s. 26. 
hence this sea was said to resemble, in its form, the shape of a Scythian bow, Ib. Sc 
Strab. ii. 115. There is a constant current from the Euxine sea into the Propontis, 
{Pontus temper extra meat in Propontidem,) Plin. ii. 97. s. IOO. f. So iv. 13. s. 27. Senec. 
Nat. Q. iv.2. f. 

f Whence Qdrysla tellus for Thrace, Sil. 4. 433. Odryslus Boreas, the Thracian 
north wind, Id. vii. 570. Odryslus dux, Rhesus, king of Thrace, Ovid. art. am. ii. 
130. Rex, Tereus, the husband of Proqne, Met. vi. 490. Odrysium carmen, the poems 
©f Orpheus, born in Thrace, Vall.Phcc. v. 594. Odrysia baste y the spear of Mars, Stat. 

Acbill- 



352 



TJirace. 



from Abdera and the mouth of the Nessus to the Euxine sea and 
the mouth of the Ister, ii. 97. & 29. 

There are at the mouth of the Euxine sea, about twenty stadia 
from its junction with the Bosporus, two small islands or ra- 
ther rocks, the one near Europe and the other near Asia, call- 
ed CYANEiE or Symplegades, sing. Symplegas, supposed by 
the ancients to be moveable or floating islands, as seeming to 
meet and dash together, and again to remove from each other; 
a mere deception of sight, Herodot. iv. 85. ; Strab. vii. 3 19. ; 
Mel. ii. 7. ; Plin. iv. 13. ; Ovid. ep. xii. 1 21. 5 Trist. i. 9. 34. 
& 47. Lucan seems to hint that they became fixed when they 
failed to destroy the ship Argo, ii. 718.* 



Illyricum. 

This country was also called lllyris. Its limits were not pre- 
cisely ascertained. They are made more or less extensive by 
different authors, Strab. vii. 313. Its chief divisions were 
Liburnia and Dalmatia, which last name now includes both. 
The principal city of Dalmatia was Saldna or -na, famous for 
the palace of Dioclesian, where he lived in retirement, after 
resigning the empire, A. D. 305. The ruins of it still remain 
near Spalatro. 

There are a great many islands along the coast, most of which 
belong to the Venetians. South of these stood Epidaurus and 
Dioclea, the birth-place of Dioclesian, near which is now the 
city Ragusa f , a republic, which however pays tribute to the 
Turks. The countries now called Bosnia, Croatia, and Sclavoma, 
commonly included in ancient Illyricum, are frontier provinces 

between the house of Austria and the Turks. The Sclavonic 

language prevails from the Hadriatic to the northern ocean. 

Slavi, or Slaves, is a term used by most nations in Europe to de- 
note the lowest class of mankind, probably from the people of 
that name being reduced to a state of slavery by their conquerors. 

Achill. \. 485. the god of the Thracians, whence Thrace is called Mavortia tellus, 
Virg. JEn. iii. 13. on account of the martial spirit of its inhabitants, bello furiosa 
Thrace, Horat. od. ii. 16.5. and Mars is represented as coursing or pacing along the 
river Strymon on a Thracian steed (Bisionius sonifies) after finishing his warlike toils, 
{exhaustis amis?) Stat, Silv. i. I. 18. 

* Juvenal mentions a people in Thrace called Pygmies (PYGMiEI a ieuy(ji.n t vel 
tvyuv, cubitus) not much above a foot high, who carried on a perpetual war with the 
cranes, xiii. 168. — Pliny says, they were driven from Thrace by the cranes, iv. U.S. 18. 
He afterwards places them in India, vii. 2. So Gellius, ix. 4. who both made thent 
•f a greater size than Juvenal. 

■f Ragusa, Venice, Genoa, and Poglizza, have now ceased to be independent states. 



Mcesia and Dacia, 



M-3ESIA. 

M JEST A extended from the Euxine sea betwixt mount Hs3- 
mus and the Danube, to the conjunction of that river with the 
Savus or Save, near Belgrade, Plin. iii. 26. It was divided by 
the river Ciabrus into Superior, now Servia ; and Inferior, now 
Bulgaria. A considerable part of the former was called Dar- 
dania ; and of the latter, towards the mouth of the Danube, 
Pontus, the country of the Geta, who likewise lived north of 
that river. These, by some of the ancients, were thought to 
be the same with the Goths. 

At the conflux of the river Jatrus with the Danube stood 
Nicopolis, built by Trajan, in memory of his victory over De- 
cebalus king of the Dacians ; near which the Christians were 
defeated by Bajazet emperor of the Turks, A. D. 1393. 

On the Euxine sea stood TOMI, the place of Ovid's banish- 
ment, supposed to have been called by this name, because 
Medea here cut to pieces her brother Absyrtes, and scattered 
his members by the way, to stop her father's pursuit, Ovid. 
Trist. iii. 9. 5. & 33. founded by a colony from Miletus, lb. 3. 
hence called MlLETIS (-idis) urbs, 3. i. 9. 41. the inhabit- 
ants TOM IT At, lb. 2. 85. and its territory Tomitanus ager, Id. 

Pont. iii. 8. 2 South of Tomi was Odyssus or Adessus, 

now Varjta, where the Hungarians were defeated by the Turks 
under Amurath, A. D. 1444. 

The Danube, as it approached the sea, was called Ister. It 
flows into the Euxine by seven mouths. Some make them only 
six, and some five. These form as many islands. The south- 
most of which was called Peuce, the people Peucini. Above 
this was the bridge of Darius, built when he made war on the 
Scythians, Herodot. iv. 89. and the town iE.Gissus or j^gypsos, 
Ovid. Pont. i. 8. II, 

Dacia. 

Dacia extended to the Carpathian mountains betwixt the 
Tibiscus, Teiss, and the Hierasus, Pruth, on the banks of 
which Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, being surrounded by 
the Turks, was extricated by the address of his Czarina Cathe- 
rine, 171 1. 

This province was conquered by Trajan, who joined it to 
Mxsia by a bridge over the Danube, the most magnificent of 
his works. It was raised on twenty piers of hewn stone, one 
hundred and fifty feet from the foundation, sixty broad, and one 

A a hundred 



35* 



Sarmatia. 



hundred and seventy distant from each other *. The architect 
was Apollonius Damascenus. This astonishing work, through 
the envy of his successor Adrian, was demolished, Dio, lviii. 13. 

The modern divisions of Dacia are, Wallachia and Moldavia, 
their capital Chotzim, subject to the Turks ; Transylvania, 
capital Hermanstad, subject to the House of Austria. 

The other provinces of the Turkish empire in Europe were 
anciently included in 

Sarmatia or Scythia. 

Under this name was comprehended a considerable part of 
Europe. It was inhabited by various states, whose very names 
were unknown to the Romans. The most noted were the 
Sarmata or Sauromatx, near the mouth of the Tanais, Plin. iv. 
12. 4". 25. vi. 7. Mel. 11. 1. the Geloni, and Agathyrsi, east of 
the Borysthenes, who painted their bodies, Virg. JEn. iv. 146. and 
lived a wandering life, as their successors the Tartars do still ^ 
whence campestres Scythje, &c. Horat. od. iii. 24. 9. called 
Hamaxobii, (quia pro sedibus plaustra habebant,) Plin. ib. These 
countries were successively occupied by the Goths and Vandals, 
Huns, Alans, Roxolanians, and other barbarous nations which 
over-ran the Roman empire. The modern divisions subject to 
the Turks are Bessarabia, between the mouth of the Danube 
and that of the Niester, on which is situate Bender, famous for 
having been the retreat of Charles XII. of Sweden, when he fled 
to Turkey, after being defeated by the Russians under Peter the 
Great at the battle of Pultowa, A. D. 1709. 

Betwixt the Niester and the Borysthenes is Budziac Tartary; 
east of which to the Tanais is Little Tartary. 

At the bottom of the Palus Moeotis is Crim Tartary, Cher-, 
sonesus Taurica, some years ago the scene of bloody contests be- 
twixt the Russians and the Turks. The town of Crim, whence 
the peninsula has its name, is now reduced to a village. On 
the Isthmus, Precop, a place of small strength ; and on the 
Straits, Caff a, the chief town. 

The ancient towns on the Straits were, PantIcap^um, the 
capital of the Bospovani, at the mouth of the lake Mceotis ; and 
five hundred and thirty stadia, or sixty-six miles and a quarter 
from it, Theodosia, now supposed tobeCaffa,&nz£.vii. 309. & 3 r 1 . 

The inhabitants of these parts of Tartary used to be subject 
to the Turks, although governed by a Cham chosen by them- 
selves ; but since the late successes of the Russians, they have 
been declared independent. 

* Thus the length of it was from one extremity to the other about 3400 feet, nearly 
sliree times more than that of Westminster, which is only 1270. feet long. 

FABULOUS 



( 35$ ) 



FABULOUS HISTORY of the GREEKS. 



I. Fabulous History of CRETE. 
Saturn. 

THE most ancient king of -Crete was SATURN* the soft 
of Ccelus or Ouranos, Heaven, and Terra, the earth, Apollodar, 
% i. ; Lactant.i. ii. & 15. His elder brother TITAN yielded 
the kingdom to him, on this condition, that he should rear no 
male offspring. Therefore he is said to have devoured all his 
sons as soon as born f, lb. 13. •, Diodor. v. 70. 5 Ovid. Fast. iv. 
200. But his wife OPS or RHEA J, when she brought forth 
Jupiter, artfully deceived her husband, by giving him a stone 
wrapped round with swaddling clothes, instead of the child, 
and Saturn is said not to have perceived the difference, Pausan. 
viii. 8. & 36. ; Ovid. Fast. iv. 205. The same artifice was 
v used at the birth of Neptune and Pluto, Lactant. i. 14. 

Jupiter was entrusted to the care of certain young men, called 
Curetes, Corybantes, or Dactyli iDiEl, Serv. in Virg. 
G. iv. 149. &c. JEn. iii. 131. ; Ovid. Met. iv. 282. who, by 
beating on cymbals and on brazen shields, made a noise around 
the child to prevent Saturn from hearing his cries* Hygin. 
139. ; Lucret. ii. 633. whence the priests of Cybele were called 
by these names, an$ used the same kind of noise in her sacred 
rites, Strab. x. 466. •, Herat, od. 1. 16. 8. ; Stat. Theb. iv. 792. 
They nursed Jupiter with honey in a cave on mount Dicte, 
(Dictao sub antro, whence he is called DiCT-SEUS, Stat. Theb. 

iii, 481.) whither the bees are said to have been attracted by 
the sound of the cymbals and shields, Virg. G. iv. 150. and 
with the milk of a goat, caiie'd Amalth^a, which had two 

* Saturnus, uula se saturat annh, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 24. 

f Hence he is called impius, Horat. ed. ii. 17. 22. and gravis, Pers. v. 50. or 
rather because it was thought unlucky to be born under the planet Saturn, Propett. 

iv. I. 84. ; Juvenal, vi. 569. ; Plin. ii. 8. 

\ The same .was also his sister, and likewise called Cybele, Virg. JEn. iii, in-, xi. 
. 768. vel. Cybele, or rather Cybebe, lb. x. 220. or Cybelle, Profiert. iii. 17. 35. 
Mater. Berecynthia, Virg. JEn. vi. 785. ix. 82. Id,-ea, lb. ix. 620. and Dindy- 
Mene, Horat. od. i. 16. 5. Martial, viii. 81. from Cybele, Ovid. Fast. iv. 249. & 
363. Perecynthus, Ida, snd Dindjmus, mountains in Phrygian where she was wor- 
shipped, Strab. x. 469. 

A a 2 - kids, 



356 



Fabulous History of Crete. 



kids, Hygin. Astr.u. 13. In return for which service, (pro 
qua mercede,) Jupiter, when he became king of heaven, \ubi 
res coeli tenuity) placed the goat and her kids among the con- 
stellations, where they are still called Capella and HiEDi 
(termed by Ovid, pecus Olenium, ep. xviii. 188. from Olenos, 
a town in iEolis, Hygin. ib. or iEtolia, Serv. in Virg. JEn. xi. 
239 near which they were produced) ; and endued the bees 
with the wonderful sagacity which they now possess, Virg. G. 
iv. 149. and gave them the faculty of producing their young 
with such facility # , Serv. ib. 153. 

Saturn received from his mother a scythe made of the metal 
extracted from her bowels, Strab. xiv. 654. whence he is 
called Falcifer, Ovid. Fast. i. 234. v. 627. in 3tde 9 216. With 
this scythe he is said to have mutilated his father, (patrem exse- 
cuisse, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 24.*, Pausan. vii. 23. Genitalia ei absci- 
disse, Macrob. Sat i. 8. ; Lactant. i. 12. Ovid, in Ibin, 275.) 

Titan being informed that the sons of Saturn were preserved 
and educated privately, made war upon Saturn ; and having 
vanquished him, shut him up in prison, together with Ops his 
wife. But Jupiter, being now grown up to manhood, having 
collected a body of Cretans, defeated Titan, and his sons 
(Titanes), liberated his parents, and replaced his father on the 
throne. Soon after, however, Saturn being warned by an oracle 
to beware of his son, lest he should be dethroned by him, be- 
gan to form plots against his life ; on which account he was 
expelled by Jupiter from the kingdom f, Lactant. i. 14. 

Saturn, having wandered over many countries, (orbe perer- 
ratoy) came into Italy, whence that country was called Satur- 

* Lactantius says, that Jupiter was nursed by Melissa and Amaltbaa, two daughters 
of Melisseus, the first king of Crete, with goat's milk and honey; and that this gave 
occasion to the fable of bees (/ztXttrcrai) coming and filling the mouth of the child 
with honey, i. 22. Ovid says, that Jupiter was concealed in the woods by Amalthea, 
2 nymph {N'dis, -Wis), on mount Ida, who had'a beautiful she-goat, the mother of 
two kids, which fed Jupiter with her milk. This she-goat having broken one of her 
iiorns on a tree, the nymph took it up; and having bound it round with fresh herbs, 
and filled it with apples, brought it to Jupiter, who afterwards made it the born of 
.Plenty, {Fertile Cornu, i. e. Cornucopije v. Cornucopia,) Ovid. Fast. v. 1 13. — 
129. This Pliny calls the horn of Amalthea, prof, but Ovid elsewhere makes it the 
horn of Achelous. Met. ix. 87. The Genius of Rome was usually represented with a 
rudder of a ship in one hand, and a cornucopia in the other, Marcellin. xxv. 2. ; 
Gruter. Inscript. 

With the skin of this goat Jupiter covered his shield ; hence it is called iEdS, 
-idis, Serv. in Virg. JEn. viii. 354. from diyo$, capra ; and himself , Atyiox,ot > 
1. e. agida gestans vel babens, Homer. II. i. 20 1. 

f Saturnus regnis ab Jove pulsus erat, Ovid. Fast. iii. 796. or, as others say, im- 
prisoned in Tartarus, [teuebrosa in Tartara missus, Ovid. Met. i. 113. Vinctus a fl'10 
Jovcy Cic. Nat. D. ii. 24.) whence he afterwards made his escape. Pausanias speaks 
of a contest between Jupiter and Saturn at Olympia, concerning the empire, v. ~. 
viii. 2. 

NIA, 



Jupiter* 



357 



, Kia, and the part of it where he settled, L ATIUM, (iatenteDEo } ) 
Ovid. Fast. i. 235. In memory of his having come by sea, the 
figure of. a ship was afterwards impressed on the Roman coins, 
lb. 239. Saturn was kindly received by Janus *, then king of 

the country, who gave him a share of his kingdom. Saturn 

civilized the rude inhabitants of the place (Queis neque mos, 
neque cultus erat, &c), by teaching them agriculture, and 
prescribing to them laws, Virg. JEn. viii. 315. &c. The 
happiness which these improvements produced made the time 
of his reign (Saturnia regna, Virg. Eel. iv. 6.) be called the 
Go/den age f, (aurea secula,Ib. 324. Aurea atas, Ovid. Met. i. 89.) 
which Ovid beautifully describes, lb. and Virgil, Eel. iv. 6. 
&c. G. i. 125. JEn, vii. 202. likewise Tibullus, i. 3. 35. 
To this Juvenal finely alludes, xiii. 38.— After Saturn dis- 
appeared from the earth, [cum non comparuisset,) Janus instituted 
a festival in honour of him, called SATURNALIA, which was 
afterwards observed by the Romans with the greatest solemnity 
in the middle of December \ when slaves were permitted the 
greatest freedom, in commemoration of that liberty which all 
men had enjoyed under Saturn, Macrob. Sat. i. 7. The wool- 
len cord with which the image of Saturn was bound through 
the year, was then loosed, Stat. Silv. i. 6, 4. 

Jupiter. 

Under Jupiter the manners of men are supposed to have 
degenerated ; hence that age is called deterior ac decolor iETAS, 
Virg. JEn. viii. 326. Argentea proles, i. e. <ztas, the silver age. 
Auro deterior yfulvo pretiosior are > Ovid. Met. i. 114. described 

* JANUS was a god peculiar to the Romans. The Greeks had no such divinity 
(par nulldm Grecia numen habet } ) Ovid. Fast. i. 90. He was supposed to have been the- 
most ancient of the gods, and was addressed by the title of Pater Jane, Juvenal, vi. 
393. or Matutine Pater, Horat. Sat. ii. 6.20. He was first invoked in all sacred rites, 
Cic. Nat. Z>. ii. ZJ. ; Ovid. Fast. i. 17a* ; Macrob. Sat. i. 9.; Martial, x. 28. Ovid 
confounds him with Chaos, Fast. i. 103. and he is said to have arranged the universe. 
Macrob. Sat. i. 9. It was his office to preside over the gates of heaven, Ovid. Fast. i. 
125. and to open and shut every thing, lb. 118. hence the entrances to houses were 
from him called Januje, Cic. Nat. D. ii. 27. and the first month of the year Janu- 
arius, Varr. Lat. Ling. v. 4. He was represented with two faces, (bifrons, Virg. 
JEn. vii. 180. xii. 198.) or two heads, (biceps, Ovid. Fast.i. 65.) His temple at 
Rome was shut in time of peace and open in time of war. It was only twice shut 
from the origin of Rome to the battle of Actium ; first under Numa, and next at the 

end of the first Punic war, Liv. i. 19. There was another god peculiar to the 

Romans, called Terminus, who presided over limits and boundaries, Ovid. Fast. 
ii. 640. &c. 

J-JWhence Saturn is called Aureus, Virg. G. ii. 538. He is also named Vi- 
TISATOR, the planter of vines, {curvam servans sub imagine falcem,) JEn. vii. 1 79. 
although this epithet seems at first sight to be here applied to Sabinus, (who gave 
name to the Sabines,) but the best commentators refer it to Saturn, 

A a 3 



S5S Fabulous History of Crete. 

Ib. & Virg. G. i. 129. &c. Then follows the brazen age> and 
last of all, the iron age y [De duro est ultima ferro,)* Ovid. ib. 127. 

Although the poets sometimes speak of Jupiter as king of 
Crete, yet he is usually represented as the sovereign of heaven 
and of earth, as the father of gods and of men •, from whom 
most of the other gods, and almost all the heroes, were de- 
scended f . How he came to be considered under this charac- 
ter, or how the family of Jupiter came to be acknowledged as 
divinities by other countries, is not ascertained. Diodorus Si- 
culus simply observes that most of the gods came from Crete ; 
and wandering over many parts of the world, improved the 
nations of men by communicating to them their inventions, v. 
77. Juvenal seems to hint that they rather corrupted the man- 
ners of men by their profligacy and crimes ; and thus artfully 
exposes the hurtful effects of a false religion, xiii. 37. — 60. 

There were several^of the name of Jupiter, (plures Joves,) 
Cic. Nat. D. iii. 16. ; Cicero mentions three, Ib. 21. and others 
more. Jupiter divided with his brothers the empire of the 
world : to Neptune he gave the command of the sea *, to Pluto, 
of the infernal regions ; to himself he reserved the government 
of the heaven and earth, Ovid. Fast. iv. 59/9, This division is 
said to have been made by lot, Apolkdor. i. 2. 1 . 

Jupiter is usually represented as sitting on an ivory throne, 
holding a sceptre in his right hand and a thunderbolt (fulmen) 
in his left, with an eagle, (hence called Minister fulminis y Ho- 
rat. od.. iv. 4. 1.5 et Jovis ales, Sil. iv. 1 1 3.) and Hebe, the 
daughter of Juno and goddess of youth, or the boy Ganymedes> 
the son of Tros, his cup-bearer, attending on him. This boy 
was carried off from mount Ida by an eagle to heaven, Virg, 
JEn. v. 254. ; Stat. Theb. i. 548. j hence called Puer Iliacus by 
Juvenal, xiii. 43 4 

Sisters 

* The Greeks reckoned eight different ages, denominated from various metals, both 
simple and compound, gold, silver, amber, (thought by some a metal,) brass, copper, 
tin, lead, and irons. To this Juvenal alludes, xiii. 28. 

f Divum atque hominum pater, Cic. Nat. D. ii. 25. Divum pater atque hominum rex, 
Virg. JEn. i. 65. &c. Jupiter arces temper at cethereas, et tnundi regno triformis, Ovid. 
Met. xv. 858. 

\ JUPITER (Zsy n«<rs£, the voc. of Ztvs Ilar^, quasi juvans pater, Cic Nat. 
D. ii. 25.) was called by various names: Summus, Virg. JEn. xi. 785. or Su- 
premus, Horat. od. i. 32. 13.; CapitolTkus, from his temple in the capitol; 
Optimus, from his beneficence; and Maximus, from his power, Cic. Dom. 57 . ; 
Feretrius, from Romulus carrying into the city in triumph the spoils of Acron, 
king of the Cseninenses, whom he had slain in single combat, suspended on a frame 
(feretro), Liv. i. 10.; Elicius, because they drew (eliciebant) Jupiter, as it were, 
from heaven, by a set form of words (certo carmine), to explain prodigies, Liv. i. 20. 
£t 31.: Ovid. Fast. iii. 327. ; STATOR, because he stopped (sistebat) the flight of 
the' Romans when engaged with the Sabines, upon the prayer of Romulus, Liv. i. ia. 



Sistejs of Jtcpiter* 



359 



Sisters of Jupiter. 

The sisters of Jupiter were, Juno, Vesta, and Ceres, Ovid. 
Tast. vi. 285. 

1. JUNO, whom he married •, whence she became the 
queen of the gods, (divum Regina, Virg. JEn. i. 46.) She 
presided over marriage and child-birth, lb. iv 166. ; Terent, 
And, iii. 1. 15. {torts qua prasidet alma mar his,) Ovid. ep. ii. 
41. ; also over the air, (aeris arbitra, Macrob. Sat, i. 15.) 
hence put for the air, Id. in Somn, Scip. i. 57. 5 likewise for the 
earth, Virg. G. ii. 326. ; and then Jupiter is put for the sky or 
air (^Ether,) lb. as in these phrases, sub Jove, sub Dio, under 
the air or open sky, Horat. od, i. 1. 25. ii. 3. 23. Juno is com- 
monly represented in ancient statues, and on medals, in a long 
robe, covering her from head to foot, with an air of majesty, 
and large eyes, (Bowtti^ noTvict 'H^vj, Homer,) wearing a crown 
set round with roses and lilies, holding a sceptre in her hand, 
and riding in a chariot drawn by peacocks, Ovid. Met. ii. 531. 
hence called volucres Junonijs, Ovid. Medic. fac, 33 j Stat. Silv. 
ii. 4. 26. ; Junonis aves, Juvenal, vii. '32. attended by the Aura 
or air nymphs, and Iris, the daughter of Thaumas, (Thau- 
mantis,) Stat. Silv. iii. 3. 8. — The distinguishing character of 
Juno is that of a jealous and imperious wife, often upbraiding 
her husband ; for which Jupiter, by his amours, gave her fre- 
quent cause, Ovid. Trist. ii. 292. ; Met, vi. 103. &c. 

Juno was worshipped chiefly in the island Samos and at Car- 
thage, Virg, JEn. i. 15. She was called Regina or Regia, Pro- 
nuba, Matrona, and Lucina. 

2. VESTA, the goddess of fire ; who is sometimes con- 
founded with Cybele, the goddess of the earth ; hence Vesta 
eadem est, qua Terra; subest vigil ignis utrique, sc. Vesta et 

see also x. 36. ; Latiaris, i.e. presiding over or worshipped in Latium, Li-v. xxi. 
63. xxii. I. rather perhaps because he was jointly worshipped on mount Albanus, by 
the Romans and Latins, Cic. Mil. 31. ; Olympius vel Olympicus, worshipped at 
Olympia in Elis, where he had a celebrated temple and statue made by Phidias, Sirab, 
v »'i« 35 3> & 354-; Salutaris et Hospitalis, the -guardian of the safety of men 
and of hospitality, Cic. Fin. iii. 20. ; Minianus, having his statue painted with 
vermillion {minio) on festival days, Cic. ep. ix. 16. as the faces of those who triumphed 
were, Plin. xxxiii. 7. j, 36.; Tonans vel Fulminans, Horat. od. Yu. 3. 6.; Ma- 
LUS, angry, hurtful, Slat. Theb. X. 373. ; Malus Jupiter, bad air, Horat. od i. 22. 
\y.\puro numine Jupiter ■, a clear sky, as in a keen frost, lb. iii. 10. 8. ; Imbres nivesqut 
iedecunt Jovem, bring down the air, Epod. xiii. 2. So Jupiter et Iceto descendet pluri- 
mus imbri, the air will descend abundantly, Virg. Eel. vii. 60. ; called iETHER, and 
the earth put for Juno, his wife, Id. G. ii. 325. ; Lutret. i. 251. ii. 991. ; Jo-vem la- 
pidem jurare, fc. per Jovem et lapidem, to swear by Jupiter, holding a flint in the right 
hand, Cit, Earn. vii. 1, & 1%. ; Liv. xxi. 45. ; Gell. i. 21. 

A a 4 Terra, 



360 Fabulous History of Crete. 

Terra, because fire was kept always burning on the altar of 
Vesta, and the earth was supposed to contain subterraneous 
fire, Ovid. Fast. vi. 267. 1 She was supposed to be named Ves- 
ta, (quod Stat vi terra sua : vi stando Vesta vacatur, lb. 299.) 
or from 'Emu, the Greek name of a hearth, lb. 301. \ Cic. 
Nat. D. ii. 27 ^Eneas is said to have introduced the worship 
of Vesta into Italy from Troy, Virg. JEn. ii. 296. and a tem- 
ple was built to her at Rome by Numa, of a round figure, m 
imitation of that of the earth, [Terra pU a similis nulla fulcimine 
nixa,) Ovid Fast vi. 269. Festus in voce Rotunda. Vesta 
always preserved her virginity ; hence her sacred rites were 
performed by virgins, called Vestal Virgins. 

3- CERES, the goddess of corn, Cic. Nat. D. ii. 26. She 
had a daughter by Jupiter, called Proserpina, or Persephone, 
who was carried off by Pluto as she was gathering flowers on 
the plains of Enna in Sicily, and became his wife. Ceres, having 
lighted a torch at the flame of mount iEtna, wandered in search 
of her daughter over the whole earth, holding the torch in her 
hand, Cic. Verr* iv. 48. whence she is called tadifera Dea, Ovido 
ep. ii. 42. Among other places she came to Eleusis in Attica, 
where being hospitably entertained by Celeus, called by some the 
king of that country, Apollodor. i. 5. 1. she restored his son Trip- 
tolemus, who was sick, to health, and taught him husbandry, 
Ovid. Met. v. 391. &c. ; Fast. iv. 401. &c. whence he is called 
Unci puer manstrator aratri, Virg. G. 1. 19. the knowledge of 
which art he communicated to other nations, Cic. Herenn. iv. 6. 

Triptolemus first instituted the sacred rites of Ceres, hence 
called sacra Eleusinia vel Thesmophoria, Hygin. 147. ; 
Pausan. ii. 42. the sacred writings of the lawgiver Ceres. 

Ceres at last having got notice from Sol, the Sun, that her 
daughter was married to Pluto, applied to Jupiter for redress. 
He promised to restore Proserpina to her, provided she had 
tasted nothing in the infernal regions. Mercury therefore being 
sent to inquire, brought back word, that as she passed through 
the Elysian fields she had tasted three grains of a pomegranate 
[malum Punicum). All therefore that Jupiter could grant was, 
that Proserpine should be six months in hell and six months in 
heaven with Ceres alternately, Ovid. Fast. iv. 583. — 615.5 
Met. v. 529, &c. 

Ceres is represented with yellow hair, crowned with ears of 
corn, a long robe, a swelling bosom ; holding in one hand 
poppies or ears of corn, and in the other a burning torch ; 
attended by Triptolemus, in a chariot drawn by flying serpents, 
in which he had been sent by Ceres to the different nations of 



Children of Jupiter. 



361 



the earth, to teach mankind the art of husbandry, Serv. in Virg. 
G. i* 18. ; Pausan. vii. 1 8. ; Ovid. Trist. iii. 8. i. 

Ceres was worshipped chiefly at Eleusis in Attica, and in 
Sicily, Cic. Verr. iv. 49. She is called Legifera, the law- 
giver, because laws are the effect of husbandry, Plin. viii. 56.; 
Serv. in Virg. JEn. iv. 58.; Act^a, because worshipped in 
Attica, Stat, Silv. iv. 8. 50. •, and Arcana, from the secrecy 
observed in celebrating her sacred rites, Horat. od, ii. 2. 27* 



Children of Jupiter. 
The children of Jupiter who became celestial deities were : 

I. MINERVA or PALLAS, (AV*)>) said to have sprung 
(prosiluisse) from the skull or brain of Jupiter armed with her 
shield *, Ovid. Fast. iii. 841. ; Lucan. ix. 350. by means of a 
stroke of Vulcan's ax, Lucian. Dial. Fabulos. Minerva was the 
goddess of wisdom and of war 5 the inventress of spinning and 
weaving, of warlike chariots, &c. She continued always a 
virgin, therefore called innupta, Virg. JEn. ii. 31. or innujsa 3 
Val. Flacc. i. 87. — represented as beautiful, but without soft- 
ness ; with azure or sky-coloured eyes, (ex yAauxo^, cceruleus^ 
et co\fr, oculusy) whence she is called by Homer ThotuxcoTrig [Adqyi)] 
having on her head a helmet, and on the top of it a plume nod- 
ding in the air ; holding in her right hand a spear, and in her 
left a shield, called dSgis, because covered with the skin of the 
goat Amalthxa. In the middle of the shield was the head of 
the Gorgon Medusa, which sometimes also was marked on her 

breast-plate f . . The birds sacred to Minerva were the cock 

and owl ; and among reptiles the dragon. She was called 
Tritonia, Ovid. Met. vi. 1. , toucan, ix, 682. *, Virg. JEn. ii. 
171. Tritonia Pallas, Virg. ib. 615. v. 704. Tritonia 
virgo, lb. xi. 483. or Tritonis, -zdis, Lucan. ix. 354. from 
Tritonis or Triton, a lake in Lybia, Herodot. iv. 178. 5 Diodor. 
iii. 53. because she first appeared near it ; Lybia, from its heat, 
being thought to be not far from heaven, {Nam proxima coelo est $ 
ut calor ipse probat, Lucan. ix. 351. see p. 2.) 

Pallas, of all the gods, was next in dignity to Jupiter, HoraL 
od. i. 12. 19. Hesiod says she was equal to him in strength 
and wisdom, Theog. 896. 

* From the brandishing of her shield she is called Pallas (a irttXXai, viire). 
f Hence she is called by a periphrasis JPugnans (sc. Dea) Gorgone Maura, Juvenal* 
x\\, 4. 

A dis«* 



562 Fabulous History of Crete. 



A dispute having arisen between Minerva and Neptune, about 
giving name to the new city which Cecrops built, it was de- 
termined by the gods, that whichsoever of them produced the 
most useful thing to man should have that honour. Neptune 
produced a horse, Virg. G. i. 13. and Minerva made an olive 
spring from the ground. The latter discovery being preferred, 
Minervarcalled the city from her own name ATHEN Je *, Plu- 
tarch, in Themist. ; Pausan. i. 24. ; Ovid. Met. vi. 70. — 82. 
Kence Tritcmde, i. e. olea, ferities Athenje, Stat. Silv. ii. 7. 
28. Act*a Virgo, i. e. Minerva, Stat. Silv. v. 2. 128. Palladia 
silva, a plantation of olives, Virg. G. 2. 181. 

Arachne, t|ie daughter of Idmon of Colophon in Lydia, 
having challenged Minerva to a contest at spinning and weav- 
ing, was for her presumption turned into a spider, Ovid. Met. 
Ti. 1. 145* , 

II. MARg, (A§vj£y) the son of Jupiter and Juno; or, ac- 
cording to Ovid, of Juno only, Fast. v. 231. &c. the god of 
war, worshipped with particular veneration by the Romans, as 
the supposed father of Romulus their founder, and by the 
Thracians, among whom he was supposed to reside, Stat. Theb. 
vii. 40. &c. j Silv. iv. 2. 46. whence Thrace is called Terra 
Mavortia, Virg. JEn. iii. 14. and from the Get*, a neigh- 
bouring people, Getica arva, lb. 35. His priests were called 
Salii, who kept with great care a shield of Mars (ANCILE), 
which was supposed to have fallen from heaven in the reign of 
Numa, Serv. in Virg. JEn. vii. 188. ; Ovid. Fast. iii. 373. com- 
monly called Ancilia, plur. because eleven other shields were 
made exactly like it, that it might not be. stolen. 

Mars is represented with a fierce aspect, riding in a chariot 
or on horseback, with an helmet and a spear, (framea,) Ju- 
venal, xiii, 79. He was called Pater Gradivus, Virg. uFn. 
ill. 35. from the military pace (a gradiendo) and when peace- 
able, Quirinus, Serv. in Virg. JEn. i. 296. Mars was attended 
by the goddess of Discord^ with a torn robe; and BELLONA, 
the goddess of war, with a bloody whip, lb. viii. 702. called also 
Fnyo, and said to be his sister, Lactant. in Stat. Theb. v. 155. ; 
Pausan. iv. 30. who prepared his chariot, and directed the 
horses, {regit atra jugales,) Stat. Theb. vii. 73. {frenis operata 
regendis,) Silv. iv. 440. 

Mars is said to have been the first who was tried for murder 
at Athens, for having killed Halirrhatius, the son of Neptune, 

* The festival celebrated at Athens every fifth year in honour of Minerva was called 
Panathenjea: whence a book written by Isocrates in praise of Athens, to be read 
on that occasion, is called Panatbsnaicus libera Cic. orat. 12. ; Sen. 5. & 7. The an- 
nual festival of Minerva at Rome, in March, was called Quinquatrus, uum y or Quin- 
fuatria t iorum, v. turn, because it lasted for five days, On/id. Fast. iii. 810, 

10 who 



Children of Jupiter. 



363 



who had offered violence to Alcippe the daughter of Mars. He 
pleaded his cause before the other gods ; and was acquitted by 
their unanimous sentence; whence the place where he was tried 
was called Areopagos, (Apeio$ Kayo;,) and the judges of that court 

Areopaglte, Pausan. i. 21. & 28. Mars had an intrigue with 

Venus, which being detected by the information of Sol, and 
the art of Vulcan, exposed both parties to the derision of the 
other gods, Hygin. 148./ Ovid. Met. iv. 171. &c. 

III. VENUS, the goddess of love and beauty, was the 
daughter of Jupiter and the nymph DIONE, hence called 
DiONiEA mater, Virg. JEn. iii. 1 9. and also Dione, Ovid. Art. 
Am. ii .593. iii. 3^ \ Stat. Achill. ii. 340. according to others, 
produced from the foam of the sea *, near the island Cythera, 
Ovid. ep. vii. 60. hence called Cytherea, Herat, od. i, 4, 5. 
and Marina, Id. iii. 26. 5. by the Greeks 'A<pgo$tT)j, from itfpog, 

foam. Venus was the wife of Vulcan, but unfaithful to him, 

Ovid. Met. iv. 1 7 1 . &c. By Mercury she had CupIdo, the god 
of love ; and by Mars, Anteros, who was supposed to have 
made love to cease, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 23. — also by Mars, Her- 
jviione or Harmonia, the wife of Cadmus, both (husband and 
wife) changed into serpents, Hygin. 6. ; Ovid. Met. iv. 563. 
&c. Venus bore to Mercury, Hermaphroditus. f 

Venus had by Bacchus, Priapus, the god of gardens, Serv. 
ad. Virg. G. iv. 1 1 1. who seems to have built the city Priapos, 
on the Hellespont, Plin. v. 32. s. 40. whence he is called Hel- 
iESPONTiIcus, Virg. ib. — By Neptune or Butes, she had 
ERYX, a famous boxer, slain by Hercules, who gave name to 
mount Eryx in Sicily, by being buried on it, Serv. in Virg. 

JEn. v. 24. & i. 570 By Anchises Venus had iENEAS, to 

whom therefore Eryx was brother, Ib. v. 412. & 24. and 
./Eneas offered sacrifices to him as a god, Ib. 772. by which 
name he is called, v. 391. and as some think, v. 467. 

* Ex spuma maris, et genitalilus Celt, ab Saturno exsectis, Hesiod. Theog. 188, 
&C. Fluctu pulsa Cythera tenet, Ovid. Amor. ii. 17. 4. 

f As his name imports, (from e E^»j, Mercurius, and 'Aipgahra, Venus}) Ovid. 
Met. iv. 383. The nymph Salmacis, -tdis, having embraced him against his will, 
Martial, x. 4. 6. while bathing in a fountain of Caria, prayed to the gods that they 
might never be separated ; which being granted, they became one body, Ovid. Met. iv. 
370.; Auson. Epigr. 1 01. whence animals uniting both sexes (utriusque sexus, Plin. 
xi. 49. s. 109.) were called Hermaphrodites {androgyni) ; and that fountain, called 
also Salmacis, was said to change men into women, Ovid. ib. 285. & 385. xv. 319. ; 
Cic. Off. i. 18. Festus /« "Salmacis; but Strabo ascribes this to the luxury of th« 
place, xiv. 656. and Vitruvius gives a still more favourable account of it, ii. 8. Pliny 
mentions instances of men being changed into women, and the contrary, vii. 4. to 
which Ausonius alludes, Epig. 69. 12. The waters of the fountain Salmacis are 
called from their effects, ematrjees aaua } amorous waters, or waters exciting love, 
Martial. 10. 4,6. 

But 



Fabulous History of Crete, 



But the chief favourite of Venus was ADONIS, the son of 
Cynaras or Cinyras, (Cinyrd creatus, Ovid. ep. iv. 97.) king 
of Cyprus, and Myrrha ; who being killed by a boar while 
hunting, was by Venus turned into a flower, called ANEMONE, 
or the wind flower, (from avcju,o», venti,) of a red colour, Ovid. 
Met. x. 529. ad Jin. ; Hygin. 164. 248. 271. Adonis is said 
to have been restored to life by Proserpine, Ib. 251. and an 
agreement made between her and Venus, that he should remain 
six months with each alternately ; which fable Macrobius ap- 
plies to the sun, producing the vicissitude of summer and winter, 
Sat. i. 21. 

Venus was worshipped with particular devotion at Paphos, 
Amathus, and Idalia, in Cyprus j at Eryx in Sicily, and at 
Cnidus or Gnidus in Caria, Ovid. Met. x. 529. hence she is 
called Cypris, -idis, Dea Paphia, Amathusia Venus, Tacit. 
Annal. iii. 62. Venus Idalia, Firg. JEn. v. 760. Erycina, 
Horat. od. i. 2. 33. Regina Cnidi, lb. 30. 1. Venus Cnidia, 
Cic. Div. 1. 13. ; Ferr. iv. 60. ; also Acidalia, Firg. jEn. i. 
720. from Acidalia, a fountain in Bceotia, where the Graces 
used to bathe, Serv. ib. whence the cestus or girdle of Venus, 
which was believed to possess an irresistible force in exciting 
love, is called by Martial Acidalius nodus , vi. 13. 5. * 

Venus is represented in the most engaging form and dress, 
usually smiling j whence she is called Erycina ridens, Horat. 
od. i. 2. 33. decern ; aurea, formosa, &c. attended by her son 
CUPID, the god of love, (or rather by Cupids, for there were 
several of them, Horat* od. iv. 15. Sil. 7. 449. all winged and 
adorned with quivers, Stat. Silv. i. 2. 61. & 3. 12.) and by 
locus, the god of mirth, both flying round her, Ib. i. 2. 33. 
She is sometimes described as dancing with the three Graces, 
Aglaia or Pasithea, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, joined with the 
nymphs, Id. i. 4, 5. iv. 7. 5. sometimes riding in a chariot 
drawn by swans, (olorina biga,) Stat. Silv. iii. 4. 46.; Ov. M. 10. 
717. Sil. 7. 441. but the pigeon was her favourite bird*, hence 
pigeons are called Cythereides, Ovid. Met. xv. 386. and Dionea, 
Stat. Silv. iii. 5. 80. 

There was a famous picture of Venus by Apelles, in which 
she was represented as rising from the sea, hence called Ana- 
dyomene, Plin. xxxv. 10. s. 36. 15. thus also she was repre- 
sented by Phidias in the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, (nobile 
SIGNUM, Nuda Fenus madidas exprimit tmbre comas, Ovid. Art. 
Am. iii. 224.) as received by Love, and crowned by the goddess 
of persuasion, Pausan. v. 1 1. see also ii. 1. 

* The Romans at one time built a temple to Venus, under the name of Verti- 
cordia, Ovid. Fast.'w. 160. because they prayed her to turn the minds of the Roman 
matrons to virtue, VaU Max. viii. 15. 1%. 

16 IV. VUL- 



Children of Jupiter. 



IV. VULCAN was the son of Jupiter and Juno, according 
to Homer, 77. i. 578. ; but as others say, of Juno alone, Apol- 
lodor. i. 3. 5. hence called Junonigena, Ovid. Met. 4. 173. 
Jupiter threw him from heaven, for having assisted his mother 
when she was suspended from heaven by Jupiter, because she 
had raised a storm against Hercules when he sailed from Troy, 
after taking it. Vulcan fell in the island Lemnos, whence he 
is called Lemnius, Stat. Sih. iv. 6. 49. pater Lemnius, Virg. 
JEn. viii. 454. and being lamed by the fall, was saved by Thetis, 
lb. & ii. 7. i.*, Homer. II. i. 590. He is said to have been 
thrown down by Juno, Id. Hymn, ad Apoll. 317. 

Vulcan was the inventor of the forge, or of working in me- 
tals; hence he was worshipped as the god of fire and of smiths, 
Diodor. v. 74. and called Mulciber, -beris v. -bris, Cic. Tusc. 
ii. 3.; Ovid. Met. ii. 5. xiv. 533.5 Art. Am. ii. 562. His 
work-shop (officlna) was chiefly in Lemnos, in Lipare, near 
Sicily, Juvenal, xiii. 45. or in a cave under mount iEtna, Ju- 
venal, u 8. His workmen were called Cyclopes, the Cyclops, 
from having but one eye, of a circular form, in the middle of 
their forehead (a xvx\o$, circulus, et w\f/, oculus) : There was a 
number of them, but the names of three only are mentioned, 
Brontes, Stertfpes, and Arges or Pyracmon, who forged thunder- 
bolts for Jupiter, Hesiod. Theog. 140. ; Virg. JEn. viii. 416. 
&c. Cic. Div. ii. 19. 

The services of Vulcan were so acceptable to Jupiter, that he 
gave him his choice of any of the goddesses for a wife. Vulcan 
asked Minerva, but she rejected him, Hygin. 166.; Apollodor. iii. 
14. 6". He afterwards married Venus*, who proved unfaithful 
to him, seep. 363. and often ridiculed his figure, Ovid. Art. Am. 
ii. 567. 

Vulcan is usually represented as an ugly lame blacksmith, 
holding a hammer in his hand and heated from the forge, 
[fessusy Siculdque incude rubens, Stat. Silv. i. 5. 7.) Cicero 
mentions several Vulclps, De Nat. D. iii. 22. 

Vulcan was the father of the monster Cacus by Medusa, who 
was slain by Hercules, see p. 186. of CiECULUS, who founded 
Prseneste, Virg. JEn. vii. 678. x. 544. &c. 

V. APOLLO and DIANA were twin children of Latona by 
Jupiter, whence she is called Gemellipara diva, Ovid. Met. 
vi. 315. and they, stirps Latoia, Id, Trist. iii. 2, 3. LA- 
TONA was the daughter of the giant C&us or Polus v. Pholus, 
and Ph^be, Hesiod. Theog. 404. ; Ovid. Met. vi. 185.; Hygin. 



WFience donate Veneris marito, to commit to the flames, Juvenal, vii. 25. 

I. & 



366 Fabulous History of Crete. 

I 

i. & 140.; Diodor.v. 66. & 67. hence called Titanis, -tdif f 
as being the grand-daughter of Titan, Ovid. ib. or Titania, 
Ib. 346. according to Homer, the daughter of Saturn, Hymn, 
in Apoll. 62. 

Juno, perceiving Latona to be with child by Jupiter, expelled 
her from- heaven, and made Terra, or the Earth, swear not to 
allow her a place -to bring forth in, Ovid. Met. vi. 1 86. She 
employed a large serpent (draco), called PYTHON, the son of 
Terra, or produced spontaneously from the earth, Ovid. Met. i. 
438. (a nvSoo, putrefacio, quod ex putredine terra post deluvium 
Deucalionis natus sit, Macrob. Sat. i. 17.) to pursue Latona 
wherever she went, that he might kill her. This serpent use 
to give responses as an oracle on mount Parnassus, before th 
time of Apollo, Hygin. 140.; JElian. iii. i.j others say thi 
was done by the goddess Themis, Lucan. v. 81.; Scholiast, i 
Juvenal, i. 82. hence called Fatidica, Ovid. Met. i. 1. 321. an 
Parnassia, lb. iv. 643. 

Python, knowing that he was to be destroyed by the offsprin 
of Latona, if she produced any, eagerly sought her destructio 
and therefore never ceased to persecute her, Hygin. ib. At las 
Neptune had compassion on Latona, and carried her to Delos i 
the ^Egean sea ; which being a floating island, was not include 
in the oath of Terra. Neptune made this island rise above th 
waters, whence its name, \li\Xoc, manifestus,) and fixed it fo 
the reception of Latona, where she, leaning on an olive tree 
brought forth Apollo and Diana, * Ib. & Ovid. Met. vi. 335 
Virgil makes Delos to be afterwards rendered immoveable b 
Apollo, who bound it to two other adjoining islands, Gyaro 
and Myconus, JEn. iii. 75. Latona is said to have come t 
Delos in the form of a quail, into which she was changed b 
Jupiter ; whence the island was called Ortygia, (from 'Opuf 
'OpTvyo;, cotumix, a quail,) but others apply this to her sister 
Serv. in Virg. JEn* iii. 73. Diana is said to have been bo 
first, and to have assisted her mother in bringing forth Apollo 
whence, although a virgin, she was invoked by women i 
child-birth, Ib. under the name of Lucina, Ilithya, an 
Genitalis or Genetyllis, Horat. carm. sec. 14. ; Cic. Nat 
D. ii. 27. Herodotus makes Latona only the nurse of Apollo 

ii. 156. 

Apollo and Diana, soon after their birth, were presented b 
Vulcan with arrows. With these Apollo slew the serpen 
Python, Stat. Theb. i. 563. whence he himself was called 
Pythius, Horat. od. 1.16.6.; Propert. ii. 31. 16. and hi» 

* Unde ilia insula torum decorum saera f>utatur> Cic. Verr. i. 18. 

priestes* 



Children of Jupiter, 



367 



priestess Pythia *, Lucret. i. 740. \ Cic. Div. i. 36. Having 
put the serpent's bones into a kettle (cortlna),' he placed it in 
his temple at Delphi, whence Cortina is put for the tripod or 
three-footed machine, as Diodorus calls it, xvi. 26. on which 
the priestess sat, or for the oracle, Virg. JEn. iii. 92. vi. 347. ; 
Ovid. Met. xv. 635. ; Plin. xxxiv. 3. J". 8. ; Val. Flacc. i. 6. 

He also instituted solemn games in memory of the deed, 

called Pythia, sc. certamina, the Pythian games, Hygin. ib. s 
Macrob. Sat. i. 17. ; Ovid. Met. i. 445. 

APOLLO f was worshipped as the god of poetry, music, 
medicine, augury, and archery, Ovid. Met. i. 517 — 525* 
chiefly the four first arts, Horat. carm. sec. 61. called also 
Phoebus, q. $co$ j6i«, lux vita; and Sol, Cic. Nat. D* ii. 27.; 
Macrob. Sat. \. 17. and by various other names, derived chiefly 
from the places where he was particularly worshipped; Deli us, 
from the island Delos, where he was born ; Cynthius, from 
Cynthus, a mountain in Delos, Virg. Eel. vi. 3.-, Patareus, 
in three syllables, Horat. od. iii. 4. 64. from Patara> a city in 
Lycia, where he was supposed to reside for six months in 
winter, and during the summer in Delos, Virg. JEn. iv. 143. 
bf ib. Serv.\ Thymbr^eus, Virg. JEn. iii. 85. from Thymbra, 
a place near Troy, Strab. xiii. 598. •, GRYNiEUS, Virg. JEn. 
iv. 345. from Grynaum, sc. nemus, a grove near Clazomene 9 a 
city in Ionia, Serv. ib. bf Virg. Eel. vi. 72. or from Grynium, 
a city of iEolis, Strab. xiii. 622. & 618.; Clarius, from 
Claros, a town in Ionia, Virg. JEn. iii. 360. £5* ibi. Serv. ; 
SMINTHEUS, Ovid. Met. xii, 585. from his destroying the 
mice (<7[jt,iv§oti) which infested Smintha y a town in Troas, Strab. 
xiii. 605. & 613. ; Latous, as being the son of Latona, Horat. 
od. i. 31.18. so Latois, -tdis> Diana, Ovid. ep. xxi. 153. 
Apollo was called PiEAN, Cic. Verri iv. 57.; Suet. Ner. 39.; 
either from the fatal effects of his arrows, utpote metuendus 
certd sagittd, Horat. od. i. 12. 23. (a itum, percutio,) whence 
Parce, Precor, P^:an, Juvenal, vi. 171.; Pone Arcum 
P^an, Auson. epigr. 102. or from his curing diseases, (a irmaoy 
pro TTuuooy cessare facio,) Festus. 8c Macrob. Sat. i. 17. hence paan 
is put for a joyful song, Virg. JEn. x. 738. vi. 657. properly 
a song in praise of Apollo, also of any other god, Serv. 
ibid. & Stat. Theb. iv. 157. — Io P;ean ! was an exclamation 

* But Strabo derives his name ufo <th vu3-i<r&ui, a percunctando, quod consukrenlar t 
ix. 419. contrary to the rules of quantity. Pausanias gives a different origin of th* 
word, x. 6. 

\ Quasi dzrokXwv, perdens^ Fulgent. 11. Vel aVsAAvw, Joban. Afoealyps. vel Re* 
velotiqn, ix. if. 

used 



Fabulous History of Crete, 



used upon victory or success, Ovid. Art. Am. ii. I . ; Property 
iii. 15. 42. — After the victory of Augustus at Actium, 
Apollo, who had a temple at Actium, Thucydid. i. 29. and who 
was supposed to have greatly contributed to his success, was 
called ACTIUS, Virg. JEn. viii. 704. ; Propert. iv. 6. 67. ; 
Strab. vii. 325. hence Ovid calls him Leucadius Deus, Trist. 

iii. 1. 42. 

Apollo was called AGYIEUS, (in three syllables,) because 
the Greeks used to erect statues to him in their streets, (ayvicti, 
vicz,) Macrob. Sat. i. 17. hence levis Agyieu, O beardless Apollo, 
Horat. od. iv. 6. 28. et. ibi. Acron. 

Apollo had oracles in various places % at Claros, near Colo- 
phon in Ionia, Tacit. Ann. ii. 54. xii. 22. where persons, after 
drinking the water of a certain fountain, uttered predictions, 
lb. & Plin. ii. 103. s. 106. f. v. 29. s. 31. at Patara and in 
Tenedos, Ovid. Met. i. 515. but his chief oracle was at Delphi, 
lb. & Juvenal, vi. 554. see p. 306. Apollo sometimes imparted 
to men the gift of prophecy, Serv. in Virg. ii. 247. iii. 251. as 
he did his other arts, lb. xii. 393. 

Apollo is represented as a beardless young man, with long 
uncut hair (intonsus crinis), like Bacchus, Tibull. 1. 4. 37. hence 
called 'Axego-exoixYis, Homer. II. i. 39. holding in his right hand 
a bow and arrows, and in his left hand a harp or lyre, which 
he received from his brother Mercury, Horat. od. i. 21. 12. 
having his head crowned with laurel, which tree was sacred to 
him, Ovid. Met. i. 558. hence called Apollinea, Ovid. Fast. 
vi. 91. or Phoebea, Trist. iv. 2. 51. and those who pretended 
to prophecy ate of it, as the Sibyl, Tibull. ii. 5. 63. hence 
Laurigeros ignes haurire, to receive the inspiration of Apollo, 
Stat. Achill. i. 508. ; so poets, Juvenal, vii. 19. who also were 
crowned with it, Horat. od. iii. 30. 15. as likewise generals in a 
triumph, Virg. Eel. viii. 13.; Ovid. Am. ii. 12. r. 3 Met. i. 
560. ; Plin. xv. 30. s. 39. The raven was sacred to Apollo, 
hence called Ales Phoebeius, Ovid. Met. ii. 544. 

We commonly find joined with Apollo the nine muses, the 
daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne ; Calliope, Clio, Erato, 
Thalia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Euterpe, Polyhymnia, and 
Urania, whose offices are described, Auson. Eidyll. 20.; Diodor. 

iv. 7. They are called the sisters of Apollo, (Hyantia Sorores, 
i. e. his Boeotian sisters, because supposed often to reside in 
Bceotia or Hyantia,) Stat. Silv, ii. 7, 8. and Phoebi chorus, 
Virg. Eel. vi. 66. The chief of them (dux ipsa) was Calliope, 
lb. v. 3. 15. 

Although 



r. 



Children of Apollo. 369 

Although Apollo was said to preside over medicine, which 
Is hence called ars Apollinea, Ovid. Trist. iii. 3. 10. yet 
AESCULAPIUS, the son of Apollo, (Phcebigena,) and of the 
nymph Coronis, Hygen. 202.5 Pausan. 11. 26. (Coronides, 
Ovid. Met. xv. 624. in Ibin, 408. or Arsinoe, Apollodor. iii. 10.) 
was worshipped in a more particular manner as the god of me- 
dicine, on account of his numerous discoveries in that art, 
Diodor. iv 3 71. He was instructed by the Centaur Chiron, 
Apollodor. iii. 10. 3. By his skill, {pao?iiis herbis 3 by medicinal 
herbs,) iEsculapius restored Hippolytus to life, and so many 
others, that Pluto is said to have complained to Jupiter of the 
diminution of his empire, and of being deprived of subjects by 
the numerous cures of JEsculapius, Diodor. ib ; Apollodor. iii. 
10. 3. on which account Jupiter, enraged that any one should 
break the order of the fates, drove him by a thunderbolt to the 
infernal regions, Virg, JEn. vii. 770. Apollo, from resentment, 
slew with his arrows the Cyclops, who had forged the thunder- 
bolts. Jupiter, incensed at this, expelled Apollo from heaven, 
and deprived him of his divinity. Apollo became the slave of 
Admetus, a king of Thessaly, whose sheep and herds he kept 
for nine years, Serv. in Virg. JEn. vii. 76 t. Eel. v. 35.; Ovid. 
Met. ii. 679. j Hygin. 49. 50.; Lactant. in Stat. Theb. v. 434. 
vi. 376.; Ovid. Art. Am. ii. 239. ep. v. 151.; Tibull. ii. 3. 11. 
iii. 4. 67. Apollodorus says, for one year, iii. 10. 4. but in 
another place he makes one year equal to eight, iii. 4. 2. hence 
he was called Nomius, from vspco, pasco, and Pastor ab Am- 
phryso, the Amphrysian shepherd, Virg. G. iii„ 2. from the river 
Amphrysus, near which he fed his flock, Lucan.vi. 368. whence 
the sibyl is called Amphrysia vates, i. e. Apollinea } the prophetess 
of Apollo, Virg. JEn. vi. 398. 

Mercury one day, in the shape of a boy, carried off by stealth 
some of Apollo's cows \ and while Apollo threatened him 
with punishment if he did not restore them, Mercury took 
away his quiver so artfully, that Apollo was obliged to smile, 
Horat. od. i. 10. 9.; Ovid. Met. ii. 685.; Homer, hymn, ad 
Mercur. Mercury, to pacify Apollo, gave him his lyre, 
which he had lately invented, and permitted Apollo to claim 
the invention of it, to himself. In return, Apollo presented 
Mercury with a golden rod, which he had used as his crook 
or shepherd's staff, Apollodor. iii. 10. 2. With this rod Mer- 
cury afterwards, as he was travelling through Arcadia, sepa- 
rated two serpents, which he happened to observe by the way, 
fighting together •, whence a rod with two serpents twining 
round it, or a Caduceus, became the emblem of peace, Hygin, 

B h Astr, 



370 Fabulous History of Crete* 



Astr. ii. 7.; Plin. xxix. 3. s. 12.; Macrob. i. 19.; Serv. m 
Virg. JEn. iv. 243. viii. 138.; Cic. orat. i. 46.; jL/i\ viiL 20.5 
Nep. Hannibal. 1 1. ; G*7/. x. 27. and any one who carried it was 
called Caduceator, Liv. xxvi. 17. xxxiii. 11. By the assist- 
ance of Apollo, Admetus obtained in marriage ALCESTIS, the 
daughter of Pelias, who saved his life by dying in his stead, 
Apollodor. i. 9. 15.; Ovid. Trist.v. 5.55. & 14. 37.; Juvenal. 
vi. 651.; Stat. Silv. iii. 3. 192. 

^ESCULAPIUS was worshipped chiefly at Epidaurus in 
Argolis, under the form of a serpent ; whence the Romans in 
the time of a .plague, by the advice of the oracle of Delphi, 
brought him to Rome, or rather a real serpent in his place, 
which the ignorant multitude believed to be the god himself, 
and built a temple for him on the island in the Tiber, Ovid, 
Met. xv. 622. 744.; Liv. epit. xi.; Val. Max. i. 8. 2. hence 
he is called Epidaurius, Ovid. Pont. i. 3. 21. and by Apollo, 

Epidauria proles^ Stat. Silv. i. 4. 61. Serpents were sacred 

to JEsculapius on account of their medicinal qualities. Those 
of Epidaurus were of a yellow colour, and remarkably tame and 
harmless, Pausan. ii. 18. 

./Esculapius, called also Aselepius, was commonly represented 
as an old man with a long beard, holding in his left hand a staff 
with a serpent twisted round it, and with his right hand hold- 
ing his beard *, Albric. 20. or pressing the head of a serpent^ 
Pausan. ii. 27. 

iEsculapius married Epione, lb. ii. 29. and had by her seve- 
ral children.. The chief were, Machaon and Podallrius, fa- 
mous physicians in the Trojan war, lb. iv. 31.; Ovid. Art. 
-Am. ii. 735. and Hygeia or Hygea, the goddess of health, Pau- 
san. ii. 23 ; Plin. xxxv. II. s. 40. m. 

Of the other children of Apollo the chief were, the poets 
LINUS, the instructor of Hercules on the harp, by an acci- 
dental stroke of which he was killed by that hero, Apollodor. 
i. 3. 2. ii. 4. 9.; Virg. Eel. iv. 56, vi. 67.; and ORPHEUS, 
who is said to have moved the trees and stones by his music, 
Apollodor. i. 3. 2.; Ovid. Art. Am. iii. 321. or by the harmony of 
his verses, {eloquente cantu,) Stat ii. 7. 43. which he was taught 
by his mother Calliope ; whence he is said to have stopped the 

* When Dionysisus,the tyrant of Syracuse, ordered a golden beard to be taken from 
off the statue of iEsculapius at Epidaurus, he said, it was not proper for the son to 
have a beard, when in all the temples the father was without one. With the same 
irreligion he took off a golden cloak from the statue of Jupiter at Olympia, saying 
with a jeer, that a golden cloak was heavy in summer and cold in winter ; and put on 
k a wooden cloak, which he said was fit for all seasons, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 34.; Val. 
Max. i. I. ext. 3. 



course 



Children and Favourites of Apollo. 



371 



course of rivers and the rapid winds, by her art, [arte maternal) 
Horat. od. i. 12. 9. seePropert. iii. 2. 3. He usually resided in 
Thrace, whence he is called Thracius, Virg. EcL iv. 55. 
Threicius, Horat. od. i. 24. 13. RHODOPEius^ Ovid. Met. x, 
50. Bistonius vates, Sit. xi. 471. ObRYSIUS VATES, Stat. 
Silv. v. i. 203. He was one of the Argonauts, Apoilodor. i. 9. 
16. and saved them from the Sirens by his melody, lb. 25. 
Having lost his wife Eurydice by the bite of a serpent, he went 
down to the infernal regions, where, by the sound of his harp, 
he charmed all the shades, and even prevailed on Pluto and 
Proserpine * to permit Eurydice to return with him to the upper 
world ; on this express condition, however, that he should not 
lookback to her, (for she followed behind,) till she should reach 
the regions of light. But when they were just approaching the 
surface of the earth, he, from an impatience of desire, looked 
back ; whereupon Eurydice instantly vanished from his sight. 
He tried to soothe his grief by lamenting his loss in mournful 
strains, and always avoided any future conjugal connection. 
On which account the Thracian matrons, [Ciconum matres^) 
while celebrating the sacred rites of Bacchus, are said to have 
torn him in pieces with his last breath calling upon Eurydice, 
Virg. G. iv. 453. — 527. Ovid adds another cause for this 
cruelty, Met. x. 83. Bacchus punished the matrons by turn- 
ing them into trees, lb. xi. 67. 

Among the various objects of Apollo's love, beside those al- 
ready mentioned, the following are the most remarkable : — 
1. DAPHNE, the daughter of the river Peneus, (Peneis, 
-idis>) who praying to the gods to rescue her from his pursuit, 

was changed into a laurel, Ov. Met. i. 452. — 562. Bolina, a 

virgin of Achaia, who, to avoid his importunity, threw herself 
into the sea, and by his favour was rendered immortal, Pausan. 

vii. 23 3. Cyrene, another daughter of the river Peneus; 

who being carried by Apollo into that part of Africa, 
afterwards called Cyrenaica y brought forth Arist^eus, Justin. 
xiii. 7. who built there a city, which he named after his 
mother, lb. 

ARIST^EUS, otherwise called Battus, reigned in Arcadia, 
where he is said to have discovered the art of breeding bees 
and of making honey. Ib. He fell in love with Eurydice> the 
wife of Orpheus, and gave occasion to her death, Virg. G. iv. 
457. on which account his bees were destroyed ; but he re- 
covered them after appeasing her shade, according to the advice 

* Statius says Orpheus obtained this favour from Rhadamanthus, whom he calls 
Phryx, as having been king of Phrygia, Silv. iii. 3. 193.; some read Styx, denot- 
ing Pluto. 

Bb 2 of 



372 



fabulous History of Crete, 



of Proteus, and the directions of his mother Cyrene, Virg: G. 
iv, 3 1 7. — ad Jin. 

The chief male favourites of Apollo were, the boy HYA- 
CINTHUS, who being slam by him by an accidental stroke of 
the quoit, (discus,) was changed into a flower, hence called the 
Hyacinth, Ovid. Met. x. 185. &c. and CYPAKISSUS, turned 
into a cypress, lb. 106. — 143. &c. 

Apollo, being challenged by MARSYAS the Satyr to a con- 
test about skill in music, and having vanquished him, flayed him 
alive, Ovid. Met. vi. 383. Marsyas shed such a quantity of 
blood that he was changed into a river in Phrygia, of the same 
name, lb. 400. Marsyas is said to have invented the * flute, 
(tibial) Ovid. Fast. vi. 697 ; hence, from his native city Ce- 
LiBNiE, the ancient capital of Phrygia, Liv. xxxviii. 13. Lucan, 
iii. 206. C elane a buxus is put for a flute, Stat. Theb* ii. 666. 

MIDAS, king of Phrygia, having given the preference to 
Pan, in a contest between Pan and Apollo about skill in play- 
ing on the flute, Apollo, to punish the folly and stupidity of 
Midas, changed his ears into those of an ass, Ovid. Met. xi. 
175. This defect Midas was anxious to conceal ; but it was 
discovered by a slave who used to cut his hair, lb. 1 80. f 

Soon after this, Apollo and Neptune, having assumed a hu- 
man form, undertook, for a certain hire, to build the walls of 
Troy for Laomedon, the king of that city. But after the work 
was finished, (siabat opus,) Laomedon refused them the pro- 
mised hire, (prethtm inficiatur, Ovid. Met. xi. 205. destituit deos 
pacta mercede, Horat. od. ii*i. 3. 21.) on which account Apollo 
sent a pestilence on the inhabitants ; and Neptune, having de- 
luged the country with water, sent a huge fish, (cetus v. men- 
strum aqmreumj) which destroyed the people. Laomedon 
having consulted the oracle of Apollo how he could be freed 
from these calamities, was told, that a virgin chosen by lot must 
be exposed to be devoured by the monster. The lot fell on 
his own daughter Hesione, who was freed by Hercules, Apollodor. 
ii. 5-9.; Ovid. Met. xi. 211.; Serv. in Virg. JEn % viii. 157.; 
Hygin. 89. ; Diodor. iv. 42. as will be hereafter related. 
The walls of Troy are said to have been reared by the music 
of Apollo's harp, (Mcenia Phcebxa structa, canore lyra,) 

* Or rather to have found the flute of Minerva, which she had thrown away, Ovid. 
Fast.\\. 703. Apollodor. i. 4. 2. therefore called Munera Palladia, Lucan. 3. 405. 

f The slave not daring to divulge what he had seen, but unable altogether to keep 
the secret, dug a hole in the ground into which he whispered it, and having again covered 
the hole with earth departed. Some seeds are said to have sprung up in the place 
a little while after, which being agitated by the wind, uttered the s-me words, which 
the slave had repeated, Midas has the ears of an ass, lb. To this fable Persius beauti- 
fully alludes, i. 1 19. 

Ovid. 



Sol and his Children, 



SIS 



Ovid. ep. xvi. 180. whence he is called Trojje Cynthius atjo 
TOR, Virg. G. iii. 36. to which Horace alludes, od. iii. 3. 66. 
In explication of this fable, Laomedon is said to have vowed a 
certain sum of money for the sacred rites of Apollo, and Nep- 
tune, which, when he was threatened with an attack from the 
Mysians, he employed in fortifying the city, Serv* in Virg, JEn. 
ii. 610. Others say that he took a sum of money out of their 
temples for that purpose, with a promise to restore the money 
afterwards, which he did not perform. 

Although SOL, (>jA/o£,) the sun, be sometimes confounded 
with Apollo, yet he is commonly considered as a different di- 
vinity, the son of Hyperion and Thea, both the children of Cce~ 
lus or Ouranos and Terra, Hesiod. Theog. 371. \ Ovid. Met. iv„ 
192. whence HYPERION is put for the sun, Ovid. Met. viii. 
C64. ; Stat. Silv. ii. 7. 25. ictusque Hyperione multo Sirius, heated 
by being near the sun, lb. iii. 1. 53. 5 so Tbeh. iii. 35. LUNA, 
the moon, was the sister of Sol. Hesiod. ibid, and also Aurora^ 

the morning, Apollodor. i. 2. 2. Sol was represented in a 

juvenile form, having his head surrounded with rays, and riding 
in a chariot drawn by four horses, attended by the HOR-ZE, 
or four seasons ; VER, the spring ^ESTAS, the summer % 
AUTUMNUS, the autumn ; and HYEMS, the winter, Ovid. 
Met ii. 25. The chariot of the moon was drawn only by two 
horses. 

The sun was worshipped by the Persians under the name of 
MITHRAS, Lactant. in Stat. Theb. i. 720. and by the Egyptians 
under the name of Osiris, Macrob. Sat. i. 21. But Osiris was 
supposed to be the same also with other gods, Diodor. i. 1 1 . & 1 5. 

Various amours of Sol are recorded. Leucothoe, the 
daughter of Orchamus, king of Persia, being deceived by him 
under the form of her mother, and being detected by the nymph 
Clytie, her rival, was by her father buried alive, and turned by 
Sol into a frankincense tree, Ovid. Met. iv. 211. — 255. Clytie 
being deserted by Sol, pined away with her eyes constantly 
fixed on the sun, and was at last turned into a sun-flower, lb. 
270. called Heliotropium, because it always turns toward the 
sun, (Jlos qui ad solem vertitur,) lb £«f Varr. R.R. i. 46. 5 
Plin. ii. 41. xviii. 27. J". 67. xxii. 21". s. 29. 

By Clymene, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, Sol 
was the father of Phaeton, or Phaethon, Ovid Met. 1. 756. 
who passed for the son of Merops, the husband of Clymene, 

Ovid. Trist. iii. 4. 30. By Perseis, the sister of Clymene, 

Sol had Aeetes or JEetes, king of Colchis ; Pasiphae, who 
married Minos, king of Crete ; and Circe, Apollodor. i. 9. 1. \ 
Cic. Nat. D. iii. 19. 

B b 3 The 



37* 



Fabulous History of Crete, 



The reality of PHAETON's descent being called in question 
by Epaphus, the son of Jupiter and Io, Ovid. Met. i. 748. 
Phaeton, by the advice of his mother, went to the palace of 
Sol *, and demanded from him a pledge to prove his relation. 
Sol swore by the Stygian lake, (an oath which the gods never 
violated,) that he would grant whatever Phaeton should ask, 
Cic. Off. iii. 25. ; whereupon Phaeton asked the direction of his 
father's chariot for one day. Sol repented of his promise, and 
used every argument possible to dissuade Phaeton from insist- 
ing on the performance of it, but in vain. Phaeton accordingly 
mounts the chariot of the sun ; but not being able to manage 
the horses, he was driven from his course ; by which means 
the heaven and earth were set on fire, and would have been 
consumed, had not Jupiter interposed. Phaeton was struck 
with a thunderbolt, and tumbled headlong into the river Erk 
danus or Po, which is hence called Phaethontius amnis, Sil. vii. 
149. The nymphs of Italy (A 1 aides Hesperia) buried him ; and 
his sisters, {Phaetontiades ) v. -tdes, Heliades, the daughters of 
the sun, vel Clymeneides, the daughters of Clymene, Ovid, ad 
Liv. in.) lamented his death till they were turned into alder 
or poplar trees, Ovid. Met. ii. 1 . — 366. ; Virg. Eel. vi. 62. A. x* 
190. hence these trees are said to have first grown on the banks 
of the Po, Lucan. ii. 410. They were supposed to distil amber, 
Ovid. Amor. iii. 12. 38. f His friend Cycnus, king of the Li- 
gures, from excess of grief, was changed into a swan ; lb. 377. ; 
Virg. JEn. x. 1 89, Phaethon (i. e. Incens) is put for the sun> 
lb. v. 105. Cicero calls the planet Jupiter by that name, Nat. 
D. ii. 20. By the conflagration of Phaethon the Ethiopians are 
supposed to have contracted their black colour, and the desarts 
of Lybia to have been formed, Ovid. Met. ii. 235. 

The story of iEetes will be related afterwards. 

PASIPHAE, the wife of Minos, king of Crete, hence called 
Gnossis, Adis from Gnossus, the capital city of that island, 
Ovid. Rem. Am. 745. having for several years neglected to 
perform sacred rites to Venus, was by that goddess inspired 
with an unnatural passion for a bull, which she gratified by 
the assistance of Daedalus J, and from this infamous com- 

* Sol is sometimes said to have had two houses; one in the east, and the other in 
the west; hence Sdis utraque domus, both east and west, Ovid ep.'w. 16. Primaque 
occiduaque domus, Stat. Theh. i. 200. Silv. i. 4. 73. The inhabitants of Spain were 
supposed to hear the hissing of the Sun's setting chariot in the ocean, Juvenatlxiv. 
280. ; Stat. Sylv. ii. 7. 27. and Gades is called his couch, lb. iii. 1. 183. see also Theb. 
iii. 407. see Strab. iii. 138. 

-J- Hence capaces Heli&dum eras fa, large cups of amber, Juvenal, iv. 37. Phaeton 
is called by Ovid, Auriga, ib. 

\ Qui ei -vaccam ligneam fecit, et vera vacca corium induxit, in qua Ufa cum tauro 
roncubuit, Hygin. 

merce 



Children of Sol. 



275 



merce produced a monster, {Veneris monimenta nefanda,) called 
the Minotaur, having the head of a bull and the body of a man, 
Hygin. 40. {Jemibovemque virum, semivirumque bovem, Ovid. Art. 
Am. ii. 24. ; Trist. iv. 7. 18.) The misfortune of Pasiphae is 
by Diodorus ascribed to a different cause, iv. 77. The Mino- 
taur was shut up in the labyrinth which Daedalus made, and 
fed on human flesh, Serv. in Virg. JEn. vi. 14. This fable is 
supposed to have taken its rise from an intrigue which Pasiphae 
had with one Taurus, the secretary of Minos, with whom she 
used to meet at the house of Daedalus, and brought forth twins, 
the one of whom was like to Minos and the other to Taurus, 
lb* Pasiphae had several children by Minos ; namely, Deucalion, 
Androgeos, Ariadne, and Phadra, of whom mention will be 
made hereafter. 

Venus is represented as hostile to all the descendants of Sol, 
on account of his having exposed her intrigue with Mars, lb, 
& Ovid. Met. iv. 190. ; Ep. iv. 54. ; Senec. Hippolyt. 124. hence 
Phsedra, the daughter of Pasiphae, imputes her passion for 
Hippolytus to the fate of her family, Ovid.ep. iv. 53. 

CIRCE was the most famous sorceress that ever lived. She 
was married to a Sarmatian prince, whom she killed by her 
drugs, (Qotgpcixoic,) that she alone might enjoy the sovereignty. 
But being expelled for her cruelty, she fled into Italy, and set- 
tled at Circeji, Circaum, v. Circeium, Diodor. iv. 45. see p. 147. 
Here she fell in love with the sea-god Glaucus *, but perceiving 
him to be more attached to Scylla, a sea-nymph, the daughter 
of Phorcus and the nymph Cretis, Serv. in JEn. iii. 420. 
Circe, by infusing the juice of poisonous herbs into the water 
in which Scylla used to bathe, and by repeating certain 
charms, turned her into a sea-monster, Ovid. Met. xiv. 1. — 
74. which resided under a rock on the coast of Italy called after 
her, see p. 174. where she is said, out of hatred to Circe, to 
have destroyed the companions of Ulysses, Virg. Eel. vi. 76. \. 
Ovid. Met. xiv. 70.; Hygin. 199. Virgil confounds this 
Scylla with another of the same name, the daughter of Nisus J( 
Niseis, -idis, king of Megara, Eel. vi. 74. *, so Propertius, m, 
4. 39. and Ovid. East. iv. 500.; Amor. iii. 12. 21. 5 Remed. 
Amor. 737. who falling in love with Minos, while he besieged 
her father's capital, cut off from her father's head while he was 
asleep a hair, on which his fate depended. Thus Nisus was 
vanquished by Minos. Scylla met with the just punishment of 
her treachery. Being treated with contempt by Minos, she threw 
herself into the sea and was changed into a fish, Ov.M. 8.8. &c 
Hygin. 198. 5 Propert. iii. 19. 21. ; Ovid. Trist. ii. 393. Pausa- 

B b 4 nias 



Fabulous History of Crete, 



nias relates, that Minos ordered her to be thrown into the sea, and 
that her body was cast on shore upon a promontory of Argolis, 

called from her ScylUum, near Troezene y ii. 34. Csrce was 

in like manner despised by Glaucus, xiv. 68. She afterwards 
became enamoured of PXCUS, the son of Saturn and king of 
Latium, who, from fidelity to his wife Venilia, (called Canens, 
from her skill in music,) was changed by Circe into a wood- 
pecker, (picuSj) Ovid. Met. xiv. 320. — 396. Circe is called 
by Virgil the wife (conjux) of Picus, instead of his lover, because ~ 
she wished to be so, JEn. vii. 189. She is called JEjea, from 
iEa, a city of Colchis, Ovid. Met. iv. 205.; Virg. JEn. iii. 386. 
Circe, after her death, is said to have been called Marica, 
Lactant. i. 21. and also during her life, Serv. in Virg JEn xii. 
164. so that she was the mother of Latinus, lb. vii. 47. as He- 
siod says, by Ulysses, Theog. 1013. whence Sol is called his 
grandfather, Virg. JEn, xii, 164. But the lineage of this king 
is involved in uncertainty. The intercourse of Circe with 
Ulysses will be spoken of hereafter* Diodorus makes Circe 
the daughter of iEetes, and sister of Medea, whom she is said 
to have taught the power of drugs, iv. 46, 

AURORA, the goddess of the morning, was the sister of 
Sol. Some make her the daughter of Pallas, one of the giants, 
whence she was called Pallantius, v. -tis, Ovid. Met. xv.' 
191. Sexto Pallantidos ortu> on the sixth day, Ib. 700. Paliantide 

eddem, on the same day, Id. East. vi. 567. Aurora married 

Astneus, one of the Titans, and brought forth by him the winds 
and stars, Hesiod. Theog. 378. ; Apollodor. i. 2. 4. whence the winds 
are called Astrai fr aires , the Astrean brothers, Ovid. Met. xiv. 
545. She fell in love with ORION, (a giant of immense size, 
Virg. JEn. x. 763. Diodor. iv. 85.) whom she carried to Delos, 
where he was killed by the arrows of Diana for offering violence 
to Opis, one of her nymphs, Apollodor. i. 4. 4. or, as Horace says, 
to Diana herself, od. iii. 4. 7:1.5 so Hygin. 195. Orion [quasi 
Urion, quod ex urina Jovis, Neptuni, et Mercurii genitus erat 9 
Ovid, ib.) is said by Ovid to have been the companion of Diana, 
Fast. v. 537. and killed by the bite of a scorpion set on him (im- 
missa) by Tellus to punish him for his pride, Ib. to which Lu- 
can alludes, ix. 836. He is represented by Horace in the in- 
fernal regions, as still pleased with hunting, in which he de- 
lighted while alive, Od. ii. 13. 39. Orion, after his death, was 
ranked among the constellations, Ovid, ib, with his girdle and 
sword, hence called Ensifer, Ib. iv. 388. and Armatus Auro y 
because that constellation contains several bright stars, Virg. 
JEn, m, 5 17. j Ovid, Met, xiii. 294* 

14 As 



Children of Jupiter. 377 

As the rising and setting of Orion was commonly attended 
I with o-reat rains and storms, he is also called by Virgil aquosus, 
! ^En !y„ 52. nimbosus, lb i. 535. savus, vn. 719.-, by Horace, 
infestus nautis, Epod. xv 7.5 tristis, lb. x. 10. and is said to 

I be accompanied by Notus, the south wind, Od. 1. 28. 21. 

II Aurora next fell in love with Cephdlus, the husband 01 Pro- 
dis by whom Apollodorus says she bore a son, called Tithonus, 
i 4 iii 14 3- according to Hesiod, Phaethon, Tneog. 987. 

' But the chief favourite of Aurora was TITHONUS, the son 
of Laomedon, king of Troy, Ovid, ep xvi. 109. whom she car- 
ried into ^Ethiopia, and had by him Hemathton and MEMNQIS, 
lb. iii. 12. 4. afterwards king of the Ethiopians, Hesiod. 984.; 
Diodor. ii. 22. iv. 75. hence Aurora is called Memnonis ma- 
ter, Ovid. Pont. i. 4. 57. and Tithonia, S#</. iv. 6._ 17. 
or Tithonis, i£. v. 1. 34. Aurora was so fond of Tithonus 
that she procured for him, from Jupiter, immortality ; but as 
she forgot to ask at the same time perpetual youth, he became 
so weak that he prayed for death, and was converted into an 
j insect called cicada, Serv. in Virg. JEn. iv. 585. ix. 460, G. 1. 

448.5 Horat. od. ii. 16. 30.5 but he is said to have died a 
I natural death, (occidit, etsi antea remotus in Auras, i.e. curru 
1 Aurora in cozlum abreptus, et maritus ejus f actus,) Od. 1. 28. 8. 
AURORA or Eos, is represented in a chariot drawn by rose 
or saffron coloured horses, (in roseis bigis, Virg. JEn. vii. 26. in 
roseis quadrzgis, lb. vi. 535.) (croceis equis, Ovid, ad Liv, 282.) 
with rosy fingers, (prMuxTv\o$'Hw, Homer. 11. 1. 477.) opening 
the gates of the east and chasing the stars from the sky, Ovid. 
Met. ii. 112.; Virg. JEn. iii. 521. pouring dew upon the earth, 
Cic. Div. I 8. hence called roscida, Ovid, ad Liv. 282. and 
making the roses grow, Id. Met. ii. 113. (Aurora dicitur ante 
solis ortum, ab eo, quod ab igne Solis turn aureo aer aurescit, Var. 
de Lat. Ling.) She is supposed always to rise from the couch 
of Tithonus, Virg. G. i.447.; J%n. iv. 585. ix. 460. in Lydia, 
Stat. Theb. i. 134. 

VI. DIANA* was the goddess of the woods and of hunting, 
and the protectress of virgins ; called Diana on earth, Luna in 
heaven, and Hecate or Proserpina in hell ; hence tergemina He- 
cate, diva triformis tria Virginis ora Diana, i. e. Diana habens 
tria ora, Virg. JEn. iv. 511. triplex Diana, Ovid. ep. xii. 79. 
She was called Trivia, from her statues being placed where 
three ways met ; and Integra, from her inviolable virginity. 



* Diana was said by jEschylus to be the daughter not of Latona, but of Ceres; ac- 
cording to the belief of the Egyptians, Herodot, ii. Ij6.; Pausan. viii. 37. 

Horat. 



378 



Fabulous History of Crete. 



Horat. od. iii. 4. 70. ; also DICTYNNA, TibulL i. 4. 25. Stat. 
Theb. ix. 632.* She is represented as a tall beautiful virgin, 
having something masculine in her appearance, dressed in 
buskins, with a quiver on her shoulder, her clothes girt, {sue- 
cincta,) Ovid. Met. iii. 156. chasing deer or other animals j 
hence she is called venatrix puella, JuvenaL xiii. 80. at- 
tended by a number of virgins like herself. She is sometimes 
represented differently, Fausan. viii. 37. 

LUNA (called alsoPflUEBE, Ovid. Met. i. 11.) is commonly 
considered as a different deity from Diana. Luna is said to 
have fallen in love with a beautiful youth called ENDYMION, 
while he was sleeping on Latmos, a mountain in Caria, hence 
termed Latmius, Ovid. Art. Am. iii. 83. Latmia saxa, Id. 
ep. xviii. 62. {a qua, sc. Luna, consopitus putatur, ut eum dor- 
mientem oscularetur,) Cic. Tusc. i. 38. ; Ovid. Art. Am. iii. 83.? 
because, as Pliny says, he first explained the phases of the 
moon, ii. 9. Propertius ascribes this amour also to Diana, 
ii. 15. 15. Pausanias makes Endymion to have been king of 
Elis, by whom Luna is said to have had fifty daughters, v. 1 . 
Jupiter permitted him, at his own request, to sleep in perpe- 
tual youth, Apollodor. 1. 7. 5. Juvenal puts Endymion for any 
beautiful young man, x. 318. 

Diana had a splendid temple at Ephesus, Herodot. 1. 26. 
Pausan. iv. 31.; Liv. i. 45. Plin. 36. 14. s. 21. and in the 
Chersonesus Taurica, where human victims, chiefly strangers 
wrecked on the coast, were offered up on her altar, JuvenaL 
xv. 116.; Ovid* Trist. iv. 4.63. hence called placabilis ara 
Dianas, Virg. JEn. vii. 764. These horrid rites were insti- 
tuted by Thoas, king of the Tauri, Ovid. Pont. iii. 2. 59. 
whence Diana is called Thoantea, Sit. iv. 771. and her rites, 

Thoantete Taurica sacra Dez, Ovid. Ib. 386. Diana had 

a temple at Aricia near Rome, where a fugitive slave was made 
priest, after having slain his predecessor in single combat, Strab. 
v. 239. j Serv. in Virg. JEn, vi. 137.; Ovid. Art. Amor. i. 259. 
These priests were called Reges, Stat. Silv. iii. 1. 55. 

Diana was called by different names from the places where 
she was chiefly worshipped, Delta, Cynthia, nemoralis, Am- 
CIA, Ovid. Fast. vi. 59. Taurica, Sec. 

VII. MERCURIUS, Mercury, was the son of Jupiter and 
Maia, the daughter of Atlas, and Pleione, the daughter of 
Oceanus, Apollodor. iii. 10. I. & 2. hence called Atlantis Plei- 

* As some think from her he'mg the inventress of nets, QtKrva^) or, according to 
©thers, from he* shewing objects by her light in the night-time (from htx,vwxi). 
This name was also given to Britomartis, a virgin beloved by Minos ; for a reason 
mentioned, Dlodor. v, 78. Antomin. Liberal. Met, 40. 

1 6 onesque 



Children of Jupiter. 



379 



onesque nepos, Ovid. Met. ii. 743. so Horace, od.\. 10. 1. and 
Atlantiades, -da, Ovid. ib. 627. from Atlas, his grandfather 
by the mother's side, [maturnus avus,) Virg. JEn. iv. 258. 

Maia was one of the seven sisters who were converted into 
so many stars, Diodor. iii. 60. called the seven stars, Pleiades 
vel Pliades, Ovid, Fast. iv. 169. or Vergili^:, from their 
rising in the spring, Serv. in Virg. G. i. 138. also Atlantia- 
des, -urn, Sil. xvi. 136. or Atlantides, the daughters of 
Atlas, Virg. G. i. 221. where Maia is named as one of them, 

'225. and hence called by Ovid Pleias, Met. i. 670. Maia 

brought forth Mercury on the top of Cyllene, a mountain in 
Arcadia, Virg. JEn. viii. 139. whence he is called CyllEnjus, 
Ib. iv. 252. Cyllenia proles, 258. and the planet Mercury, ignis 
Cyllenius, Virg. G. i. 337. Summi Jovis aliger Areas Nuntius^ 
Stat. Silv. iii. 3. 80. also Tege;eus, from Tegea, a city near it, 
Stat. Silv. i. 5. 4. or TegeatIcus, Ib. v. 1. 102. but this epi- ( 
thet is also applied to Pan, Virg. G. i. 18. ; Propert. iii. 3. 30, 
Cicero mentions five Mercuries, Nat. D. iii. 22. 

Mercury was the messenger of Jupiter and of the other gods, 
hence called interpres Divum, Virg. JEn. iv. 356. and hence 
his Greek name 'E^pfc, Interpres, Diodor. v. 75. the god of 
eloquence, the patron of merchants and of gain, Plaut. Praf. 
Amphitr. $ the inventor of the lyre ; the protector of poets or 
men of genius, (viri Mercuriales, Horat. od. ii. 17. 29.); 
of musicians, wrestlers, &c. Diodor. v. 7 5. ; the conductor of 
departed ghosts to their proper mansions, Horat. od. i. 10. 17. ; 
also the god of ingenuity and of theft, Ib. 13. &c. ; see Ho- 
mer's hymn to Mercury. 

Mercury is said to have taught the Egyptians laws and letters. 
He was called by them THOTH, which name they gave ' to 
the first month of the year, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 22. 

Mercury was represented with a petasus or winged cap ; ta- 
laria, or winged sandals for his feet ; and a caduceus or wand, 
{yirga,) having two serpents twisted round it. (See p. 369.) 
It is called Virga aurea, Horat. od. 1. 10. 18. or horrida, lb. 
24. 16. according as the offices it performed were agreeable or 
not ; hence Mercury is called Caducifer, Ovid. Met. ii. 709. 
-— sometimes also as the god of merchants, with a purse, Serv. 
in Virg. JEn. viii. 138. \ Stat. Theb. i. 303. •, Ovid. Met. i. 671. 
Mercury had also a short sword bent like a scythe, (gladius 
falcatus, vel lunatum ferrum,) called HARPE, a falchion or 
cimeter, Lucan. ix. 662. & 678. harpe Cyllenis, -idis, from 
mount Cyllene, where he was born, Ib. & Ovid. Met. v. 176. 

Images of Mercury (Herm^e trunci, shapeless posts with a 
marble head of Mercury on them, Juvenal, viii. 53.) used to 

be 



380 



Fabulous History of Creie. 



be erected where several roads met, (in compitis,) to point out 
the way ; on sepulchres, in the porches of temples and houses, 
&c. Macrob. Sat.i. 19. ; Nep. Alcibiad. 3. 

PAN, the god of shepherds, was the son of Mercury and 
the nymph Dryope, Homer. Hymn. ; Cicero calls her Penelope, 
Nat. D. iii. 22. cr of Jupiter and Thymbris, Apollodor.i. 4. 1. 
He is said to have taught Apollo the art of prophecy, lb. 
He was chiefly worshipped in Arcadia, whence he is called 
Arcadius, v. -deus, Propert.i. 18. 20. Lyceus, from a moun- 
tain of that name, Virg. 2En. viii. 344. and Tege^us, lb. G. 
i. 18. His sacred rites were brought into Italy by Evander. 

By the Latins he was called INUUS, Liv. i. 5* He was 

represented with two small horns on his head, his face ruddy, 
his thighs and legs rough with hair, Stat. Silv. ii. 3. 11. having 
the tail and feet of a goat ; hence he is called Semicaper, 
Ovid. Met. xiv. 515. He first invented the pipe, (Fistula,) 
Virg. Eel. ii. 32. according to Ovid from the sound of the 
reeds into which Syrinx, a nymph whom he loved, was trans- 
formed, Met. i. 705. and was remarkably skilful in playing on 
it, Virg. Eel. ii. 32. iv. 58. * 

Pan engaged the affections of Luna under the form of a 
white ram, (munere niveo lana, as Virgil expresses it, G. iii. 
392.) Macrob. Sat. v. 22. But Servius says this fable took its 
rise by mistake from that of Endymion. 

Similar in form to Pan were the Satyri, Satyrs, rural demi- 
gods of uncertain origin, having the horns, ears, and feet of 
goats, the rest human ; remarkable for their nimbleness, cun- 
ning, loquacity, playfulness, and amorous dispositions, Virg, 
Eel. v. 73.; Horat. od. ii. 19. 3. k , Art. Poet. 225. & 233.; 
Ovid. Fast. i. 397. Pausanias, on the faith of a certain navi- 
gator, mentions men with tails resembling Satyrs, i. 23. These 
Ptolemy places in India, vii. 2. 

Faunus, the son of Picus ; and Sylvanus, two other rural 
deities, were of the same description with the Satyrs, Serv. in 
Virg. JEn. vii. 47. & 81- viii. 600. G. i. 17. & 20.; Horat. 
cd. 1. 17. 2. iii. 18. 1. hence the Nymphs, Fauns, Satyrs, 
Panes , and Sylvani, are commonly joined, Ovid. Met. i. 192. ; 
Virg. G. i. 10.; Lucan. iii. 403.; Plin. xii. 1. thus, Semidea 
Dryades, Faunique bicornes, Ovid. ep. iv. 49. Satyri, montana- 
que numina Panes, Nymphaque, lb. 171. called Semideum PE- 
CUS, Stat.Theb. vi. 112. Silvanus, as being a rustic deity, 

» The figure of Pan is minutely described by Silius Italicus, xiii. 336,— 343. and 
shortly by Herodotusj ii. 46. 

is 



Children of Jupiter. 



381 



is called Horridus, Horat. od. iii 29. 22. and Hxrsutus, 
Martial, x. 92. 6. Faunus was a prophetic god, (fatidicus,) 
Cic. Nat. D. iii. 6. and had an oracle in the grove of Albunea 
near Tibur, Virg. JEn. vii. 81. ; see p. 145. Servius says Fau- 
nus was the first who built a temple in Italy, (hence called 
Fanum,) Virg. G. i. 10. and Lactantius, that he was the insti- 
tutor of sacred rites in that country, i. 22. 9. He is represented 

as the guardian of learned men, Horat. od. ii. 17. 27. Pan 

was supposed to be the author of sudden frights or causeless 
alarms, from him called panic i terrores, Dionys. v. 16. 
The Fauni were believed to occasion what is called the night 

mare, {ludibria noctis vel ephiaken immittere,) Plin. xxv. 4. 

They were also thought to utter prophetic expressions, Cic. 
Divin. i. 45. & 50.*, Brut. 18. Nat. D. ii. 2. 

Connected with these rural deities were, PALES, the god- 
dess of shepherds, Virg. G. iii. 1. & 294. (whose festival, Pali- 
lia, was celebrated on the 21st April, the day on which Rome 
was founded, Ovid. Fast. iv. 721.) and Chloris or Flora, the 
goddess of flowers, and the wife of Zephyrus, Ovid. Fast. v. 
195. &c. 

The rural gods, the Fauns, and Satyrs ; the river-gods, the 
Nymphs or female deities presiding over particular parts of the 
earth ; the Lares, or domestic gods ; the Genii, or divinities 
which took care of each individual, were all called Semidei, 
Demi-gods, Ovid, in Ibin, 80. ; or in allusion to the distinction 
of ranks among the Romans, plebs superum, lb. vel Dn Mi- 
norum gentium, to distinguish them from the supreme gods 
called Dll NOBILES, Dll MAJORUM GENTIUM, potentes 
CoslicoU, &c. Id. Met. i. 172. 

VIII. BACCHUS, the god of wine, was the son of Jupiter 
by Semele or Thyone, the daughter of Cadmus, hence he is 
called THEBANiE semeles puer, Horat. od. i. [9. 2. Thyoneus 
Semeleius, lb. 17. 23. Proles Semeleia, Ovid. Met. v. 329. 
Proles Semeles, Tibull. iii. 4. 45. and Deus Ogygius, Ovid, 
epist. x. 48. 

Semele, at the instigation of Juno, who accosted her under 
the form of her nurse Berb'e, requested of Jupiter, that he 
would come to her in all his majesty, as he used to do to Juno; 
which Jupiter, having sworn by the river Styx that he would 
grant whatever she should ask, could not refuse, although he 
foresaw the consequences. Accordingly he came to her in a 
cloud, attended with lightnings and thunderbolts. Thus Se- 
mele was burnt up, (precibus periit ambitiosa suis,) Ovid. Trist. 

iv« 



382 Fabulous History of Crete. 

iv. 3. 68. and the revenge of Juno was gratified. The infant 
not yet come to maturity, (imperfectus,) was taken out of the 
womb of Semele, and sewed up in the thigh of Jupiter till 
the due time was completed*, Ovid. Met. iii. 260. — 312.5 
Diodor. iii. 64. iv. 2. ; Propert. ii. 30. 29. ; Hygin. 179. ; Stat. 
Theb. i. 72. vii. 165. 

Bacchus discovered the use of wine, and the art of producing 
drink from barley ; whence he came to be worshipped as the 
god of wine, Dioder. iv. 2. He is said first to have yoked 
oxen, whence he was represented with horns, Ib. 4. insignis 
cornu, Ovid. Art. iii. 348. or because after drinking a little 
even a poor man becomes bold, tunc pauper cornua sumit> 
lb. 1. 239. .. 

There were several different persons of the name of Bacchus, 
the actions of all of whom have been ascribed to one, Cic. Nat. 
D. iii. 23. j Diodor. ib. & iii. 63. &c. 

* Hence Bacchus was called Ignigena, Satus iterum, et bimater, Ib.iv. 12. bis ge- 
mius, Ovid. Trist. v. 3. 26. also D1THYRAMBUS, (q. Sugus apfhaivw, bis 
yitse portas transient,) whence songs in praise of Bacchus were called Dithyramb!, 
or any poems composed in a bold sublime style, Horat. od.'iv. 2.; Cic. orat. iii. 48. 
{pocma dithyrambicum. Cic. de Opt. Gen. Orat. i. which some derive from hu> 
per, and S^/a^a?, triumphus, i. e. a triumphal song.) 

Bacchus was named by the Greeks Dionysus, v. -ius, by the Latins, LIBER 
PATER, and by the Egyptians, Osiris, Diodor. iv. 1. He was also called by va- 
rious other names, Ovid. Met. iv. 11. &c. Cic. Flacc. 25.; Macrob.'i. Diodor. 
iv. v. as LYiEUS, (a kva, solvo,) LENiEUS, (a Xvvos, torcular, a wine-press,) 
BROMIUS, (a fytfta, fremo,) Lucan. v. 73. Thyoneus, (a Tbydne matre ejus,) 
NYCTELIUS, (a nocturnis festis ;) lACCHUS, (cctfo ry\s ictX'/lS. a clamor e ;) Eleleus, 
[ab iXiXiv, voce Baccbarum, hence called Eleleides, Ovid. ep. iv. 47.;) Evan 
vel Evius, {ab Ivoi, Evoe vel Eva, voce qua bacchantes item utebaniur, Horat. od. ii. 
19.5.; Juvenal, vii. 62.;) BASSAREUS, {quasi fiarrxoivs, lingua titubans vel blasus,) 
lb. i. 18. 11. whence Bassaris, -)dis, a priestess of Bacchus, Pers. 1. 101. (or from a 
kind of garment which the Thracians wore, called Bassaris, Scholiast, to* Hesycb.) 

Nyseus, or Nysteus pater, Stat. Theb, iv. 383. from Nysa, a mountain 

where Bacchus was educated by the nymphs, (nympha Nysetdes,) Ovid. Met. iii. 
3i4^which Diodorus places between Phoenicia and the Nile, iv. 2.; soi. 15. iii. 64. 
whence some derive tl\e name Dionysus, {u<ro &io$ xut Uvirtis, a Jove patre et Nysa,) 

Diodor. iv. 2. vel a Atos vss, Jovis mens, Macrob. Sat. i. 18. Others suppose 

Nysa to have been one of the ridges of Parnassus, (Nyseia juga, Lucan. viii. 801.) 
whence that mountain, with both its ridges, {gemino colle vel utroque jugo, nempe, ut 
putatur, Cirrha et Nysa,) is said to be sacred to Apollo and Bacchus, Ib. v. 73. 
and these two gods are called Domini Cirrha Nysaque, Juvenal, vii. 64. But Lu- 
can distinguishes Cirrha and Parnassus, iii. 172. as he does Cirrha and Nysa, 
i. 64. 

Most authors place Nysa or Nyssa in India, and make it a city built by Bac- 
chus in that country, at the foot of a mountain called Meros, [quasi p'-oos, fe- 
mur,) which is supposed to have given rise to the fable of his being stitched up in 
Jupiter's thigh, Strab. xv. 687. ; Plin. vi. 21. ; Curt. viii. 10. 12. Herodotus men- 
tions a city of this name sacred to Bacchus in Ethiopia, iii. 97. Virgil speaks 
of Nysa as a mountain, JEn, vi. 805.; so Martial, iv, 44. 3. and the other 
poets. 



Bacchus 



Children of Jupiter, 



383 



Bacchus is said to have conquered India ; and to have em- 
ployed three years in that expedition •, whence a festival was 
celebrated in honour of him at the end of every third year, 
lb. iv. 3. calledSACRATRiETERiCA, Ovid, Met, vi. 587. or Orgia 
(olitq tyi$ ogyr\$, a furore^) Trieterica, Serv. in Virg, JEn. iv. 
302. chiefly by women called BaccHjE, Thyades, Manades, 
Mimaliones, v. -onides, Elelides, who ran up and down the 
mountains in a frantic manner, as described by Statius, Theb. 
v. 92. &c, covered with a doe's skin, (nebris, -tdis,) having 
each in their hands a spear, bound at the point with ivy-leaves, 
{thyrsus,) Diodor. iii. 64. *, Macrob. Sat. i. 18. ; Plin. xvi. 34. 
s. 62, ; Virg. Eel. v. 3 1. whence some derive the name of orgies^ 
(u%o Twv ogew ; a montibus ;)^or because all, except those ini- 
tiated, were excluded from them, (ab kigyoo, arceo - 3 Orgia, qu& 
frustra cupiunt audire profani,) Catull. lxiii. 260. 

The chief attendant of Bacchus was Silenus, his nurse and 
preceptor, Horat. Art. P, 239. commonly represented as a jolly 
old man, riding on an ass, crowned with flowers, and almost 
always intoxicated, Virg. Eel, vi. 14. Ovid, Met, iv. 26, fol- 
lowed by satyrs and bacchanals *, lb, 25. 

To the splendid return of Bacchus from India is ascribed the 
origin of triumphs, Diodor. iv. 5. whence he was named Thri- 
ambos, i. e. triumphus, lb. On this occasion also he is said to 
have erected theatres, and to have instituted musical enter- 
tainments, lb. & iii. 64. 

Besides the descendants of Jupiter already mentioned, there 

* Some peasants having taken Silenus while overpowered with wine, brought him 
to MIDAS, king of Phrygia, who entertained him hospitably, and restored him to 
Bacchus. The god in return promised to grant Midas any thing he should desire. 
Midas asked that whatever he touched might be turned into gold. But he soon re- 
pented of his choice, when he perceived even his meat and drink converted into gold ; 
and begged that Bacchus would withdraw the gift. Bacchus assented, and bid him 
bathe in the river Pactolus. Midas did so, and the golden virtue went from him 
into the river; whence its sand was turned into gold, vi d. Met. xi. 90. — 145. ; 
Hygin. 191. 

Cicero represents Silenus as teaching Midas certain maxims in return for his dis- 
mission; in particular, That the best thing for man was, not to be born; and the next 
to die as soon as possible, Tusc. quasi. 1.48. iElian relates from Theopompus, that 
Silenus, in a conference with Midas, among other things informed him of another 
continent, or new world, beyond that then known, (sg« <t»t» m xotfiu,) of immense 
extent, iii. 1 8. which some moderns suppose to have been America. See Perizonius 
on this passage. 

Virgil introduces Silenus, as bound by two boys, with the assistance of the nymph 
JEgle (Ndiadum pulcherrima) ; and singing to them verses, in which he describes the 
origin of all things, according to the doctrine of Epicurus, and subjoins various fables, 
iiJ.vi.14. — ad fin. Pausanias says, that the old satyrs were called Sileni, i. 23. 
Silenus, both in his form and sagacity, resembled a satyr. 



we?e 



384 



Fabulous History of Crete. 



were a great many others, called Heroes, heroes, or men who, 
on account of their superior merit, were thought worthy of 
being ranked among the gods. 

Jupiter having fallen in love with EUR OP A, the daughter 
of Agenor, king of Sidon*, to gain her affection, transformed 
himself into a bull of wonderful whiteness, and while Europa 
was gathering flowers in a meadow near the sea-shore, mingled 
with her father's bullocks ; whence he is called Agenoreus ju- 
vencus, Stat. Sil. iii. 2. 89. The virgin, attracted by the 
beauty of the bull, and encouraged by his placid aspect, ap- 
proached and ventured to strode him with her hands. She 
even had the courage, in the playfulness of youth, to get on 
his back. The god, at first putting only the soles of his feet in 
the water, then by little and little going further, carried his prize 
through the sea to Crete f, Ovid, Met. ii. 840. &c. There 
resuming his real form, Jupiter declared his passion ; and Eu- 
ropa became by him the mother of MINOS, SARPEDON, 
and RHADAMANTHUS, Hygin. 178. From her that part 
of the world is said to have been called, which still bears her 
name, Horat. od. iii. 27. 75. , Herodot. iv. 45. 

Europa is said by Herodotus to have been carried off by 
Cretan merchants, i. 2. After her amour with Jupiter, she 
married Asterius, king of Crete, who having no children of his 
own, adopted her sons by Jupiter ; and at his death left the 
crown to Minos, the eldest of them, Apollcdor. iii. 1.3. Minos, 
assisted by his brother Rhadamanthus, drew up a body of laws 
for the Cretans, which were much admired for their justice, 
and served as a model for the future legislators of Greece, lb, 2.; 
Diodor. iv. 60. v. 78. & 79. After death they were both thought 
to have been constituted judges of the infernal regions together 
with iEacus, lb. 79. Minos is most frequently mentioned 
under that character ; and hence called Arbiter Gortynius, 
Stat. Theb. iv. 530. ; Cic. Tusc. i. 5. & 41. Offic, i. 28.; Virg, 
JEn. vi. 432. & 566. ; Horat. od. iv. 7. 21. ii. 13. 22. Minos 
is said to have been the first of the Greeks who established 

* Whence she is called Sidonis, -idis, Ovid. Art. Am. iii. 252. or Sidonis, Id, 
Met. ii. 841. 

f Agenor sent his sons, Phanix, Cilix, and Cadmus, in quest of their sister, with 
a charge not to return without her. They therefore, after a fruitless search, settled 
in different places. Cilix gave name to Cilicia, and Phcenix to Phoenicia ; whence 
the Carthaginians, as having come from Phoenicia, were called Poeni, Apollodor. 
iii. 1.; Hygin. 178.; Serv. in Virg. JEn. 'x. 302. Hence also Carthage is called 
Agenorh urbs, lb. 338. & Arces Agenorea^ Sil. i. 14, xvii. 201. and Hannibal, 
Agenoreus ductor, lb. 396. 

a naval 



t 



Children of Jupiter. 385 



a naval power. He thus reduced under his subjection the 
Cyclades, and most of the islands of the iEgean sea, Thucydid. 
i. 4. But this Minos, the husband of Pasiphae, is said by Dio- 
dorus to have been the grandson of the former Minos, iv. 60. 

SARPEDON having in vain attempted to seize the sceptre 
of Minos, fled to Caria, where he built the city of Miletus, 
Apollodor.m. 1. 2. Sarpedon became king of Lycia, Herodot. 
i. 173. whence his spear is called Lycia hasta, Ovid, ep. i. 19. 
He assisted Priam against the Greeks, and was slain by Patro- 
clus, Ovid. Met. xiii. 255. Virg. JEn. i. 100. x. 471. But this 
Sarpedon is also thought to have been a different person from 
the former. 

jEACUS was the son of Jupiter by iEgina, the daughter of 
Asopus, the son of Neptune. He became king of an island 
in the Saronic gulf \ to which he gave the name of JEglna, 
from his mother. It was anciently called Oenopia, Ovid. Met. 
vii. 473. jjEacus is called Asopiades, from his grandfather, ib. 
484. His subjects were called Myrmidones, (a ^u^xcc, 
formica, ants \ which are said to have been converted into armed 
men by Jupiter, at the desire of ^Eacus, Hygi?i. 52. Lactant. in 
Stat. Theb. vii. 310. or rather because the inhabitants of iEgina 
resembled these animals in industry, Strab. viii. 375.5 Ovid. 
Met. vii. 954.) which name was afterwards given to the sol- 
diers of his descendant Achilles, Virg. JEn. ii. 7. and to the 
Greeks in general, Ib. 252. 785. xi. 403. Servius says, they 
were so called from a king Myrmidon, Ib. 

^Eacus had two sons by the nymph Endeis, the daughter of 
the Centaur Chiron, Peleus, the father of Achilles, and Te~ 
lamon, the father of Ajax. He had a third called PhocuSj, 
Ovid. Met. vii. 477. by Psamathe, one of the Nereids, whose 
sons gave name to Phocis, Pausan. ii. 29. x. 1. & 30. He was 
slain by his brothers, who on that account were obliged to leave 
iEgina, ib. Telamon became king of Salamis, and Peleus of 

Thessaly. Not only the sons and grandsons of JEacus, but 

also his descendants, were called ^acid^e, Ovid. Met. xiii. 33. ; 
Herodot. v. 80. Thus Pyrrhus, king of Epire, Cic. Divin, ii. 
56. Philip or Perseus of Macedon, Virg. JEn. vi. 840. ; Property 
iv. 12. 30. ; Sil. xv. 291. and even his soldiers, Ovid. Met. viih 

4. iEacus, on account of his justice, was appointed a judge 

in the infernal regions, Horat. od. ii. 13. 22- ; Ovid. ib. 187.5 
Propert. iv. 11. 19. ; Martial, x. 5, with his brothers Minos and 
Rhadamanthus. After his death he was worshipped with di- 
vine honours. Herodot. v. 89. The Athenians built a temple 
to him, Ib. and before the battle of Salamis the Greeks parti- 
cularly invoked his assistance, Ib. viii. 64. 

C c The 



386 



Fabulous History of Crete. 



The other descendants of Jupiter will be mentioned here- 
after in the history of the countries, where they settled. 



The Brothers qf Jupiter. 

1. NEPTUNE, (TloTetioov,) the god of the sea, dissatisfied 
•with his part of the empire, see p. 358. conspired with the other 
gods to dethrone Jupiter ; but his attempt was frustrated, and 
as a punishment, he was condemned to build the walls of Troy, 
see p. 372. whence these walls are called Mcenia Neptunia, 
Propert. iii. 9. 41. and the city, Neptunia Troja, Virg, JEn. 
ii. 625. Urbs Neptuni, Ovid. ep. xiii. 129. Pergameus labor, 
•Stat. Sih. iii. 1. 116. 

Neptune married Amphitrite, the daughter of Oceanus, by 
whom he had TRITON, Apollodor. i. 4. 4. who became a 
powerful sea-god, Ovid. Met. xiii, 919. ; Virg. JEn. i. 144. & 
'Serv. in he. the attendant, Stat. Sih. iii. 3.82. and trumpeter 
of Neptune, using a shell instead of a trumpet, ib.vi. 17 1. j 
Ovid. Met. i. 333. in his upper parts resembling a man, and in 
the lower, a fish, ib. x. 209. ; Cic. Nat. D. i. 28. hence called 
gemino corpore Triton, Stat. Sih. iii. 2. 35. sometimes repre- 
sented as riding in a chariot, Ovid. ep. vii. 50. Other sea-gods 
were also called Tritons, Virg. JEn. v. 824. 

By Phariice Neptune had PROTEUS, who is said by others 
to have been the son of Oceanus and Tethys. Proteus obtained 
from Neptune the power of foretelling future events, and of 
turning himself into any shape, Virg. G. iv. 387. &c. ; Ovid. 
Met. vlii- 730. ; SiL vii. 420. 5 Horat. ep. i. 1. 90. Sat. ii. 3. 71. 
so that it was next to impossible to bind him, Ib. hence Muta- 
bilior Proteo, for a cunning or fickle person. Proteus was the 
keeper of Neptune's sea-calves, (phoca,) Virg. G. iv. 395. 
which Horace calls the flock of Proteus, Od. i. 2. 8. Some make 
Proteus a king of Egypt, Herodot. ii. 112. ; Hygin. 1 18. Dio- 
dorus ascribes the origin of the fable concerning his versatility 
to the custom of the Egyptian kings having the figures of dif- 
ferent animals painted on their crowns, i. 62* Some make him 
a king of the island Carpathus ; whence he is called Carpa- 
■thius vates, Stat. Achill. i. 137. 

NEREUS also was the son of Neptune by Canace ; Apollo- 
dor. i. 7.4.; but others make him the son of Pontus and Terra, 
Ib. i. 2. 6. and represent him as the most ancient of the gods ; 
hence he is called grandavus> Virg. G. iv. 392. 

Nereus 



Brothers of Jupiter, 



387 



Kerens possessed the same gift of prophecy with Proteus, 
Horat, od.i. 15. 5. and also the power of changing his form, 
Apollodor. ii. 5. 11. He had by his wife Doris fifty daughters, 
called Nereides, sea-nymphs, whose names are recorded, Ib. i. 

2. 6. The chief were, Thetis , Doto, Galatea, Calypso, Pa- 

nope or Panopea, Meltte, &c. Ib. Virg. G. iv. 338. Mn.v. 825. 
Ovid calls them an hundred sisters, Fast. vi. 499. Nereus is 
often put for the sea, Virg. Eel. vi. 35. ; Ovid. Met. 1. 187. as 
Neptune is, Lucret. ii. 471. ; Plant. Rud. ii. 6. 2. *, Catull. 29. 3. 
& 62. 2. and Amphitrite, Ovid. Met. i. 13. — — Virgil ascribes 
a trident to Nereus, as to Neptune, Mn. ii. 419. 

PHORCUS was another son of Neptune by the nymph 
These a, Serv. in Virg. Mn. v. 240. or of Pont us and Terra, 
Apollodor. i. 2. 6. Phorcus was the father of the Gorgons Me- 
dusa, Euryale, and Stheno, Ib. & 2. 4. 3. monstrous females, 
having snakes instead of hair, {crinita colubris, Ovid. Met. 
vi. 119.) teeth as large as those of swine, brazen hands and 
brazen wings, Apollodor. ii. 4. 3. They turned those who 
looked at them into stone, Ib. They had but one eye among 
them which they used alternately, Ovid. Met. iv. 775. j Serv. 
in Virg. Mn. vi. 289. They are called Phorcydes, Ovid. Met. 
iv. 775. ; or Phorcymdes, Ib. v. 230. The inferior sea-deities 
are called Chorus vel exercitus Phorci, Virg. iEn. v. 8. 240. and 
824. ; Plin. xxxvi. 5. 

Another son of Neptune was Glaucus, the favourite of 
Circe, see p. 375. whose figure and transformation into a sea- 
god we have, as described by himself, Ovid. Met. xiii. 960. ; 
see also Stat. Silv. iii. 2. 36. 

One of the constant attendants of Neptune was Pal^mon, 
the son of Athamas and Ino or Leucothea, the nurse of Bac- 
chus, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 15.; Ovid. Fast. vi. 485. hence Inous 
Palemon, Virg. Mn, v. 823. called by the Romans JS'ortum- 
wus, the god who presided over harbours ; and his mother, 
Matuta, Ovid. Fast. vi. 485.-545. &c. 

Neptune had a numerous progeny by different persons, 
Apollodor. i. 4. 4. ; Ib. 7. 4. & 9. 8. & 20. &c. Their names 
are recounted, Hygin. 157. 

Neptune is represented with a trident in his right hand and 
a dolphin in his left ; one of his feet resting on a part of a ship ; 
his aspect majestic and serene : sometimes in a chariot drawn 
by sea-horses* with a triton on each side, Stat. Achiil. i. 55.5 
Theb. v. 700. He is called tEg^eus, Virg. Mn. iii. 74. from 

* In their fore part they resembled horses, and In their hinder part, fishes ; Stat. 
Theb. ii, 45. 

C C 2 Mga, 



38S 



Fabulous History of Crete. 



JEg£) a town In Euboea, where he had a temple, Homer. M. 

v. 20 A horse is said to have sprung from a rent made in, 

a rock at Athens, by the stroke of Neptune's trident, Ovid. 
Met vi. 75. ; Virg. G. i. 12. whence that animal was sacred to 
him ; or because he first taught the art of taming horses, 
Diodor. v. 69. whence he was named 'Ioranos, equester, or Domi- 
tor equorum, as Messapus, his son, Virg. JEn. vii. 691. Nep- 
tune was called by the Romans Consus, or Neptunus Eques- 
ter, Liv. i. 9. at whose festival (Consualia) the Sabine virgins 
were carried off by the Roman youth at the command of Ro- 
mulus, lb. & Strab. v. 230. 

Neptune was supposed to be the cause of earthquakes, 
whence he is called Ennosig^us, i. e. terram quatiens y vel 
terra quas sat or y Juvenal, x. 183. see Herodot. v-ii. 129.; Dio- 
dor. xv. 49. and is represented as overturning the foundations 
of Troy, Virg. JEn. ii. 610. 

II. PLUTO, the god of every thing below the surface of 
the earth*; was called also DlS-f, Virg. JEn. vi. 127. xii. 199. 
ORCUSJ, Liv. ix. 40. 5 Cic. Verr. iv. 50.; Horat. od. ii. 18. 
34. (which word is sometimes also put for the infernal regions, 
Virg. JEn. ii. 398.) and Jupiter Stygius, lb. iv. o^S.fas Pro- 
serpine, the wife of Pluto, (Domino, ditis> lb. vi. 397*) is called 

Ju$rO INFERNA, lb. VI. 138. § 

Pluto is said to have obtained dominion of the infernal 
regions, from his being the first who instituted funeral obse- 
quies, Diodor. v. 69. 

Pluto is represented as stern, gloomy, inexorable, and rapa- 
cious, Horat. od. ii. 3. 24. iii. 4. 74. iv. 2. 23- ii. 14. 6. & 18. 
30. ; Virg. G. 1. 277. JEn. vi. 127. xii. 199.5 so also Proser- 
pine, Horat. od. L 28. 20. ii. 13. 21. 

Proserpine is sometimes confounded with Hecate, the daugh- 

* Called Tertia regna, for regnunt, Sil. viii. 116. & xiii. 437. hsaven and the se« 
being the other two regna. 

f Pluto is called Dis, ditis, contracted for dives, rich, as among the Greeks Tlksrw* 
®r JJXfsro£ , dives, (quia residant omnia in terras, et oriantur a terris, Cic. Nat. D. ii. 7,6. 
aliter autem; Dis, quia minims dives; Quinctilian. i. 6. 34.) But Plutus, the god of 

riches, was considered as different from Pluto ; See the comedy of Aristophanes, 

cabled i > //^ax.--Hyginus mentions a Plutus, the son of Ceres and Jasion,yfj/rff«.ii.4« 
The Greeks called both the infernal regions and the king of them, 'A^s, Hades. The 
mme Pluto is supposed to be of later origin. 

I Those who protracted life longer than they ought, were said Orcum morari, t» 
retard or keep Pluto waiting for them, as it were ; Horat. od. iii. 27. 50. — Cum Ore* 
tf&iionsKz habere vel ponere, to expose one's self to the danger of death, as husband- 
snera do who cultivate a pestilential soil, although fruitful, Far. de re Rust. i. 4. 3.; 
C&hsmett. i. 3. %. 

§ Also Tartareus Jupiter i§'d.u.6y,Z, i Niger Jupiter^ Sil. viii. 116.; profundus, 

mat, Thsh. L 6t$. 

ter 



Brothers of Jupiter* 



889 



ter of Asteria and Perses, whose power Hesiod extols, Theog. 
411. and Virgil, JEn. vi. 247. She is said by some to have 
been the mother of Medea, and to have first discovered the 
properties of poisonous herbs, which she taught her daughter* 
Diodor. iv. 45. 

Albricus represents Pluto as sitting on a throne of sulphur, 
holding a sceptre in his right hand, and binding a soul with his 
left. At his feet was the three-headed dog CERBERUS, and 
near him the three harpies, Ae'llo, Qcypete, and CeUno, raven- 
ous birds with the face of virgins. From this throne of sul- 
phur issued four rivers, called Lethe , Cocytus, Phlegethon, and 
Acheron : and near them was the lake STYX, which others 
call a river. Seneca describes the palace of Pluto [Ditis regid) 
as surrounded by two rivers, the Styx and Acheron, Here. 
Fur, 716". On the left hand of Pluto sat Proserpine, with a 
dusky and terrible countenance. Near him were the three 
Furies, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megara, having their heads co- 
vered with serpents (holding a whip in their right hands, and 
snakes in their left, Virg. JEn. vi. 570.) ; also the three Fates, 
or Parca? ; Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who were supposed 
to determine the life of man by spinning, Juvenal, xii. 64. ; 
Clotho held the distaff, Lachesis span, and Atropos cut the 
thread*, Albric. de imag. D. 10. 

But Virgil's description of the infernal regions chiefly merits 

our attention. Before the vestibule, or in the first entrance, 

he places grief, cares, diseases, old age, fear , famine, want, death, 
labour, sleep, criminal joys, war, the furies, and discord : in the 
middle, dreams, nestling among the leaves of a huge shady elm- 
tree : in the gates, Centaurs, Scyllas, Briareus, the monster of 
Lerna, Chimara, Gorgons, Harpies, and the three-bodied Geryon. 
From hence is the way to Acheron, a muddy stream, which 
runs into Cocytus. Here Charon, the ferry-man of Hell, plies 
his boat, in which he carries departed ghosts over the Stygian 
lake. The shades of such as have not received funeral obse- 
quies are obliged to wander one hundred years along the banks 
before they are permitted to pass, JEn. vi. 273. — 330. The en- 
trance on the farther side of Styx is guarded by the dog Cerbe- 
rus, lb. 8c Horat. od. iii. 11. 17.; see also Stat. Theb. iv. 520, 
&c. Here are found the souls of infants : then those who had been 
unjustly condemned ; and those who, from the pressure of mis- 

* But they did not always retain these distinct offices. Clotho is often said to spin, 
Ovid. Ib. 246.; Fast. vi. 757. So the other two. Id. ad £in>. 240. Sometimes all 
the three Parcte are represented as employed in breaking the threads ; thus Lucan, 
speaking of the destruction of the civil wars, Vix oferi cuncta dextra properante s»- 
roret sujficiunt ; lassant rumpentes stamina Parca t iii. J 8. 

Cc 3 fortunes^ 



390 



Fabulous History of Crete. 



fortunes, had killed themselves. Not far from thence are the 
mournful plains, possessed by hapless lovers ; and beyond these, 
the residence of brave warriors, who had fallen in battle, Virg. 
ib. 417. — 485. 

Here the way divides into two. The way on the right leads 
to the palace of Pluto and to Elysium y or the abode of the 
blessed ; that on the left to Tartarus, or the place of punishment 
for the wicked. Tartarus is inclosed with a treble wall, and 
surrounded by a rapid river of liquid flame, called Phlegethon. 
The vestibule or entrance is guarded by the fury Tisiphone, and 
a. dreadful hydra or water-serpent with fifty black gaping 
mouths, lb. 540.' — 580. The Sibyl recounts to ./Eneas the 
punishment of the Titans and giants, and others confined in 
this place, from verse 580. to 628. for it seems no pure or vir- 
tuous person was permitted to enter it, v. 563. but the Sibyl 
seems to have been there herself, v. 565. & 582. &c. 

Virgil mentions but slightly the palace of Pluto, v. 630. He 
describes at greater length the joys of Elysium % from v. 637. 
to 703. Through Elysium ran the river Lethe, or the river of 
forgetfulness. By drinking of it, those souls which were destined 
to animate new bodies forgot what had passed while they were 
formerly on earth : for Virgil supposes, according to the doc- 
trine of Pythagoras and Plato, see p. 14. that the departed 
souls of men, after enjoying happiness in Elysium for a certain 
number of years, and after being purified from the stain of for- 
mer guilt, were sent to animate new bodies upon earth. Thus 
the poet, by a happy contrivance, makes Anchises, while these 
souls pass in review before him, foretell to JEneas the character 
and fortune of the most illustrious men that afterwards appeared 
in the Roman state, lb. from v. 702. to 893. 

JEneas, under the conduct of the Sibyl, entered the infer- 
nal regions, by the cave of Avernus, lb. 262. and returned by 
one of the two gates of Somnus, Sleep, at which he was let 
out by Anchises, (porta que emittit eburnd,) Ib. 899. 

Virgil appears to have borrowed this description of the in- 
fernal regions, chiefly from Homer and Plato. The notion of 
Dr. Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester, that it is only a poetical 
representation of the ceremonies, anciently observed, in initiat- 
ing a person into the mysteries of Ceres, appears to be ground- 
less.* 

* The description which Silius Italicus makes the Sibyl give to Scipio of the in- 
fernal regions, (Stygia formidims aula,) is in many respects similar to that of Virgil. 
Sil. xiii. 520—613. 



II. Fa- 



( 3S1 ) 



II. Fabulous History of ARGOS and MYCENAE. 

THE first king of Argos was INACHUS, who gave^ 
name to the river Inachus, Pausan. ii. ^5. hence put for the 
river, Virg. JEn. vii. 792. one of the largest in Greece, and 
therefore called Fluviorum ductor Achivv.m, Stat. Theb. iv. 118. 
Inachedes rip&, for Inachia, the banks of Inachus, Ovid. Met. i. 
640. He had a daughter called IO ; who being beloved by- 
Jupiter, is said to have been converted by him into a cow, Virg. 
JEn. vii. 790. that she might be concealed from Juno ; but 
Juno, perceiving the fraud, asked her as a present from Jupi- 
ter, and having obtained her request, committed her to the 
charge of Argus, a shepherd, who had an hundred eyes, Ovid. 
ii. 58. &c. * but he being lulled asleep and slain by Mercury, 
Ovid. Met. i. 625. Io was driven by^a fury in the shape of a 
gad-bee, which Juno sent to torment her, into Egypt. Hav- 
ing there implored the assistance of Jupiter, she was restored 
to her proper shape, and married Osiris. After her death she 
was worshipped as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the 
name of ISIS, Ovid. Met. i. 588. &c. hence IO bos ex homine, 
ex bove facta dea, Id. ep. xiv. 85. &c. Inachus is sometimes 
called by the poets, the father of Io, and she his daughter, 
Inachis, -idis, Propert. i. 5. 19.; Ovid. Met. i. 611. ep. xiv. 
105. or Inachia Juvenca, Virg. G. hi. 153. and her son Epaphus, 
Inachides, -da, Ovid. Met. i. 753. by which name Perseus 
is called, lb. iv. 720. Inachida, -arum, the Argivesf, Stat. Theb. 

ii- 345- 3 66 ^ 

The son of Inachus was called Phoroneus, whence Io is 
named Phorbnis, Adis, Ovid. Met. i. 668. and the matrons of 
Argos, Phoronea Matres, Stat. Theb. xii. 465. Some make 
Phoroneus the first king, who is said first to have collected the- 
inhabitants, formerly dispersed, into one city, called from him 
Phoronicum, Pausan. ii. 15. 

APIS, -is, v. -rdis, the son of Phoroneus, is said to have 
been expelled from Argos, and to have fled into Egypt, 
where, on account of his useful discoveries, he was worshipped 
under the figure of an ox : hence called Niliacum pecus, Stat. 

* Hence Argus is called Custos Inachia Juvenca, Sil. x. 348. 

f Herodotus makes Io to have been carried off to Egypt by some Phoenician mer- 
chants; and says that some Greeks or Cretans in revenge caxrisd off Eurcpa, th* 
daughter of the king of Tyre, i. 1. & %. 

C c 4 Theb. 



39S 



Fabulous History of Argos. 



Theb. iii. 478. or, as some say, under the name of Osiris or 
Busiris, Augastin. xii. 1. But Diodorus of Sicily gives a quite 
different account of the origin of the worship of Isis and Osiris, 
u 21. & 22. 

ARGOS, the grandson of Phoroneus, gave name to the 
country, Pausan. ii. 16. whence the Greeks were called 
Argivi. Strabo thinks that this name was applied to all 
the Greeks from the* pre-eminence of the city Argos at that 
time, viii. 371. 

GELANOR was the last of the descendants of Inachus that 
reigned at Argos. After him DANAXJS, the son of Belus ^ 
from Egypt, became king, Pausan. ii. 16. & 19. ; Herodot* 
ii. qi. vii. 94. from whom the Greeks were called DANAI.* 

Danaus had fifty daughters, whom he had promised in mar- 
riage to the fifty sons of his brother ^Egyptus, king of Egypt ; 
but terrified by an oracle, that he was to be killed by one of 
his sons-in-law, and compelled to fulfil his engagement, he 
charged his daughters to murder their husbands on the night 
of the nuptials \ which they all did, except one, HYPERM- 
NESTRA, who preserved her husband LYNCEUS, Pausan. 
ii. 19.; Ovid* ep. 14.; Horat. od. iii. 11. 22. For this crime 
they (Danaides) were supposed to be condemned in the infer- 
nal regions to pour water for ever into a vessel full of holes, 
Hygin. 168. j Serv. in Virg. JEn. x. 497.; Horat. od. ib. 23. 
&c. Assidua repetunty quas perdant, Bel ides undas, Ovid. Met. 

iv. 463. They were called Dandides from their father, and 

Beltdes from their grandfather, Ovid. Met. iv. 462. in ibid. 358. 
also Inachides from their great-great-grandfather Inachus, Ovid, 
epist. xiv. 23. Danaus and iEgyptus, the sons of Belus, were 
called Be/Ida fratres, Stat. Theb. vi. 291.; so Lynceus, the 
grandson of Belus, is called Belides, Ovid. ep. xiv. 73. and 
PalamedeSy the seventh in descent from Belus, Serv. in Virg. 
JEn. ii. 82. The daughters of Danaus are said by Herodotus 
to have brought from Egypt the custom of initiation into the 
mysteries of Ceres, ii. 171. 

Hypermnestra was brought to her trial by Danaus for not 
obeying his commands, but was acquitted by the Argives, 
Pausan. ii. 19. on which account she dedicated a temple to 
Diana, under the name of Peitho, or persuasion, 3.21. near 
which temple was her monument and that of Lynceus ; for 
they were both buried in the same tomb, 3. In Argos was 

* They were formerly called PELASGI, Strab. v. p. 221. from PELASGUS, 
the first king of Arcadia, Pausan. ii. 14. (who first taught the inhabitants to build 
cottages, and make tunics from the skins of animals, Id. viii. 1.) or from their wan- 
dering through different countries, (q. nt\x<ryoi, ciconiae,) Strab. ib. & ix. 397. 

also 



Abas, Prcetus, and Bellerophon, 



also a monument of the sons of iEgyptus, where their heads 
were buried, which the Danaids brought to their father; for 
the murder was committed at Lerna, where their bodies were 
left, lb. 24. These monuments seem to have been erected by 
Lynceus, who succeeded to the crown after the death of Danaus, 
lb. 16 Strabo mentions the sepulchre of Danaus as standing 
in the middle of the forum of Argos in his time, viii. p. 371.; 
so Pausanias, who places near it the honorary tomb (ra<po£ 
xsvog) of those Argives that fell in the war against Troy, ii. 20. 

ABAS, the son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, succeeded, 
whence Argos is called Abantei Argi, Ovid. Met. xv. 164. 
He had two sons, PRCETUS and ACRISIUS, (hence called 
Abantiada,) who contended about the crown. Prcetus got 
possession of it first. He had three daughters, (Proetides,) some 
say more, who having presumed to prefer themselves to Juno 
in point of beauty, were by her affected with such insanity that 
they imagined themselves to be cows, Virg. Eel. vi. 48. They 
were cured by Melampus, -odis, the son of Amythaon, Ovid* 
Met. xv. 325. ; Stat. Theb. iii. 453. by the application of Hel- 
lebore, from whom a species of that drug was called IVIelam- 
podium, Plin. xxv. 5. j. 21. 

BELLEROPHON, v. -antes, the son of Glaucus, and grand- 
son of Sisyphub, Pausan. ii. 4- by Eurymede, Apollodor. \. 9. 3. 
according to others, the son of Neptune and Eurynome, Hygin. 
157. being obliged to fly from Corinth for the murder of Beile- 
rus, (whence his name, q. BsAA>jg8 $ovsv$ 9 Belleri interfector,) 
took refuge at the court of Prcetus. The wife of Prcetus, 
called Anttea or Stenobaa, fell in love with Bellerophon ; but 
finding him treat her advances with disdain, she accused him 
to her husband of attempts on her virtue. Prcetus, unwilling 
to violate the laws of hospitality, sent him to Iobates, the 
king of Lycia, his wife's father, with a letter desiring him 
to put Bellerophon to death, and mentioning the cause; 
whence letters unfavourable to the bearer were called Letters of 
Bellerophon. Iobates did not himself chuse to slay Bellerophon, 
but sent him on various expeditions, in which he thought he 
must necessarily perish ; first against the CHIMiERA, a dread- 
ful monster, which continually vomited flames, Lucret. v. 902.; 
Serv, in Virg. jEn. vi. 288. vii. 785.; Horat. od. ii. 17. 13. 
iv. 2. 16. and at that time laid waste the country of Lycia, 
having the head of a lion, the middle of a goat, and the tail of 
a serpent or dragon, Ovid. Met. ix. 646. Some give the Chi- 
msera three heads, Scholiast, in Horat. i. 27. ; Palaephat. 29. ; so 
Hygin. 57. hence called triformis, Horat. 1. 27. 24. This 
monster Bellerophon slew, by the aid of a winged horse, called 

Pegasus, 



394 



Fabulous History qf Argos. 



Pegasus, which he received from Minerva, Pausan. ii. 4. hence 
he is called tetricus domitor CniMiERiE, Ovid. Trist. ii. 397. He 
was next sent against the Solymi, and then against the Atna- 
zotiSy Apollodor. ii, 3. both of whom he conquered, Homer. II. 
vi. 155. &c. Upon his return Xobates gave him his other 
daughter in marriage. "Stenobsea, hearing of it, hanged her- 
self, Hygin. 57. Bellerophon, elated with his success, tried 
to fly to heaven on Pegasus •, but the horse being stung by an 
insect (oestrum) sent by Jupiter, threw his rider, Horat. od. 
iv. 11. 26. who fell to the earth and broke his limbs on the 
AUian plains, Ovid, in Bin, 259. in Cilicia, near the river 
Pyramus, Strab. xii. 55. where he wandered up and down dur- 
ing the rest of his life in sorrow and dejection, Homer. II. 
vi. 201.; Cic. Tusc. iii. 26. Pegasus however continued his 
flight towards heaven, and was placed among the constellations, 
Hygin. Poet. Astron. ii. 18. 

Pegasus was so called from 7njy*j, a fountain, because pro- 
duced near the springs of the ocean. He is said to have been 
the son of Neptune and the Gorgon Medusa, Hygin. Astron. 
ii. 18. or to have sprung from the blood of the Gorgon when 
slain by Perseus, Ovid. Met. iv. 785. ; Strab. viii. 379. hence 
called Medus^sus equus, Ovid. Fast. v. 8. and Gorgoneus 
caballus, Juvenal, iii. 118. While drinking at the fountain 
Pirene in Corinth, he is said to have been caught by Bellero- 
phon. By the stroke of his hoof against a rock he is said to 
have produced the fountain on mount Helicon called Hippo- 
CRENE, (fo-7T8 xgYivviy equi fons,) Strabo, ib. ; Ovid. Fast. v. 7. 
Met. v. 256. or Fons Caballinus, Pers. Prol. 1. Bellerophontei 
equi humor, Propert. iii. 3. 2. Hence the Muses are called 
Pegasides, Ovid. ep. xv. 27. 

Bellerophon is said to have first taught the art of riding, 
Plin. vii. 56. hence he is celebrated for his skill in horseman- 
ship, Horat. iii. 12. 7. - 

PRGETUS, being attacked by his brother Acrisius, fled to 
his father-in-law Mates. Supported by him, he soon returned 
with an army. A battle was fought with equal success, and 
the war terminated by a treaty. Prcetus got Tiryns and the 
maritime towns \ Acrisius retained Argos and the inland towns, 
Pausan. ii. 25. *, Apollodor. ii. 2. 

ACRISIUS had an only daughter, called DANAE. Being 
forewarned by an oracle* that he should be slain by his grand- 
son, he confined Danae in a strong brazen or iron tower*, un- 
der 



* Turns abenea, Horat. od. iii. 16. I.; Ovid. Amor. ii. 19. 2J. Thalamus saxo 
fcrrtque perenms, lb. iii. 4. %, {/errata domus>) Propert. ii. 2-0, 12. (<trato Danae cir- 

1$ cnmdatii 



Acrisius and Perseus. 



395 



der the strictest guard. But Jupiter procured admission to her, 
according to the fable, by converting himself into a shower of 
gold, and entering through the tiles, Horat. od. iii. 16.1. 
Danae having brought forth a male child, afterwards called 
PERSEUS, \divite ni?nbo, i. e. aureo ortus, Lucan. ix. 659.) 
was put into a chest with her son, and thrown into the sea. By 
the direction of Jupiter she was driven on the island Seriphus. 
Being taken up by fishermen, (Strabo says by Dictys, x. 487. ; 
so Apollodorus, ii. 4. i.) she was brought to Po/ydectes, the king 
of the island. There her son was educated by Dictys, the 
king's brother. When Perseus grew up, the king proposed 
marrying his mother ; and upon her rejecting his proposal, he 
determined to use violence, Strab. ib. But being afraid of Per- 
seus, and wishing to remove him out of the way, he sent him 
into Africa to fetch the head of the Gorgon Medusa, a female 
monster, with snakes instead of hair, which turned every one 
that looked at her face into stone, Ovid. Met, iv. 780. ; Lucan, 
ix. 652.; Serv. in Virg, JEn. vi. 289. not doubting but he 
should perish in the attempt. But Perseus proved successful 
by the assistance of Minerva, Pausan. ii. 21. from whom he 
received a brazen shield, which reflected the images of objects, 
like a looking-glass, Lucan, ix. 669. : he also received various 
gifts from the other gods ; from Vulcan, a scimitar of ada- 
mant : from Mercury, winged shoes, called talaria, and a hel- 
met which rendered him invisible, &c. Hygin, Poet. Astron, 
ii. 12. Some say, that he received also a faulchion or scimitar, 
or crooked sword, {HARPER from Mercury, Apollodor. ii. 4. 2. 
who had slain with it the hundred-eyed Argus, Lucan. ix. 664. 5 
Ovid, Met. v. 69. hence called harpe Cyl/enis, Ib. & Lucan. ib. 
662. 

MEDUSA was the daughter of Phorcys by the nymph Cetho> 
whom Neptune having violated in the temple of Pallas, that 
goddess turned her hair into snakes, Ovid. ep. xix. 134. Met. 
iv. 800. whence Phorcynis, -idis, is put for Medusa's head, Id, 
Met. v. 230. 

After this, Perseus went into ^Ethiopia, where he freed An- 
dromeda, the daughter of Cepheus; king of that country, from 
a sea-monster, commonly called a whale, (cetos v. cetus,) to 
which she was exposed. Her mother Cassiope, v. -peia, or Cas- 

cumdata muro,) Id. ii. 32. 59. or in a subterraneous cavern, lined with brass or iron, 
Pausan. iii. 23. Sophoc. Antig.935. perhaps below the tower; guarded by watchful 

dogs, (vio'Uum canum tristes excubia^ Horat. ib. 

sipeia, 



396 



Fabulous History of Argos. 



sipeiay had provoked the sea-nymphs by preferring her own 
beauty to theirs \ on which account Neptune, taking part in 
their quarrel, sent a deluge and a whale on the country, The 
oracle of Jupiter Amnion being consulted about the means of 
removing their calamity, ordered Andromeda to be exposed to 
the monster. This Cepheus was forced by his subjects to sub- 
mit to 5 and bound his daughter with a chain to a rock. Per- 
seus, who had fallen in love with her, slew the monster, and 
loosed Andromeda, Ovid, Met. iv. 663. — 753. Some say that 
he turned the monster into stone by presenting the head of 
Medusa. Perseus, as a recompence, received Andromeda in 
marriage. Phineus, the brother of Cepheus,' to whom she had 
been formerly betrothed, conspiring against the life of Perseus, 
was turned into stone, Apollodor. ii. 4. 3. \ Hygin. 64. & Astr. 
ii. 11. & 12. with a great many of his companions, Ovid. Met. 
v. 1. — 236. 

PJ,iny says it Was at Joppe, a maritime town in Phoenicia, 
that Andromeda was exposed, v. 31. j, 34. ; so Mela, i. 11. : 
Strabo, xvi. 759. Josephus relates that part of her chains ex- 
isted, in his time, de Bell. Jud. iii. 29. 

Perseus, upon his return to Senphus, finding that Polydec- 
tes continued to molest his mother by his importunity, turned 
him into a stone by shewing to him the head of Medusa, toge- 
ther with a number of Seriphians, Id. x. 487. and placed 
Dictys on the throne, Apollodor. ii. 4. § 3. The most extrava- 
gant fables are recorded about the effects of this head ; as the 
turning of Atlas, king of Mauritania, into a mountain, Ovid. 
Met. iv. 632. — 662. &c. The winged horse Pegasus sprung 
from the blood of Medusa j and from the drops which fell from 
it as Perseus flew through the air over Lybia, sprung those ser- 
pents which have since infested that country, Lucan. ix. 696. 
&c. ; Ovid. Met. iv. 617. Sil. 3.314. According to agreement 
Perseus gave the Gorgon's head to Minerva, Lucan. ix. 666. 
who placed it in her agts or shield, lb. 658. 

After performing these and other exploits, Perseus returned 
to Peloponnesus with his wife and mother, to see his grand- 
father Acrisius. But Acrisius, still afraid of the oracle, had left 
Argos and gone to Larissa in Thessaly, the king of which, Teu- 
tamius, was about to celebrate funeral games in honour of his 
father. This having been published through the neighbouring 
states, Perseus went thither to contend. Here he happened to 
kill Acrisius, who was present, without intention, by an acci- 
dental stroke of the discus or quoit, Apollodor. ii. 4. 4. of which 
he is said to have been the inventor, Pausan. ii. 16. Hyginus 
makes this to have happened in Seriphus, at the funeral games 

13 of 



Perseus and his Descendants. 



Z91 



•f Polydectes ; who, he says, c. 63. died a natural death ; but 
agrees with the common account, c. 64. In short, all the in- 
credible adventures of Perseus, though often alluded to by the 
poets, and therefore necessary to be known, are differently re- 
presented by different authors. 

Unwilling to return to Argos after the death of his grand- 
father, Perseus exchanged his kingdom with his cousin Mega- 
penthes, the son of Prcetus, for that of Tiryns and the maritime 
towns. 

Perseus afterwards built MYCENiE, and made it the seat 
of his government. Pans an. ibid.; Strab. viii. 377.5 Apollodor. lb. 
Perseus reigned here for several years. After his death he was 
translated into a constellation, Hygin. Astr. ii. 12. as likewise 
were Andromeda, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia, lb. 11.; Cic. Nat. 
D. ii. 43. hence Pater Andromeda is put for Cepheus, Horat* 
§d. iii. 9. 1 7. Perseus is called Acrisionlades, from his grand- 
father Acrisius, Ovid. Met. v. 70. Abantiades, from Abas 
his great-grandfather, lb. iv. 673. and Inachides, from his 
great-great-grandfather Inachus, lb. 720. and aurigena f rater 
PalladtSy from the circumstances of his birth, lb. v. 250. 

Perseus was succeeded by his son Sthenelus, and he by 
Eurystheus, both of whom also ruled over Argos, Strab. viiL 

377- 

The descendants of Perseus were called Perside, Thucydid. 
i. 9. Perseus is called Acrisioniades, as being the grandson of 
Acrisius, Ovid. Met. v. 69. heros Danaeius, Ovid. Met. v. 1. 
and Abantiades, as being the great-grandson of Abas, Ovid, 
Met. v. 138. iv. 767. which is joined as an epithet to Acrisius, 
lb. iv. 607. and also put for Bellerophon, Id* Amor. iii. 12. 24. 
From Perses, the eldest son of Perseus by Andromeda, whom 
he left with Cepheus, the ancient kings of Persia are said to 
have been descended, Apollodor. ii. 4. 5. and the Persians, who 
were anciently called Cephenes, -um, by the Greeks, are said 
to have been called Persae, from this Perses, Her.odot. vii. 6*1 . 

Perseus was the grandfather of Hercules, both by the father's 
and mother's side; Electryon, the father of Alcmsena, the 
mother of Hercules, and Alcaeus, the father of Amphytrion 3 
the supposed father of Hercules, being the sons of Perseus. 



Hercules. 

There are said to have been several heroes of the name of 
Hercules. Cicero recounts six, Nat. D. iii. 16. 

The 



398 Fabulous History of Mycena. 



The wife of Sthenelus was big with Eurystheus, and Ale* 
msena with Hercules, at the same time. Jupiter ordained that 
whichsoever of the two children was born first, should rule over 
the other. By the influence of Juno, Eurystheus was born first, 
and two months before the time. Thus Hercules became sub- 
ject to him. Hence the Twelve Labours, which Eurystheus 
(called Stheneleius hostis, sc. Herculis, Ovid. ep, ix. 25.) 
is said to have imposed upon him. 

Juno, (called noverca Herculis, Ovid, ep, ix. 8.) wishing to . 
destroy this hero in his cradle, sent two snakes to kill him ; but 
Hercules squeezed them to death with his hands, Virg, JEn, 
8. 288.; Ovid, epist. ix. 21.5 Plaut, Amphit, v. 1. 55. This 
hatred of Juno followed Hercules through life. But her en- 
deavours to crush him, only served to render him more illus- 
trious, [premendo sustulit.) Ovid. ep. ix. 11. 

Hercules, when a young man, is said to have been accosted 
in a solitary place by Virtue and Pleasure, under female forms, 
who both tried by every argument to gain the preference in his 
affections. Hercules, after serious reflection, chose Virtue. 
This fable Socrates is said to have borrowed from the philoso- 
pher Prodtcusy a native of the island Cos, Xenophon, Memorabil, 
ii. 21. Quinctilian. ix. 2. 35. Max. Tyrii Dissert, iv. whence 
Cicero calls it Hercules Prodicius, Off, i. 32. and Xeno- 
phontius, v. -teus, Fam, v. 12. # 

The Twelve Labours (athla, labores, certamina, v. pramia) im- 
posed on Hercules by Eurystheus were, 1. He slew a large lion 
in the Nemasan wood, and afterwards wore his skin for a cover- 
ing, Virg, JEn. viii. 295. ; Stat Silv, iv. 2. 50. \ Hygin, 30. ; 

Apollodor. ii. 5. 2. He killed a water-snake (HYDRA vel 

Excetra) of immense size, in the lakeLerna, having seven heads, 
some say fifty, some an hundred; when one of the heads was cut 
off, others sprang up in its place, Serv. in Virg, JEn. vi. 287. viii. 
300. At last Hercules dispatched this monster by the application 
of fire, Lactant. in Stat, ii. 377. He dipt his arrows in its gall, 

which rendered the wounds they inflicted incurable. 3. He 

caught or slew the huge boar of Erymanthus,in Arcadia, Ovid, ep. 

ix. 87. 4. Also the brazen-footed stag, on mount Maenalus, 

MartiaLix, 1 04. 7. Virg, Mn, 6, 803. Si/, 3. 39. 5.Heshotwith 

his arrows, or drove away with the sound of timbrels, the birds 
called StymphaUdesy which fed on human flesh, Paus. viii. 22. ; 

Strah, viii. 371. 6. He cleansed in one day the stables of 

Augias or Augeas 9 king of Elis, in which 3000 oxen had stood for 
many years without being cleaned, by turning the course of the 

* Silius Italicus has beautifully referred the same fable to Scipio, before he stood 
candidate for going as commander into Spain, Sit. xv, 1$.— 131, 

river 



Hercules, 



liver Alpheus, or, as others say, of the Peneus, Hygin.%0. — 

7. He brought alive to Mycense, a wild bull, which laid waste 
the island of Crete ; or, as others say, the bull of which Pasiphae 

was enamoured, Hygin, 30.; Diodor. \w. 14.* 8. He slew 

Diomedes, king of Thrace, and his four horses or mares, which 
that tyrant fed on human flesh, (qui dape pavit equas, Ovid. ep. 

ix. 67. & 89. Ib. 383. & 403.; Diodor. iv. 15. 9. He slew the 

three-bodied Geryon or Geryones, king of Gades, and carried off 
his cattle, Ovid. ep. ix. 91. — 10. He conquered the AMAZONS, 
female warriors who lived near the Euxine sea on the river Ther- 
modon, and took from their queen Hippolyte a beautiful girdle, 

Hygin. ib.; Diodor. iv. 16. 11. He killed the dragon that 

kept the golden apples of the garden of the Hesperidesf, near 
mount Atlas in Africa; hence called Sorqres AFRiE, Juvenal, 

v. 152. and brought the apples to Eurystheus. 12. He 

dragged the three-headed dog, Cerberus, from the infernal re- 
gions, Ovid. Met. vii. 410. ep. ix. 93. Virg. JEn. vi. 396. 

Hercules performed several other exploits (parerga) besides 
those called his Twelve Labours. He slew the giant Antaeus 
in Lybia, the son of Neptune and Terra, who, when tired, was 
always refreshed when he touched his mother earth J; but Her- 
1 cules perceiving this, killed him by raising him from the ground, 
and squeezing him to his breast, Ovid. ep. ix. 72. &c. ; Lucan. 
iv. 590. &c. ; Juvenal, iii. 89. 

Hercules also slew the giants Albion and Borgios, in Gallia 
Narbonensis, Mel. ii. 5. and Bus'zris, the son of Neptune and king 
of Egypt, who used to sacrifice his guests to his gods ; hence 
called illaudatusy infamous, by Virgil, G. iii. 5. and his altars 
immltes, cruel, Stat. Theb. xii. 154. He strangled the robber 

Cacus, who spat fire, Serv. in Virg. viii. 193. 5 Liv. i. 7. He 

shot the eagle which devoured the heart of Prometheus. — He 
delivered Hesione the daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy, from 
a whale to which she was exposed. This whale was sent to 
infest Troy, by Neptune, because Laomedon defrauded that 
god and Apollo of the hire which he promised them for assist- 
ing him to build the walls of that city, Diodor. iv. 42. *, Ovid. 
Met. xi. 202. &c. ; Horat. od. iii. 3. 21. to which Virgil alludes, 
G. i. 502. ; so Dido, JEn. iv. 542. and the Harpies, in calling 
the Trojans Laomedontiada, lb. iii. 248. Hercules and Tela- 
mon, in their way to Colchis with Jason, happening to come 
to Troy, slew the whale. When Laomedon refused to give up 
to him Hesione, according to agreement, Hercules took Troy, 

* This bull, being let go by Eurystheus, infested the territory of Attica, and was 
killed by Theseus, Ovid. Met. vii. 434. Virgil makes Hercules kill him in Crete. 
{Tu Cressia mactas prodigia,) ./En. viii. 394, 

I Hesperidum Serpens, Juvenal, xiv. 114. 

I Wkence he is called Lvetator, qui [jnlrum !) victor c urn widUtstt *r<tf ,Ovid. Ib. 395. 

slew 



400 



Fabulous History of Mycence. 



slew Laomedon, bestowed the kingdom on his infant son Po- 
darces, afterwards called PriaMUS, from his being ransomed, 
(ano t& irgict<r$ctt,) and gave Hesione in marriage to Telamon, 
king of Saiamis, the first that mounted the wall ; who had by 
her Teucer and Ajax, Hygin 31. & 89. \ Serv. in Virg. JEn. 
i. 623. ; Ovid. Met. xi. 21 i.- — 217. 

Hercules freed Theseus from the prison of Aidoneus, king of 
theMolossi, into which he had been thrown when he went with 
Pirithous, to carry off the wife or daughter of that king, JEiian. 
Var. Hist. iv. 5. Some say that Pirithous was given up to be 
devoured byMolossian dogs. The circumstances of this storv are 
thought to have given rise to the fable of these two heroes eoing 
down to hell to carry off Proserpine ; see Perizonins on JEUan. 

Hercules assisted Jupiter in his war against the giants Dicaor, 
iv. 15. and is represented as triumphing on account of his vic- 
tory over them *, Sil. xvii. 650. At the desire of Atlas he is 
said to have supported heaven on his shoulders, Albric. 22. ;! 
Ovid. ep. ix. 17. & 58. Having over-run the greatest part bfl 
Africa and cleared it of wild beasts, he passed over into Spain; 
and having subdued it, he fixed two pillars or mountains, onl 
on each side of the Straits, called Abyla and Calpe. Some say, 
that formerly the Atlantic and Mediterranean were disjoined ; 
and that Hercules made a communication between them by 
digging through the Straits, Diodor. iv. 18. 

Hercules subdued and extirpated the Centaurs, a people in 
Thessaly near mount Pelion, half men and half horses, Ovid, 
ep. ix. 99. said to have been produced by Ixion, a king of that 
country, on a cloud, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 20. hence called Nubi- 
€-ENi£ et BIMEMBRES, Virg. JEn. viii. 293. f 

Hercules had several wives. His first was Mjegara, the 
daughter of Creon, king of Thebes. Lycus, the son of Nep- 
tune, having offered violence to Megara in the absence of 
Hercules, was slain by that hero. But Juno, offended at this 
murder, rendered Hercules delirious 5 and in a fit of madness 
he slew both Megara and her sons, supposing them to be the 
children of Eurystheus, Senec. Here. fur. He is said to have 
been afflicted with this insanity by Juno, for having refused to 
obey the commands of Eurystheus. When he recovered the 
use of his reason, he consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was 
told that he must submit to the will of that prince for twelve 
years, according to the ordinance of Jupiter, Apollodor. ii. 4. 
12. Hyglnus relates that Hercules, provoked because the 

* Horace ascribes the conquest of the giants to Hercules alone, Od. ii. 12. 6. 

f The labours ascribed to Hercules are so numerous, that Virgil makes the priests 
of Hercules call them a thousand ; Ut duros mille labor es Regs sub Eurystheo, fatis Ju- 
Tionis iniqua pertulerit, L «. £lurww> using a round number for an indefinite, JEn. 

oracle 



Hercules, 



401 



oracle would not return any response, carried off the tripod, 
Fab, 32. A conflict ensued between Apollo and him concern- 
ing it, Pausan. iii. 21. but they were pacified by the other 
gods, Id, x. 13. Hercules, however, on this account, was 
adjudged to serve Omphale, queen of Lydia, for three years, 
and was conducted thither by Mercury, Hygin. ib. By her he 
had a son called Lamus, Ovid, ep. ix. 54. hence she is called 
Lydia conjux Amphitryoniada, Stat. Theb. x. 646. To please 
Omphale, Hercules is represented as spinning among her hand- 
maids, while she covers herself in his lion's skin, takes up his 
club, and often strikes him with her sandals, for the awkward 
manner in which he held the distaff, Terent. Eun, v. 8. 3.1 
Ovid. East. ii. 305. &c. ep. ix. 57. & 73. Sec; Propert.m, ir„ 
17. But others say that Hercules was reduced to this servi- 
tude for having slain Iphitus y the son of Eurytus > king of 
JEchalia, a town in Eubcea. This Eurytus had a beautiful 
daughter, called IolE, (Eurytis, -zdis, Ovid. ep. ix. 133.) whom 
he promised to give in marriage to the person who should 
vanquish him and his sons in shooting the arrow. Hercules 
did so ; but Eurytus, notwithstanding, refused to give him 
his daughter, alleging as an excuse his apprehension lest she 
should share the fate of Megara. On this account Hercules 
being a second time deprived of his reason, is said to have 
slain Iphttus, although he was the only person of the family 
that urged his father to fulfil his engagements, Diodor. iv. 31.; 
Apollodor. ii. 6. \ Homer. Odyss. xxi. prope ink. But mycolo- 
gists differ about this, as well as about other particulars con- 
cerning Hercules. 

When Neleus, king of Pylos, would not perform to Hercules 
the usual expiatory ceremonies for this murder, Apollodor. ii. 6, 
or for that of Megara, Hygin. 3 1 . Hercules slew him and his 
sons, Ib. except Nestor, who was then absent from Pylos, Ib, 
10. JElian says, that Hercules spared him, and gave him his 
father's kingdom, iv. 5. only, however, according to Pausanias, 
as a deposit or trust, ii. 18. Ovid makes Nestor speak of Her- 
cules as an enemy, Met. xii. 548. &c. 

The most noted wife of Hercules was DEJANIRA, the 
daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon in iEtolia, whence she 
is called Calydonis, -idis, Ovid. Met. ix. 112. Among her 
numerous suitors was Achelous, the son of Oceanus and 
Terra; or Tethys, god of the river of that name, who fought 
with Hercules on her account, Pausan. iii. 18. vi. 19. Being 
inferior in the contest, he changed himself first into a snake, 
and then into a bull. Hercules broke off one of his horns j 
hence Achelous is said to be Herculed turpatus gymnade (i. e. 
exercitio) vultus Amnis, Stat. Theb. iv, 106, which the Naiades 

D d or 



402 



Fabulous History of Mycenae. 



or river-nymphs rilled with apples and flowers, and consecrated 
it to the goddess of plenty, Ovid. Met. ix. 88. hence called 
Cornucopia v. -im> in one word or two. But Ovid, in 
another place, makes this the horn which fell from the goat 
Amalthea^ Fast. v. 119. &c. Strabo explains this fable by ob- 
serving that Hercules, to gratify his father-in-law, confined the 
river within its banks by mounds, and by cutting canals ; and 
thus produced plenty in the country, x. p. 459. ; so Diodorus, 

Hercules being once on a journey with Dejanira, was stopt 
by the river Evenus, then swollen with rain. The centaur 
NESSUS accosted him anxious about his wife, and offered to 
convey her safe to the opposite bank. Hercules entrusted her 
to his charge, and followed himself by swimming. But when 
he reached the opposite bank, he was alarmed by the cries of 
his wife, whom Nessus attempted to carry off. Hercules shot 
an arrow, and mortally wounded him. Nessus, expiring, gave 
Dejanira his tunic, besmeared with blood and infected with 
poison *, telling her that it had the power of reclaiming a 
husband from unlawful amours, Ovid. Met. ix. 100. — 133. 
ip. ix. 141. & 161. Diodorus ascribes this virtue to a philtre 
which Nessus gave her, iv. 36. 

Some time after Hercules, to revenge himself on Eurytus 
for refusing him his daughter Iok, took jflSchalia by storm, 
killed Eurytus with his sons, and carried off Iole. She accom- 
panied him to mount Oeta, where he was going to offer a 
solemn sacrifice to Jupiter. Having failed to provide a proper 
dress for that service, he dispatched his servant Lichas to ask 
one from Dejanira. She, in a fit of jealousy, sent the poisoned 
robe, which she had received from Nessus. Hercules having 
put it on was instantly seized with an incurable disease. The 
tunic stuck to his skin so that it was impossible to pull it off. 
At last unable to endure the racking pain which consumed 
him, Stat. Theb. xL 234. he caused a funeral pile to be erected ; 
and, spreading over it the skin of the Nemaean lion, he laid 
himself upon it as on a couch, leaning his head on his club, 
and then ordered the pile to be set on fire. Phi/octetes, the son 
of Paean, (Paamdes t ) is said to have performed for him this 
last service, for which Hercules presented him with his bow 
and arrows, Hygin. 36. ; Ovid. Met. ix. 136. — 238. 5 Cic. 
Tusc. ii. 7. & 8. ; Diodor. iv. 38.f 

* Hyglnus .says, that Nessus, knowing the power of the poison of the hydra, gave 
Dejanira some of his own blood, which was infected with this poison from the arrow 
«f Hercules ; desiring her, if she wished to retain the affection of her liusband, to 
besmear some one of his vests with the blood, and if he proved false, to give him it 10 
wear,/. 34. 

■f From being burnt on mount Oeta, Hercules was called Oet^us, 0vid.il. 347* 

14 Hercules 



Hercules and Pelops. 



403 



Hercules after his death was worshipped as a god * ; and 
Juno dropping her hatred against him, gave him to wife her 
daughter Hebe, the goddess of youth, Ovid. Fast. vi. 65. hence 
called Herculis uxor, Juvenal, xiii. 43. - Dejanira, from grief 
for .what she had done, slew herself, Hygin. 36. & 243. 

Hercules left, by his different wives, a great manyf children. 
The most distinguished was Hyllus, his eldest son by Dejanira, 
who married Iole, Ovid. Met. ix. 279. 

After the death of Hercules, his descendants, called Hera- 
CLiDiE, were obliged by Eurystheus, to leave Peloponnesus, 
Pausan. i. 32. They found refuge at Athens, and with the 
assistance of the Athenians attempted to regain their native 
country. Eurystheus, having marched against them, was slain 
in battle, Strab. viii. 377. or in flying from it, by Hyllus, who 
cut off his head, and presented it to Alcmena, the mother of 
Hercules, Apollodor. ii. 8. 1. The Heraclldae, however, did 
not effect their purpose : for ATREUS, the son of Pelops, and 
uncle to Eurystheus by the mother's side, to whom Eurystheus 
left the charge of the kingdom in his absence, succeeded. 

Pelops. 

PELOPS, the father of Atreus, came from Phrygia in Asia, 
Strab. vii. 321. viii. 365. and having by his wealth gained 
power among the indigent inhabitants, gave his name (Pelopon- 
nesus)) to the country J, lb. & Thucydid. i. 9. 

He is said in Herodotus to have conquered it, vii. 8. & 11. 
His father Tantalus was king of Phrygian and Strabo ascribes 
their wealth to the rich mines in that country §, xiv. 680. 

Pelops 

* Hence said f.ammls ad sidera missus, Juvenal, xi. 63. 

f Apollodorus, who relates at great length the exploits of Hercules, ii. 4. 9. — 8. I. 
recounts the names of his children, Ib. 7. 8. Some particulars recorded of him in 
this respect are as incredible as his other feats. Thestius or Thespius, the son of 
Erechtheus, the king of Thespia, had fifty daughters, (called Theutrantia turba, as it 
is thought, from a town in Attica, where there was a noted picture of that story, 
Ovid. ep. ix. 51.) all of whom are said to have had sons by Hercules, Diodor. iv. 29. ; 
Pausan. ix. 26. & 27. ; Apollodor. ii. 7. 6. 8. una nocte geniti, Stat. Sylv. iii. I. 42. 
quinquaginta noctibus, ut Apollodorus ait, iv. 4. 10. These, when they grew up, 
headed by Iolaus, settled a colony in Sardinia, Diodor. Ib. 

\ Hence Pelopeia regno, Peloponnesus, Stat. Theb. i. 117. Pelopea phalanx, a 
band of Argives, lb. ii. 471. Pelopeia mtenia, Argos or Mycenae, Virg. Mn. ii. 193. 
Pehpldte, -arum, the descendants of Pelops, on account of the crimes of Atreus and 
Thyestes put for any tyrants, Cic. Fam. vii. 28. Att. xv. n. 

§ TANTALUS is said by the poets to have been the son of Jupiter, and the only 
person admitted to feast with the gods, Ovid. Met. vi. 172. ; so Hygin. 82. ; Diodor. 
iv. 74. From his insolence, on account of this or of his riches he is called Super bus, 
proud, Horat. od. ii. 18. 37. Having divulged the secrets of the gods, Hygin. & 
Diodor. Ib. (whence he is called Fallax, Stat. Theb. i. 247. InfTdus, Horat. 
eped' 18. 3. and Gahrujlus, Ovid. art. am. ii, 606, see also Met. vi. 213 ) he was 

D d % punished 



404 



Fabulous History of Mycence. 



Pelops married Hippodamia, v. -anie, the only daughter of 
CENOMAUS, king of Pisa in Elis. This prince being 
advised by the oracle to beware of a son-in-law ; that he might 
prevent the marriage of his daughter, proposed to give her to 
no one but the person who should vanquish him in a chariot- 
race ; but stipulated, that if the suitor was defeated he should 
Jose his life. The course was from Pisa to the isthmus of Co- 
rinth. CEnomaus had very fleet horses, said to have been pro- 
duced from the winds; and thus he conquered and slew thirteen 
suitors, whose heads he fixed above the gate of his palace, to 
terrify others, Ovid, in Ib. 36}. hence he is called Pisaus socer 
metuendus habenis, Stat. Theb. ii. 166. At last Pelops, having 
bribed Myrtilus, the king's charioteer, to give his master an in- 
sufficient chariot, which might break down in the course, gained 
the victory. The king perished in consequence of the fall : 
Diodorus says that he slew himself, iv. 73. Thus Pelops ob- 
tained Hippodamia and the kingdom of Pisa. Myrtilus, claim- 
ing his reward too importunately, was thrown headlong into 
the sea, called afterwards from him Mare Myrtoum, lb. & 
Hygin. 84. ; Serv. in Virg. G. iii. 6. ; Scholiast, in Horat. od. \. 
1. 14.; Ovid, in Ibin> 372. Atreus and Thyestes were the 
sons of Pelops and Hippodamia. 

In the beginning of the reign of Atreus the Heracfida, under 
Hyllus, made a second attempt to recover the possessions of 
their ancestors. Hyllus proposed to the Peloponnesians to 
determine the matter by single combat with any champion 
they should choose. This proposal being accepted, it was 
agreed, that if Hyllus was successful, the Heraclldas should ob- 
tain what belonged to their fathers ; but if he was vanquished, 
they should retire and not seek to return, for one hundred 

punished in the infernal regions, Dionys. & Hygin. Ibid. Ovid. Amor. iii. *]. 51. Art. 
ii. 605. But the punishment of Tantalus is commonly ascribed to a different cause. 
Having invited the gods to an entertainment, in order to try their divinity, he slew his 
son Pelops, and caused him to be dressed and set before them. They all abstained 
from the horrid food, except Ceres, who ate one of the shoulders. Jupiter restored 
the boy to life, and Ceres gave him an ivory shoulder for that which she had eaten, 
Serv. in Virg. G. iii. 7. ; Hygin. 83. ; Lactant. in Tbeb. i. 330. iv. 591.; Ovid. Met. 
vi. 405. &c. in Jbin, 433. whence Pelops is called TantalIdes eburnus, Ovid. 
Trist. ii. 385. For this crime Tantalus was punished in the infernal regions with 
perpetual thirst, which he could not quench, although he stood up to the chin hi water, 
Homer. Odyss. xi. Cic. Tusc. i. 5. the stream always flying from his lips, while be 
strove to catch it, Horat. Sat. i. I. 68. He was also tortured with constant hunger, 
although the most delicious fruits were hanging on a tree within bisj-each ; but when 
he attempted to seize them, a blast of wind drove tbem from him, Homer. Ib. Tibi, 
Tantale, nulla deprenduntur aqute ; qua imminet, effugit arbos, Ovid. Met. iv. 458. 
Senec. Thyest. 156. Some also represent a stone as every moment threatening to 
fall upon him, Cic. Tusc. Q. iv. 16. Lucret. iii. 993. According to Horace this fable 
represents the condition of a miser ; Ib. 70. 

years. 



Thyestes and Agamemnon. 



40$ 



years. Echemusy king of Tegea, was the champion fixed on. 
He slew Hyllus ; and the Heraclidae, according to agreement, 
departed, Herodot. ix. 26. ; Pausan. i. 41. 

THYESTES is said to have had children by Aerope, the wife 
of Atreus, Ovid. Trist. ii. 391. hence called fraternus adulter, 
Stat. Silv. v. 1. 58. In revenge for which Atreus first banished 
him, and then pretending a reconciliation, recalled him ; and 
having ordered these children to be slain, caused them to be 
served up to Thyestes their father at an entertainment ; and 
whilst he was eating, made the arms and heads of the boys to 
be brought in to him. The Sun is reported to have turned 
a way his chariot, or to have hid his face that he might not see 
such execrable wickedness, Hygin. 88. ; Serv. in Virg. JEn. i. 
572. ; Horai. Art. P, 186. or to have returned to the east, the 
place of his rising, Litcan. i. 543. Ovid, ibid. Zsf Art, Am, I. 
328. in Ibiti> 43 ii whence Mycense is said to have been darkened 
by the absence of the sun, {caligantes abrupto sole>) Stat. Theb. 
i. 325. Atreus was assassinated by iEgisthus, the son of 
Thyestes by Pelopea, his own daughter, Hygin. ib. j Apollodor, 
iii. 10. ; Pausan. ix. 40. JEgisthus placed Thyestes on the 
throne ; but he was soon expelled by Agamemnon and Mene- 
laus, the sons of Atreus, and banished to the island of Cythera, 
where he died, Ibid, 



AGAMEMNON succeeded to the throne of Mycena, and 
Menelaus obtained the kingdom of Sparta or Lacedsemon* * 

Agamemnon was one of the most powerful princes of his 
time, particularly by sea ; and on this account was chosen 
commander-in-chief of the Greeks in their expedition against 
Troy. His dominions, therefore, as Thucydides observes, 

* They are both called Atrjdje ; Virg. JEn. i. 4j8. ii. 104. 415. & 500. viiL 
I^O. ix. 138.; Horat. od. i. 10. 13.; Atrjdes MlNOR ET Major, Ovid. Met. 
X". 623.; Art. am. iii. ji. But when Atrldes is put by itself, it stands for Agamem- 
non, Horat. od. ii. 4. 7. ; Ep. i. 2. 12. ; Ovid. Met. xiii. 655. it is joined to "Mene- 
laus as an epithet, Virg. JEn. xi. 262. 

Agamemnon and Menelaus are said to have been the sons, not of Atreus, but of 
Plisthenes, his brother; whence Plistbenius torus, the couth of Agamemnon, Ovid, 
art. am. 778. But as Plisthenes died young, and Atreus undertook the charge of 
educating his children ; hence Agamemnon and Menelaus came to be accounted the 
sons of Atreus ; Dictys Cretensis, i. init. Quinctiiian mentions one Plisthenes, in- 
famous for his efFeminEcy, iii. 7. 19. but it is conjectured we should here read Clis- 
thenes,the name of a person of this character, ridiculed by Aristophanes. 

Agamemnon is called, from his great-grandfather Tantalus, Tantaj-ide3, Ovid, 
ep. viii. 45. xii. 616. So Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus and Helen, calls 
herself and her mother his daughters or descendants, (TaNtaudes, -dum,) 
lb. 66. 

D d 3 must 



4<0f3 



Fabulous History of Mycence* 



must have been more extensive than the insignificant city of 
Mycense or its territory. He furnished a greater number of. 
ships than any other leader; and is said by Homer, II. ii. 594. 
to have ruled over many islands and all Argos, which he could 
not have done without a considerable naval force *, Thucydid* 
1. 9. 

Agamemnon married CLYTEMNiESTRA, the daughter 
of Tyndarus, (Tyndaris, -tdis, Ovid. Trist. ii. 396.) king of 
Sparta, and sister of Helena; hence he is called Tyndare'i gener, 
Ovid. Ib. 356. He had by her several children, of whom the 
most noted were Iphigeriia and Orestes, 

"When the Grecian fleet, about to sail for Troy, was detained 
by contrary winds, owing, as was supposed, to the wrath of 
Diana, whom Agamemnon had offended by killing one of 
lier favourite deer, Calchas, the soothsayer, being consulted, 
declared, that to appease" the goddess, Iphigenia, the daughter 
of Agamemnon, must be sacrificed. The king at first was 
fired with indignation at the proposal, but at last yielded to 
the representations of Ulysses \ who being sent to Mycense, 
brought the virgin from her mother, under pretext that she 
was to be married to Achilles. She was led to the altar as a 
victim, and just about to be sacrificed, when she suddenly dis- 
appeared, and a stag was found in her place. Juvenal, xii. 1 20, 
Diana taking pity on her, spread a mist over the eyes of those 
who were present, and conveyed her in a cloud to the country 
of Taurtca, now Crim Tartary, where she became priestess of 
the temple of that goddess, Pausan. ix. 19. ; Hygin. 98. ; Serv. 
in Virg. JEn. ii. 116.; Ovid. Met, xii. 30: &c. Pont. iii. 2. 
61. But Virgil says that she was actually sacrificed, Ib.; so 
Lucretius, i. 8$.f 

* The number of ships sent against Troy was one thousand two hundred ; (Strabo 
says one thousand, xiii. 594. Homer, one thousand two hundred and eighty-six, i7. ii. 
Virgil, one thousand, JEn. ii. 197. so Propertius, ii. 26. 38. Silius Itaticus, xv. 277. 
Seneca, Troad. 709. and others : See Hygin. 97.) but they were nothing but small 
open vessels without decks, {$V dvrx <z\67a Karit(ppet»<rBt l%ov<?is,) carrying only a few 
men ; the largest one hundred and twenty, and the smallest fifty. The Scholiast on 
Thucydides, computing at a medium, that is, eighty-five to each, makes the whole 
number on board the fleet amount to one hundred and two thousand men. All these 
served both as mariners and bow-men, Ib. 10. This fleet, assembled at Aulis, a city 
of Bocotia on the Euripus ; at which time Greece is said first to have recognised its 
own strength, {Tumprimim Greecia vires contemplata suas,) Stat. Achill. i. 456. Such 
a force, one should think, might have reduced Troy in a shorter time than ten years. 
Bufthe whole could not remain for any considerable time at once before the city, 
The want of provisions obliged them to send parties to pillage different places, and 
even to cultivate the Chersonesus, Ib. 

\ Cicero says that Agamemnon sacrificed Iphigenfa in consequence of a promise 
that he would devote to Diana the most beautiful that should be produced in his 
kingdom that year, Off. iii, 25. 

" " After 



Agamemnon and JEghthm* 



407 



After the taking of Lymessus, in the division of the spoilj 
CHRYSEIS, the daughter of Chryses, the priest of Apollo, 
fell to the share of Agamemnon. Chryses came to the Grecian 
camp with a sum of money to ransom his daughter. But Aga- 
memnon, being fond of her, would not give her up. Upon 
which Chryses prayed to Apollo for assistance, who sent a 
plague among the Greeks. On this account Agamemnon was 
obliged by the Grecian leaders, and chiefly oy Achilles, to re- 
store Chryseis. But in- revenge he took from Achilles his mis- 
tress Briseis. Provoked at this, Achilles shut himself up in his- 
tent, and refused to take any further concern in the war. The 
Greeks, deprived of his assistance^ sustained many dreadful 
defeats from Hector and the Trojans. At last, however, from 
resentment on account of the death of his friend Patroclus, 
and after the restitution of Briseis, Achilles was again prevailed 
on to go out to battle, and slew Hector^ This forms the prin- 
cipal subject of the Iliad of Homer. 

After the taking of Troy, in the division of the captives, 
CASSANDRA, one of the daughters of Priam, fell to the lot 
of Agamemnon, who was greatly enamoured of her. Cassan- 
dra had obtained of Apollo the gift of prophecy * ; but upon 
her refusal to gratify his desires, the god ordained that her 
predictions should never be believed, Serv. in Virg,' Mn. ii. 
247. ; Hygin. 93. She warned Agamemnon not to return to 
Mycenae ; but he slighting her advice, was, upon his arrival in 
his native city, murdered by his wife C/ytemnastra, and her 
paramour JEgisthus, together with Cassandra and others y Pans an, 
ii. 16. Orestes was saved by his sister Eleetm y who conveyed 
him to Strophius, king of Phocis, to whom AstyQchea> the sister 
of Agamemnon, was married, Hygin, 117. 5. Virg, JEn. xi. 265. 
Here he formed the most intimate friendship with PYLADES, 
the son of Strophius, Hygin, 119. 

After the death of Agamemnon, iEGISTHUS reigned for 
several years. Orestes, desirous of revenging the death of his 
father, after concerting measures with Pylades, came to Mycenae 
under the disguise of a stranger, and told Clytemnaestra that 
Orestes was dead. Soon after Pylades arrived, bringing with 
him an urn, in which he said the ashes of Orestes were 
contained. ^Egisthus, overjoyed, gave the two friends an hos- 
pitable reception. But they, having found a favourable oppor- 
tunity, slew him together with Clytemnaestra, Juvenal, viii. 216. 
After this the furies of his mother are said to have agitated the 

* Hence called Mjenas, -adis, i. e. furore correpta, a petinffSai, furere^ Ovid. 
Amor. i. 9. 37. and Piioebas, -adis, i. e.^ fatidlca, numine Phcebi plena, Id. Trist. ii. 
400. 

D d 4 breast 



408 



Fabulous History of Mycence. 



breast of Orestes, Virg. JEn. iii. 331. whence he became dis- 
tracted, (iNSANUS,) Juvenal, xiv. 284. ; Ovid. Pont. ii. 3. 45. 
and, whilst in that state, Pylades always attended him # , lb. 
He was banished from Mycins ; and having gone to Delphi to 
consult the oracle about the termination of his sorrows, he was 
directed to go to Taurica, then governed by king Thoas, and 
bring the statue of JPiana from thence to Argos. It was the 
custom in that country to sacrifice all strangers on the altar of 
Diana. Iphigenia was then the priestess of her temple. When 
Orestes and Pylades were brought to Iphigenia to be sacrificed, 
she, perceiving them to be Greeks, offered to spare the life of 
one of them, provided he would convey a letter from her to 
Greece. The contest between them, which of them should 
die, being often exhibited on the stage, (Cic. Fin. ii. 24. Amic. 
7. semis agitatus Orestes,) Virg. JEn. iv. 471. gave occasion 
to the expression, Pyladea amicitia, for true friendship, Cic. 
Fin. ii. 26. At last Pylades yielded to Orestes, and agreed to 
carry the letter, which he found to be addressed to Orestes. 
This produced a discovery. Iphigenia contrived to carry off 
the statue of Diana, and accompanied her brother and his friend 
Into Greece, Ovid. Pont. iii. 2. 65. — 100. Hygitt. 120. 

Orestes reigned at Argos for many years, and lived to a great 
age. He is said to have died by the bite of a serpent, Ovid. ib. 

and to have been buried at Tegea, were his bones were 
found many years after, in a coffin seven cubits long f , Herodot. 
67. & 68. 

Orestes married Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus and 
Hele, having slain Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, 
to whom she had been given in his absence, Virg. JEn. iii. 332. ; 
Ovid. ep. 8. By this marriage he became possessed likewise of 
the kingdom of Sparta, Pausah. ii. 1 8. He gave his sister Eleo 
tra in marriage to his friend Pylades, Pausan. ii. 16. 

Orestes was succeeded by Tisamanes, or Tisamenus> his 
son by Hermitfnep In his reign the descendants of Hercules, 
(Herac/zda,) under Temenus and Cresphontes, assisted by 
the Doriarts, invaded Peloponnesus, made themselves masters 
of the greatest part of the country, and expelled the family of 
Pelops from Argos and Sparta 5 the descendants of Nestor, 

* Orestefc is said to have been acquitted of the crime of his mother's murder by the 
court of the Areopagus at Athens; or, according to Cicero, by the judgment of 
Minerva, Cic. Mil. 3. 

f This Pliny mentions as a proof that men anciently were taller than in his time. 
He however speaks of one Ga66ara, an Arabian, in the time of Claudius, that was 
nine feet nine inches high ; and of two others under Augustus half a foot taller, 
vii. 16. 

$ Hence Orestes is called Tisamcni pater ■, Ovid, in Ibin, 350. 

" from 



Orestes and Tisamenes, 



409 



from Messenia, also Alcmaeon, the sons of Psean, and Pisistra- 
tus, Pausan. ii. 1 8. about eighty years after the taking of Troy, 
Thucydid. i. 12. Tisamenes, being expelled from Argos, set- 
tled in Achaia* Pausan. Ib. & vii. i.; Strab. viii. 383. The 
families of Paan and Alcm&on retired to Athens, where they 
afterwards became conspicuous, Pausan. ib. 

Tisamenus is said by Polybius to have been banished from 
Sparta, ii. 41.5 Pausanias says that he was driven from both 
Argos and Sparta, for he was king of both, ii. 18. 

The Achjeans, who supported Tisamenus, were originally 
from Phthiotis in Thessaly, Strab. ib. They were named from 
Archander and Architeles the sons of Achaeus, who came to 
Argos, from that country, in the reign of Danaus, and to whom 
that king gave two of his daughters in marriage. From these 
two sons of Achseus, both the Lacedaemonians and people of 
Argos (Arglvi) were called Achjei : The name of Danai pro- 
perly belonged only to the Argives, Pausan. vii. 1. 5 Strab. ib. 

The Achaeans being expelled from Sparta and Argos by the 
Heracllda, were received by the Iones, who then possessed the 
-country along the south of the Corinthian gulf. These derived 
their name from ION, the son of Xuthus^ who came from 
Athens, and having married Heine the daughter of Sellnus, the 
king of that country, built a city, and called it after the name 
of his wife, Pausan. ib. From him the country was called 
Ionia instead of JEgialeid) the name which it formerly had from 
JEgialuS) the first king of Sicyon, Ib. 

The Achssans and Ionians having afterwards differed about 
chusing Tisamenus as their joint king, a battle was fought, in 
which Tisamenus fell. He was buried at Helice, whence 
afterwards the Lacedemonians, by the order of the Delphic 
oracle, removed his bones to Sparta, where his sepulchre was 
standing in the time of Pausanias, Id. The lones, however, 
were defeated, and forced to retire from that country. They 
first went into Attica, where they were kindly received by 
Melanthus, king of the Athenians, Ib. From thence they 
went with Nileus and the other sons of Codrus into Asia minor, 
and possessed that part of the country afterwards called IONIA, 
Pausan. vii. 2. where they founded twelve cities, in imitation 
of the number which they had occupied in Peloponnesus, He- 
rodot. i. 145. 

The descendants of Tisamenus reigned in Achaia for several 
generations to the time of OGYGES, Strab. viii. 384. or, 
as Polybius calls him, GYGES, Ib. after whom royalty 
was abolished, and a popular government established, which 
existed for many ages, under the name of the ACHAEAN 

REPUBLIC, 



410 



Fabulous History of Mycenae. 



REPUBLIC, consisting of twelve cities, lb. till it was finally 
extinguished by the Romans after the destruction of Corinth. 
Polyb. ii. 41. iv. I. et in legation. 144. 

After the conquest of the HeracHd<e 3 Mycen^ gradually 
sunk in its importance, being usually subject to Argos % 
After the Persian war, the people of Argos and Tegea, through 
envy, destroyed the city of Mycenae, Strab. viii. 372. \ Pausa?i. 
ii. 16. so that Strabo says the least vestige of it did not remain 
in his time, Ibid. ; but Pausanias mentions several, lb. Poly> 
bius speaks of Mycense as existing in his time, Excerpt, xvi. ; 
and Thucydides only says, that its insignificant appearance in 
his time was not a proper reason for discrediting its former 
power, i. 10. for he observes, that if Lacedsemon were left 
desolate, it would appear, from the meanness of its edifices, to 
have been a place of much less importance than it really was \ 
but that if the same tiling should happen to Athens, from the 
magnificence of its public buildings, quite the reverse would 
be the case, lb. 

Argos and Mycense, from their vicinity, are sometimes put 
by the poets the one for the other ; thus by Euripides in his 
Iphigeriia and Orestes, Strab. viii. 377. 

Temenus was the first of the descendants of Hercules that 
reigned over Argos and Sparta. His son Cisus succeeded. 
The Argives, who, as Pausanias observes, were always fond of 
liberty, left nothing to him and his posterity but the mere 
name of King, ii. 19. 



III. Fabulous History of LACEDiEMON, 

THE first king of Lacedsemon is said to have been LE- 
LEX, from whom the inhabitants were called Leleges. His 
grandson Eu rotas gave name to the river which runs past 
the city, having made a canal for draining 'its stagnating 
waters. Having no male offspring, he left the kingdom to 
LACEDiEMON, whose mother was called Taygeta y and from 
her a neighbouring mountain was named Taygetus. Lacedse- 
mon married SPARTA, the daughter of Eurotas, after whom 

* In the war against the Persians, it was the only city in Argolis that sent assist- 
ance to the Lacedaemonians. On this account the people of Argos and Tegea laid 
siege to Mycenae, at a time when the Lacedaemonians, from domestic distress, could 
not afford it relief ; and having taken the city, levelled it with the ground, Diodor. 

he 



Castor and Pollux. 



411 



he called the city, and gave his own name to the country, 
But this distinction was not observed. His son AMYCLAS 
built the town Amycl^:. Here the tomb of his youngest son 
HYACINTHUS (Amydldes, Ovid. Met. x. 162.) a youth 
remarkable for his beauty, was standing in the time of Pausa- 
nias *, iii. 1. 

We know little about the first kings of Sparta or Lacedse- 
mon but their names. The most famous was TYNDARUS 
or Tyndareusy the son of Oebalus, who was placed on the 
throne by Hercules. He married LED A, the daughter of 
Thestius, with whom, while pregnant, Jupiter is said to have 
had commerce under the form of a swan, Ovid, ep. viii. 67. 
whence she is fabled to have laid two eggs ; from the one of 
which were produced Pollux and Helena to Jupiter ; and from 
the other, Castor and Clytemnastra to Tyndarus, Hygin. yj 
& 78. The two former were supposed to be immortal, and 
the two latter mortal, Serv. in Virg. JEn. ii. 601. vi. 121. 5 
Hygin. 80. Horace makes both Castor and Pollux to spring 
from the same egg f , Sat. ii. 1 . 26. 

CASTOR and POLLUX were distinguished for many 
exploits. They accompanied Jason in the Argonautic expedi- 
tion, Pausan. iii. 24. Having landed in Bithynia> afterwards 
called Bebrycia, from a nation in Thrace that settled there, 
Strab. xii. 541. Pollux conquered and slew Amycus, the son 
of Neptune, and king of that country, in the combat of the 
cestusy to which Amycus used to challenge all strangers, Serv. in 

* This boy was the favourite of Apollo, and being killed by an accidental stroke of 
the discus or quoit, was by that god changed into a flower, which still bears his name, 
having two letteri, A I, inscribed on it, expressive of Apollo's grief. The Spartans 
instituted a festival in memory of this youth, called Hyacinthia, Ovid. Met. x.\d%, 
—220.; Pausan. iii. io. & 19.; Plin. xxi. Hi Hyacinthus is called from his 
country, TjenX rides, Ovid, in Ib'tn, 183. and Oebalides, lb. 196. & 590. 

f Castor and Pollux are from Tyndarus called Tyndarid.ze, Ovid., Met. viii. 
301.; and Oebalidje, from their grandfather, Ovid. Fast. v. 705.; Stat. T/jeb.v. 
438. also Pueri Ledje, Horat. od. i. 12. 25. ; and Dioscuri, i. e. the children of 
Jupiter, Cic. Nat. D. iii. »i. Sometimes Castores, Plin. vii. 22. Pollux is also 
called Polluces, Plaut. Bacch. iv. 8. 53. and both Castor and Pollux, geminus 
Pollux, Horat. od. iii. 29. ult. So Helena was called Tyndaris, -zdis, Virg. 
iEn. ii. 601. From Oebalus, the father of Tyndareus, the country of Laconia was 
called Oebalia, Stat. Achill. i. 20. So Tarentum, because peopled by a colony from 
Lacedaemon, Virg. G. iv. 125. Matres Oebalia or Oebalides, denotes Sabine or Roman 
matrons, because some Lacedaemonians are supposed to have settled in that country. 
Ovid. Fast. iii. 2$0. Oebalis purpura, i. e. Laconica, Stat. Silv. i. 2. 151. Oeba- 
lia pellex, Helen, Ovid. rem. amor. 358. callfed also tenaria marita, Ovid, 
ep. xiii. 45.; TiENARis soror, lb. viii. 72. and Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, 
Oeb alius, lb. i. 260. So Hyacinthus is called Tanarides, -da, from cape f senarus, 
*nd Oebalides, Ovid, Met. x. 183. & 196. 

Virg, 



412 



Fabulous History of Lacedtemon. 



Virg. JEn. v. 373.; VaU Flac. iv. 166". Sec. whence Pollux 
came to be esteemed the god of boxing and wrestling, lb. bf 

Stat. Silv. iv. 2. 48. Castor distinguished himself by his 

skill in managing horses ; hence he was worshipped as the 
patron of riders, Ovid. Fast. v. 700. Met. viii. 301. Am. iii. 2. 
54. But this skill in horsemanship is also sometimes ascribed 
to Pollux, Virg. G. iii. 89. called by Virgil Amycl^us ; and 
also by Ovid, Ep. viii. 7 1 . from Amyclx, a town twenty stadia, 
or two miles and a half from Lacedaemon, Polyb. v. 19. where 
these two brothers were brought up ; hence the town is Called 
Ledtf£ AmycU, Stat. Theb. vii. 163.; Sil. ii. 434. — — They 
carried off from Colchis the statue of Mars, Pausan. iii. 19. In 
a storm, while they were praying to the gods for assistance, 
two flames appeared to play about their heads, Diodor. iv. 43. ; 
Hygin. 14. and soon after there was a calm : whence they 
came to be considered as the gods of mariners; and these 
flames [ignes fatui), which frequently appear at sea in warm 
countries, were ascribed to Castor and Pollux, and called 
Helena, Plin. ii. 37. If double, they were esteemed an omen 
of good weather, lb. and the contrary if single ; which is still 
the case. This appearance Horace is supposed by some to call 
alba stella, Od. i. 12. 2*]. but it is more proper here to take 
Stella for stelU, literally two bright stars in Gemini, called Castor 
and Pollux, or Fratres Helena, much attended to by mariners \ 
thus, Od. i. 3. 2. iv. 8. 31. j Ovid. Fast. v. 720. 

The conduct of Castor and Pollux to LYNCEXTS and Idas, 
cannot be ranked among those great actions by which Horace 
says they merited divine honours after death, Ep. ii. 1. 5. Od. iv. 

5. 35. & 8. 31. — Lynceus and Idas were natives of Mes- 

senia, who also went with Jason in the expedition to Colchis, 
Hygin. 14. They were the sons of AphareuS, king of Mes- 
senia, who was born of the same mother with Tyndareus, 
Pausan. iii. 1 . or according to Hyginus, the sons of Aphareus 
and Arena, the daughter of Oebalus ; so that in either case they 
were cousin-germans to Castor and Pollux. 

LYNCEUS was so remarkable for his quickness of sight, 
that he is said to have seen things concealed below ground, as 
it is supposed, from his first having discovered mines, Hygin. 
14. and to have penetrated with his eyes to the infernal re- 
gions, Valer. Flacc. Arg. i. 464. whence any person remarkable 
for quickness of sight was called Lynceus, Horat. Sat. i. 2. 90. 
Ep. i. 1. 28. ; Cit. Fam. ix. 2. as One Strabo, who is reported 
to have seen at the distance of one hundred and thirty-five 
miles, and to have discerned from Lilybjeum the Carthaginian 



Menelaus. 



413 



fleet coming out of the port of Carthage, so as to count the 
number of ships, Plin. vii. 21. 5 Val. Max. i. 8. ext. 14. 

Castor and Pollux, falling in love with the brides of Lynceus 
and Idas, the daughters of Leucippus, (Leucippides, Ovid. ep. 
xvi. 327.) carried them off by force. Lynceus, endeavouring 
to recover his mistress, was slain by Castor, who in his turn 
was killed by Idas. Pollux, in revenge, slew Idas, Hygin. 80. ; 
but Ovid represents this matter differently, Fast. v. 699. &c. — 
Pausanias says, that this contest was about some cattle ; and 
that after the death of Lynceus and Idas the government of 
Messenia fell to Nestor, the son of Neleus, iv. 3. 

Pollux obtained leave from Jupiter to share his immortality 
with his brother, and to live and die for a day alternately, 
Homer. Odyss. xi. 302. &c. hence said by Virgil fratrem alternd 
morte redemisse, JEn, vi. 12 1, j and to pass one day in heaven 
and another alternately in the infernal regions, Sil. ix. 295. 
xiii. 805. *, Pindar. Nem. Od. x. stroph. 4. so Pluto speaks of 
retaining both, Stat. Theb. viii. 50. hence from their mutual 
affection they are called PlI LacoNES, Martial, ix. 4. 11. 
The foundation of this fable was, that Castor and Pollux were 
supposed to have been converted into the constellation called 
Gemini, or The Twins, Hygin. Astron. ii. 22. also fecundx 
sidera Lem, Ovid. Amor. ii. 1 1 . 29. in which are two bright 
stars, one in the head of each, which never rise or set together; 
but when one of them sinks below the horizon, the other is 
above it, and die contrary, Ovid. ib. 

HELENA was reckoned the most beautiful woman of her 
time. When very young she was carried off by Theseus, king 
of Athens, and his friend Perithous ; but her brothers Castor 
and Pollux brought her back by force of arms, Strab. ix. 396. ; 
Hygin. 79. *, Ovid. ep. xvi, 147. Many of the chief princes in 
Greece sought her in marriage. Tyndareus, at a loss how to 
determine among the competitors, lest by preferring one he 
should offend all the rest, was advised by Ulysses, who him- 
self was one of her suitors, but whose hopes were not very 
sanguine, to leave the choice entirely to the virgin herself, and 
to bind the suitors by an oath to stand by her determination, 
also to bind themselves to protect her honour, whomsoever of 
them she should prefer. This being agreed on, Helena deter- 
mined in favour of Menelaus, the son of Atreus ; who thus 
became king of Sparta, upon the resignation of Tyndareus, 
Hygin. 78. The form of administering this oath to the suitors 
is described by Pausanias, iii. 20. Ulysses, for his services, 
©btained Penelope, the daughter of Icarius (Icaris, -idis, Ovid, 



444? Fabulous History of Lacedcemon. 

Ib. 393.) and niece of Tyndareus> whose behaviour from the 
beginning was such as gave Ulysses no cause to regret his dis- 
appointment in Helen, Ib. 

Helena lived with Menelaus for three years with every ap- 
pearance of conjugal happiness. She bore a daughter to him 
called Hermione. But Paris, the son of Priam, having come 
to Sparta on an embassy, by his insinuating manners, his splen- 
did dress and equipage, Horat. Od. iv. 9. 13. ; Ovid, ep. xvi. 
& xvii. seduced her, and carried her off with him to * Troy, 
Menelaus solicited the assistance of all the princes of Greece, 
to revenge this injury. A confederacy for that purpose was 
formed, at the head of which was AGAMEMNON, king of 
Mycense, and brother to Menelaus. A list of the Grecian 
leaders and their different forces is given by Homer, 11. ii. and 
after him by Hyginus, fab. 97. Next to Agamemnon and 
Menelaus, the chief were ACHILLES, the son of Peleus> 
(Pelides 9 ) king of Phthia and Larissa in Thessaly, and of the 
sea-goddess Thetis, with his son Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus, 
and his friend Patroclus, the son of Memetius> (Menteti- 
ades,) and grandson of Actor (Actorides) by iEgina % 
ULYSSES, the son of Laertes, (Laertiades,) king of Ithaca 

* Hecuba the daughter of Cisseus king of Thrace (Cisseis, -Idis) and wife of Priam, 
when she was with child of Paris, dreamed that she had brought forth a torch, Virg. 
JEn. vii. 319. x. 704.; Apollodor. iii. 12. 5. The soothsayers being consulted, 
declared, that what she should produce, would cause the destruction of Troy. On 
which account Priam ordered the infant to be exposed on mount Ida. But he was 
secretly brought up at the house of a shepherd, and when he reached the age of 
manhood, became a shepherd himself, under the name of ALEXANDER or PARIS. 
While he sustained that character he formed a connection with the nymph Oenone, 
Ovid, ep, v. and determined the contest between Juno, Minerva, and Venus, about 
the golden apple. The goddesses, by the appointment of Jupiter, appeared before him 
as a judge, and pleaded each her own cause. Juno offered him power, Minerva 
wisdom, and Venus the most beautiful woman in the world, if he determined in her 
favour. Paris adjudged the golden apple to Venus; and thus incurred the hostility of 
the two other goddesses ever after against the Trojan nation, Virg. JEn. i. 26. ; 
Horat. od. 1. 15. 10. ; Ovid. ep. xvi. 43. &c ; Hygw.92. ; hence he is called Fatalis 
incestusque Judex, Horat. od. iii. 3. 18, &c. The indignation of Juno was still farther 
increased against the Trojans, by Jupiter making Ganymedes, a beautiful boy, the son 
of Tros, his cup-bearer, in place of Hebe, the daughter of Juno, and goddess of youth. 
Ganymedes was carried off from Ida, by an eagle, (Jovis armiger,) at the command of 
Jupiter, Virg. JEn. I. 28. v. 252.; Ovid. Met. x. 155.; Pausan. v. 24.; Horat. 
od. iv. 4. 4. 

Paris being discovered and recognised by his parents, was sent into Greece with a 
fleet, to recover Hesione, the sister of Priam, who had been carried off by Hercules, 
and given to Telamon, see p. 400. But Paris, instead of executing this commission, 
came to the court of Menelaus, where he was hospitably entertained by that prince ; 
and Menelaus being in the mean time obliged to go to Crete, Paris, in his absence, 
by the aid of Venus, carried off Helene, to revenge, as he pretended, the detention of 
Hesione ; and on that account he was countenanced by Priam. He is called Id^us 
adulter, Ovid. ep. xix. 177. Lacana adulters famZsus HOSPES, Horat. od. Hi. 3. 
25. and the ship in which he sailed, Pberedea navis t from Pherecles, the builder of it, 
Qv id, ep. xvi, 22° 

AJAX, 



Meneld'us. 



AJAX, the son of Telamon^ king of Salamis, and his brother 
Teucer ; Diomedes, the son of Tydeus, (Tydldes,) king of 
Argos in iEtolia ; Nestor, the son of* Neleus, (Nelldes,) kirrg 
of Pylos and Messenia, with his son Archilochus *, Pala- 
medes, the son of Nauplius, (NaupliadeSy) king of Eubcea \ 
Idomeneus and Meriones from Crete Philoctetes, the 
son of Paan 9 from Meiibcea ; Eumelus, the son of Admetus> 
from Perrhsebia, and Eurypilus from Orchomenus or Ormenius, 
all three from Thessaly , Thoas, the son of Andremon, from 
iEtolia ; Machaon, the son of JEsculapius, and his brother 
Podaliriusy both remarkable for their skill in physic •, Sthenelus^ 
Thessandrusy Epeus, the framer of the Trojan horse ; At ha mas 
and Thoas ; Ca/chas, the augur, the son of Thestor, (Thesto- 
rides,) Szc. 

The restitution of Helena having been refused by> Priam, 
Herodot. i. 2. & 3. these chiefs set sail for Troy, which they 
took after a siege often years. During the war Menelaus 
behaved with great bravery. The conduct of Helen is dif- 
ferently represented ; by the Roman writers, usually in an 
unfavourable light. , Hence she is called, by Horace, Lacena 
adultera, Od. iii. 3. 25. and infamis, Epod. 17. 42. After the 
death of Paris, who was slain by Philoctetes, Hygin. 112. she 
married Deiphobus, the brother of Paris, whom she betrayed 
to Menelaus, the night in which Troy was taken, Virg, JEti. 
vi. by whom his body was dreadfully mangled, lb, 495. — 530. 
to which Horace alludes, Od. iv. 9. 22. After this she seems 
to have fled to the temple of Vesta for protection, lb. i. 567. 
But commentators differ about the manner of reconciling these 
two passages ; some think the latter an interpolation. Helena 
returned to Sparta with Menelaus, Pausan. x. 25. who is said 
to have wandered over many countries in his way home, Strab. 
i. 38. &c. among the rest to have gone to Egypt, lb. on the 
coast of which, Herodotus says, that Paris was driven in sailing 
from Sparta v/ith Helen ; and that she was detained there by 
Proteus the king of that country, who, after the destruction of 
Troy, restored her to Menelaus, ii. 112. &c. A temple was 
consecrated to Menelaus, near the place where he and Helen 
were buried, Pausan. iii. 19. y but there are different accounts 
about her death. Some say, that being expelled from Sparta 
after the death of Menelaus, by his illegitimate sons and suc- 
cessors Nicostratus and Megapenthes, she retired to Rhodes, 
where she was put to death by order of Po/yxo, the widow of 
Tlepolemus, queen of that island, because she had lost her 
husband in the Trojan war, which Helen had excited, Ibid. 

After 



116 



Fabulous History of Laced<zmon< 



After the expulsion of Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, by the 
Heraclidse, seep. 408. Eurysthenes and Procles, the sons 
of Aristodemus, sprung from Hercules, shared the sovereignty 
at Lacedaemon, and, from their time, the sceptre always con- 
tinued to be jointly swayed by two kings of their descendants. 
.Eurysthenes was succeeded by his son Agis, from whom all the 
descendants of that line were called Agidje ; those of the other 
line were called Eurytionid^:., from Eurytion, the grandson of 
Procles. 



IV. Fabulous History of CORINTH, Elis, and 

Arcadia. 

SISYPHUS, the son of ^Eolus, (JEolides,) not of JEolus the 
god of the winds, but of a king of Thessaly, Apollodor. i. 7, 
3.; Serv. in Virg. vi. 585.) is said to have been the first king of 
Corinth, Pausan. ii. 1. and 3. He was remarkable for his cun- 
ning and his robberies, on which account he was slain by 
Theseus, king of Athens. His punishment in the infernal re- 
gions, was to roll a large stone up a mountain, which, when it 
reached the top, always rolled back again to the foot ; hence 
he is said to be condemned to eternal labour, Herat, ii. 14. j.g.* y 
Homer. Odyss. xi. ; Ovid. Met. xiii. 26. ; Hygin. 60. ; Cic. 
Tusc. i. 5. & 41. 

Sisyphus was succeeded by his son Creon ; hence Sisyphee 
opes, the riches of Creon, Ovid. ep. xii. 204. 

SALMONEUS, the king of Elis, was brother to Sisyphus, 
Apollodor. i. 7. 3. He claimed divine honours from his subjects. 
To imitate the thunder of Jupiter, he constructed a brazen 
bridge, over which he used to ride in his chariot, darting torches 
and firebrands among the people in imitation of lightning. But 
Jupiter provoked at such impiety, struck him with a thunder- 
bolt, and hurled him headlong to the infernal regions, where 
he was placed near his brother, Virg. JEn. vi. 585. — 595. ; 
Hygin, 61. ; Diodor. iv. 68. , Apollodor. i. 9. 7. 

The first king of Arcadia was PELASGUS, whence the 
country was anciently named Pelasgia, Pausan. viii. I. His 
son Lycaon succeeded, who built the city Lycosura, on 
mount Lycaus. He called Jupiter by the name of Lycjeus, 
and instituted a festival in honour of him, called Lycaa or Lu- 
percalia. Lycaon was contemporary with Cecrops, king of 
Athens 5 but, as Pausanias says, greatly inferior to him in the 

knowledge 



Lycaon, 



417 



knowledge of divine things. For Cecrops was the first who 
Called Jupiter Supreme ox the Highest, and offered to him, only 
the fruits of the earth. But Lycaon sacrificed not only other 
animals, but also human victims ; on which account he is re- 
ported to have been changed into a wolf, lb. 2. The wicked- 
ness of men is said to have been so great in the time of this 
king, that Jupiter descended from heaven to examine every 
thing himself under a human form. He came to the house of 
Lycaon ; who, to try his divinity, set before him the flesh of a 
human body. Jupiter destroyed the house with lightning, and 
turned Lycaon himself into a wolf, Ovid, Met. i,- 21 1. - — 239. \ 
in lb. 433. Hygin. Astr. ii. 4. 

CALLISTO, the daughter of Lycaon, called also Heltice> 
having brought forth a son to Jupiter, was by Juno changed 
into a bear. Her son was named ARC AS ; from whom the 
country was called Arcadia, and the people Arcades. Areas 
taught the Arcadians the art of making bread from corn, and 
cloaths from wool, Pausan. viii. 4. Areas, while hunting, ac- 
cording to Ovid, was about to shoot the bear into which his 
mother was metamorphosed. But Jupiter prevented it ; and 
converted them both into contiguous constellations; Cailisto 
into Ursa major, or The greater Bear ; called also temo piger, 
from the slowness of its motion, Stat. Theb. i. 371. and Areas 
into Arctophylax, or, The Keeper of the Bear, (glacialis por- 
titor Ursje, Stat. Theb. i. 693.) called also Bootes, Ovid. Met, 
ii. 409. &c. : Hygin. 177. $ Astron.u.4. near the north pole; 
hence Lycaonius axis, the north pole, Ovid. Trist.iii. 2. 2. 

V. Fabulous History of ATTICA. 

THE first king of Attica, according to Pausanias, i. 2< 
was ACTiEUS, from whom the country was called Act^ea, 
lb. & Strab. ix. 391. whence Actaa arva, the country of 
Attica*, Ovid. Met. i. 313. But CECROPS is commonly 
reckoned the first king of Attica, from whom the inhabitants 
were called CECRoPiDiE, Herodot. viii. 44. 5 Virg. JEn. vL 21. ; 

* But the name of Acta or Actica is commonly derived from Aete, a narrow trace 
of country running along the shore between the sea and the mountains, (a-ro ?x aystrSm 
<?« xvpctrciy quod ibi frangant se undo:,) which was the case with a great part of Attica, 
Strab.h. 391. whence Ada, the shore, Nep. Ages. 8. ; Cic. Verr. v. ZJ. & 31, ; Fam. 
ix. 6.; Virg. Mn.\.b\$. and Servius says, that Aracyntlms, a mountain in Bccotia, 
has the epithet Actjeus joined to it by Virgil, Eel. ii. 24. because it is near the 
Shore (q. littoralls). But Aeiaus is commonly put for Atheniensis in the poets, by 
whom only the word is used, Ovid. Met. ii. 554. 730. viii 6S1. Sec. 

E e Ovid* 



418 



Fabulous History of Attica. 



Ovid. Met. vn. 670. •, Stat. Theb. xii. 570. whence Cecropis, 
*idis, an Athenian woman, Juvenal, vi. 186. and Cecropius, 
Athenian, Horat. od. ii. 1. 12.; Virg. G.iv. 177.; Martial, xi. 
43. Cecropia, sc. terra, i. e. Attica, Catull. 62. 79. & Terra 
Gecropis, Ovid. ep. x. 100. Juvenal uses Cecroptdes for any 
person descended from a very ancient family, viii. 46. & 53. 

Cecrops is said to have come from Sais in Egypt, Diodor. i. 
28. about four hundred years before the Trojan war, or one 
thousand five hundred and eighty-two years before the Christian 
aera. He married the daughter of Actaeus, Pausafi. i. 2. He 
is represented as of two forms, (geminus, Ovid. Met. ii. 555. 
biformis, Justin, ii. 6.) half a man and half a serpent; because, 
as Justin says, he first instituted marriage, lb* To him some 
ascribe the introduction of letters into Greece, Tacit. Ann. xi. 
14. He first induced the inhabitants of Attica, formerly scat- 
tered over the country, to live in small towns or boroughs, 
(ttoAekj) Thucydid. ii. 15. The next king was Cranaus, a na- 
tive of the place ; whose daughter, Atthis, gave name to the 
country, Pausan, i. 2. *, Strab. ix. 397. whence Atthides, Athe- 
nian women*, Stat. Theb. xii. 536. She married Amphio 
tyon, who dethroned her father *, and who, in his turn, was 
expelled by Erichthonius, the son of Vulcan, Paufan. ib, 
{proles sine matre creata,) according to the fable related, Ovid, 
Met. ii. 552. — 565.; Hygin. 166. ; Apollodor. iii. 14. 6. To 
him Virgil ascribes the invention of chariots, G. iii. 113. So 
Pliny, vii. 56. whence he was converted into a constellation, 
called Auriga, the waggoner. 

PANDION, his son, succeeded, whence Pandzonius mom, 
the citadel of Athens, Stat. Theb. ii. 720. ; Pandionia arces, 
Claudian. de rapt. Proserp. ii. 19. He formed an alliance with 
Tereus, king of Thrace, (hence called Odrysius tyrannus, Ovid. 
Remed. Am. 459.) to whom he gave his daughter Progne, or 
Procne, in marriage. Tereus offered violence to Philomela, the 

* Attica was also called Mopsopia, from one Mopsops or Mopsopus, Strab. ix. 443.; 
hence Mopsopia urbs, Athens, Ovid. ep. viii. 72.; Ionia from Ion, the son of 
Xuthus ; and Poseioonia from Neptune, as Athens was denominated from the 
Greek name of Minerva, (A3->jv>j,) Strab. ix. 397. So Terras a Pallade dictas linquit, 
leaves Athens, Ovid. Met. ii. 835. Hence Mopsopii muri, for Athens, Ovid. Met. vi. 
4^3.; and Mopsopius juvenis) for Trtptolemus, Ib. v. 661. the son of Celeus, the 
Chief of Eleusis, Pausan. i. 14.: Ovid. Fast. iv. 507,-; Serv. in Virg. G. 'u 19. who 
is said to have been first taught husbandry by Ceres, Ib. and to have communicated the 
knowledge of it to other nations, Pausan. viii. 4. ; Cic. Herenn.'xs. 6.; Tusc. i. 41.; 
Verr. iv. 49. Ceres is supposed to have come to Eleusis in quest of Proserpine, in the 
time of Cranaus ; when the celebration of her mysteries was first instituted, Ib. and 
Pausan. ii. 14. called Thesmophoria, Hxgin. 147. because Ceres also first pre- 
scribed laws, Ovid. Met. v. 343.; Diodor. i. 14. or because laws are the effect chiefly 
of agriculture. Justin says, Ceres came to Eleusis under the reign of Erechtheuc, 
ii. 6. So Diodorus, i. 29. 

sister 



Pandion. 4 IS 

sister of Progne, which Progne resenting brought destruction 

on all concerned, Pausan.i. 5. ; Strab. ix. 423 The poets 

relate, that Progne, anxious to see her sister, prevailed on Te- 
reus to go and conduct her to Thrace ; that he having offered 
violence to Philomela by the way, when she expressed her in- 
dignation at the injury she had suffered, he cut out her tongue, 
and shut her up in a tower. Upon his arrival in Thrace, he 
told Progne that her sister had died by the way. About a year 
after, Philomela having represented her sufferings on a piece 
of cloth, contrived to get it conveyed to Progne. She, dis- 
guising her resentment, waited till the celebration of the festi- 
val of Bacchus, which was near at hand, when women were 
allowed an uncommon degree of liberty. Then, having libe- 
rated her sister, and concerted with her the means of revenge, 
she killed her son ITYS or Itylus, {Terezdes puer, Ovid. Ib. 436. 
then six years old, and caused him to be served up to his father 
at an entertainment *. When in the midst of the feast Tereus 
desired to see Itys, Philomela sprang forth like a fury, and dashed 
the bloody head of the boy in his face. While Tereus drew his 
sword to slay them, he was changed into a hoopoe or lapwing, 
(Epops,) Philomela into a nightingale, Procne into a f swallow, 
and Itys into a pheasant, Pausan. x. 4. ; Ovid. Met. vi. 424. — ■ 
676. ; Apollodor. iii. 14. 8. Hyginus tells this story differently. 
Jab. 4$. Pandion died of grief, Ovid. ib. 675. Thucydides 
says this tragical scene happened in Daulia y a town of Phocis, 
which was then possessed by the Thracians, ii. 29. ; so Pausa- 
nias, i. 41. Ovid calls Procne Cecropis ales, i. e. avis Athetii* 
ensisy Amor. iii. 12.32. Statius makes both sisters swallows, 
and calls them Getica volucres y Thracian birds, from the coun- 
try of Tereus, Theb. xii. 478. 

ERECHTHEUS, the son of Pandion, succeeded, from 
whom the Athenians were called Erecthzda, Ovid. Met. viL 
430. hence Erechthea arces 9 Athens, Ib. viii. 547. Herodotus 
says, that under him they were first called Athenians, viii. 44c 
His daughter Orithyia married BOREAS, a king of Thrace, 
who was said to have power over the winds, and whom the 
Athenians afterwards worshipped as the god of the north wind, 
Herodot.vu. 1 89. Ovid makes Boreas carry off Orithyia by force, 
Met. vi. 707. ; so Statius, Theb. xii. 630. Homer mentions a 

* Virgil makes Philomela to do this, because it was done on her account, Mil. 
vi. 79. 

f Hence Progne is called Infelix avis Ceeropia domus aternum opprobrium^ Horat. 
od, iv. lit 6, and Pandimu ales, a swallow, Lucan, ad Phon, 355. 

E e 2 quite 



*120 Fabulous History of Attica. 

quite different story, //. xx. 2 1 9, &c. Orithyia brought fortfr 
twins to Boreas, called Calais and Zethes, who resembled 
their father in having wings, Ovid. Ib. 713. They wera 
among those who went with Jason [cum Minyis) in quest of 
the golden fleece. Ib. 720. 

PRO CRTS, another of Pandion's daughters, married "Ce- 
phalus, a king of Thessaly, the son of Deion, king of Phocis, 
Apollodor. i. 9. 4. and grandson of iEolus, king of Thessaly, 
Ib. i. 7.3. hence called jEolides, Ovid, Met. vii. 672. Ce- 
phalus and Procris having entertained suspicions of each other's 
fidelity, disguised themselves to put it to the test. The dis- 
covery of their mutual frailty produced a reconciliation, and 
increased their former fondness. But Procris hearing that 
Cephalus, who was fond of hunting, used when fatigued to rest 
himself in the shade, and frequently to invoke AURA, or the 
refreshing breeze; suspecting it to be a mistress, secretly attended 
him one day at the chace, and when he went to refresh himself 
in the shade concealed herself in a bush. "When Cephalus, as 
usual, called on Aura to come, (aura veni,) Procris raising 
her head to see who should appear, caused a rustling among the 
leaves. Cephalus, thinking it a wild beast, let fly his unerring 
dart and pierced her to the heart. Procris could only utter 
what was sufficient to make Cephalus perceive the cause of her 
groundless jealousy, and expired, Ovid. Met. vii. 690. &c. 
Art. Am. 686. — 746. Ovid speaks of Cephalus as an Athe- 
nian, Met. vii. 491. &c. ARCH1US or Arcesius, the son of 
Cephalus and Procris, was the father of LAERTES the father 
of Ulysses, Hygin. 1 89. ; Ovid. Met. xiii. 144. 

In the time of Erechtheus EUMOLPUS, the son of Neptune, 
originally from Thrace, was chief priest (Hierophantes) of 
Ceres at Eleusis 5 whose descendants, called EuMOLPiDiE, con- 
tinued to enjoy that office for many ages, Tacit. Hist. iv. 83. 
Eumolpus was so powerful that he engaged in war with Erech- 
theus. A battle was fought, in whjch both fell, Pausan. i. 38. 
Hyginus says that Erechtheus survived, and was obliged to 
sacrifice one of his daughters, to appease the wrath of Neptune 
for the death of his son, fab. 46. and Cicero speaks of daugh- 
ters of this king who offered themselves up voluntarily for their 
country, Sext. 21.; Fin. v. 22. ; Nat. D. iii. 19. Divine 
honours were appointed to Erechtheus after his death, which 
continued to be performed in the time of Cicero, Ib. 

A contest having arisen among the sons of Erechtheus about 
the succession, they referred the matter to Xuthus, the grand- 
son 



Cecrops II. Pandion II. and JEgeiis. 



421 



^on of Deucalion, king of Thessaly, who had married their 
sister Creusa. He determined in favour of CECROPS, Pau- 
san. vii. I. 

CECROPS II. was succeeded by his son PANDION II. 
and he by his eldest son JEGEUS, Pausan. i. 5. 

In the reign of JEgeus, Dj3£DALUS the son of Euphemus, 
descended from king Erechtheus, a famous artist, having slain 
his brother Perdix (or his nephew, according to Ovid, Met. viii. 
242.) out of envy for his having invented the use of the saw, 
(Cw y sc. Perdici, causa necis serra reperta fuit y Ovid. Ib. 500.} 
was obliged to fly from Athens. He went to Crete, where 
he was favourably received by Minos, the king of that island, 
who employed him to construct the labyrinth, a building 
with a vast number of dark and intricate windings, (Secta- 
que per dubias saxea tecta vias, Ovid. ep. x. 128.) from which 
it was almost impossible to extricate one's self. Having after- 
wards assisted Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, in an intrigue with 
one Taurus, which gave occasion to the fable of her falling in 
love with a bull, and producing a monster half a man and half 
a bull, called the Minotaur, Strab. x. 477. he was shut up in 
a tower with his son Icarus. He escaped from thence by 
means of wings cemented with wax, on which he flew to Sicily, 
Ovid. Met. viii. .183.' — 260. or, as others say, to Cumse in Italy, 
where he built a temple to Apollo. Icarus soaring too high, 
had the wax of his wings melted by the heat of the sun, and 
fell into the sea, called from him the Icarian sea, Pausan* 
vh. 4. ; Herodot. vii. 170. ; Hygin. 39. & 40. ; Virgil. JEn. vi„ 
14. — 33. ; Horat. od. i. 3. 34. j Ovid. Met. viii. 183. &c. Art* 
Amor. 11. 21. — 96. Diodorus of Sicily, who .enumerates the 
adventures of Daedalus, says, that he escaped from Crete in a 
boat, and that Icarus was lost in landing rashly on the island of 
Icaria, iv. 77. From the ingenuity of Daedalus, any work 
curiously made was called opus Dadalum, v. -eum> v. -^eum 3 
Virg. G. iv. 179.; Lucret. i. 229. v. 1 450. 5 so Dadala Circe$ 
ingenious, Virg. JEn. vii. 282. 

iEGEUS was long without having children. At last he had 
a son by JEthra, the daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezen cr 
Troezene, who was called THESEUS, (jEgides, Ovid. ep. iv. 
59. ; Slat. Theb. xii. 546. ; Nepos JEthra, Ovid. Ib. 579.) and 
educated at the court of his grandfather. He is said in fable 
to have been the son of Neptune, Hygin. Astr. ii. 5. ; Apollodor. 
iii. 15.7. hence he is said to be sprung from the gods, Virg. JEn. 
vi. 394. and called Neptunius heros, Ovid. ep. xvii. 21. Met. 
ix. i. ; Stat. Theb. xil 588. Neptunius Theseus, Ib. 665. Troezene 

Ee 3 is 



422 



Fabulous History of Attica. 



is called from Pittheus, Pittheia Regna, Ovid. ep. iv. 107. 
iEgeus is said afterwards to have married Medea, upon her 
separation from Jason, by whom he had a son called Medus, 
Justin, ii. 6. xlii. 2. But the story of Medea is differently 
related, Diodor.iv. 55. & 56. 

ANDROGEOS, the son of Minos, king of Crete, having 
been slain through envy by the Athenians and Megarensians, 
because he had vanquished them all in wrestling, at the festival 
of Minerva, called Parthensea, Serv. in Virg. G. i. 404. (or at 
some other festival ; for the Parthensea are thought not to have 
been then instituted,) Minos made war on them, and having 
subdued the Megarenses> he forced the Athenians to accept of 
peace on such terms as he chose to prescribe. They were 
obliged to send every year to Crete seven young men, and as 
many virgins, chosen by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
After this cruel tribute had been paid for some years, Theseus, 
having grown up to manhood, came from Troezene to Athens. 
He slew several robbers whom he met with by the way. On 
his arrival at Athens, he narrowly escaped being poisoned by 
his stepmother Medea, Ovid. Met. vii. 406. As the time was 
approaching when it was requisite to send the stipulated num- 
ber of young men and virgins to Crete, Theseus insisted on 
being allowed to go as one of the former. jEgeus, with reluc- 
tance, at last consented •, but at his departure charged the pilot 
that if Theseus should be successful in slaying the Minotaur, 
he should at his return display white sails ; but if not, he 
should retain the black sails as usual. After the arrival of The- 
seus in Crete, ARIADNE, the daughter of Minos, falling in 
love with him, explained to him the mazes of the labyrinth; 
and at the suggestion of Dsedalus gave him a clew, by unwind- 
ing the thread of which, (licium revolvendo>) he might find his 
way out 5 (errabunda regens tenui vestigia filo^ Catull. 62. 113.; 
Ducentia jila secutus> Ovid. ep. iv. 59.; Janua difficilis filo es 
inventa refecto, Id. Met. viii. 173.) Theseus slew the Minotaur ■ 
and having, according to promise, carried off Ariadne, and als 
her sister Phaedra, Ovid. ep. iv. 65. returned in safety to his 
native country. But in his joy he forgot to change the sails 
and iEgeus, therefore, seeing the ship from a watch-tower o 
the promontory of Sunium, Stat, Theb. xii. 625. return wi 
black sails, and believing his son to have perished, threw him 
self headlong into the sea, which from him was called th 
JEgean sea. The posterity of iEgeus were called ./Egidje, 
Ovid. ep. ii. 67. 

Diodorus 



Theseus. 



Biodorus says that Theseus forgot to change the sails from 
vexation at the loss of Ariadne, whom Bacchus took from him r 
iv. 61. ; see Pausan. x. 29. Others relate that Theseus basely- 
left Ariadne in the island of Naxos, and that Bacchus, who had. 
formerly been in love with her, finding her there upon his re- 
turn from India, married her, Ovid. Met. viii. 1 76". Bacchus 
gave her a beautiful crown, which, after her death, was changed 
into a constellation, called Cressa corona, Ovid. Trist. v. 3. 42* 
and Corona Gnossia, v. Gnossis, -idis, from her native city 
Gnossus, Ovid. Fast. iii. 459. &c. ep. x. whence also Ariadne is 
called Gnossis, Id. ep. xv. 25. Theseus married Phsedra, the 
sister of Ariadne, Hygin. 43. 

Theseus performed various other heroic actions resembling 
those of Hercules, his contemporary, Strab. viii. 380. ; Stat. 
Theb.xii. 584. He destroyed a terrible bull that infested Atti- 
ca. He killed the robbers Sciron, Procrustes, and Scinis, Strab. 
ix. 391.*, Ovid. Met. vii. 433. Ib. 409. and Cercyon, ibid. 
413. He subdued the Centaurs. He slew Creon king of Thebes 
for refusing burial to the Argives that fell in the Theban war, 
and interred them in the territory of Eleusis, Pausan. i. 39. 

ix. 5.; Herodot. ix. 27.; Hygin. 72.; Stat. Theb. xii. 519 

ad Jin. He descended into hell with his friend Pirithous, to 
carry off Proserpine •, where Pirithous being torn in pieces by 
the dog Cerberus, Theseus remained in chains till Hercules 
freed him. * 

One of the chief exploits of Theseus was the conquest of the 
Amazons, a nation of female warriors in Asia Minor ; so called 
because they used to cut or burn off their right breast, (ex a 
priv. et fta^oj, mamma,) that it might not hinder them in shoot- 
ing the arrow, Diodor. ii. 45. ; Justin, ii. 4. The Athenians 
are said to have gained a victory over the Amazons when they 
made an irruption into Attica, Herodot. ix. 27. Theseus mar- 
ried one of them, HlPPOLYTE, Stat. Theb. xii. 534. by whom 
he had Hippolytus ; hence Hippolytus is called Amazonius 
vir, Ovid. ep. iv. 2. and Amazone natus, Met. xv. 552. 
Servius on Virg. JEn, xi. 661. and Hyginus, fab. 30. say, that 
it was Antiope, the daughter of Hippolyte the queen of the Ama- 
zons, that Theseus married. 

* Some say that Hercules also freed Pirithous ; and others, that neither of them 
ever returned, Diodor. iv. 63. Virgil describes Theseus as sitting for ever in the in- 
fernal regions, JEn. vi. 617. in which posture he was represented by Polygnotus, 
the painter, Pausan. x. 29. Strabo thinks, that Theseus and Pirithous were supposed 
to have descended into the infernal regions, from the distant expeditions which they 
undertook, i. a3. Horace represents Pirithous as bound in Tartarus with 300 chains, 
d. iii. 4, 80. 

% e 4 HIPPO- 



424 



Fabulous History of Attica. 



HIPPOLYTUS, the son of Theseus, (ThesIdes, Ovid. ep. 
vi. 65. Theseius keros, Id. Met. xv. 492.) when he grew 
up, devoted himself to hunting, and appeared regardless of 
the company of women, Ovid. ep. iv. 173. His stepmother 
PHiEDR A fell in love with him, in the absence of Theseus j 
and when Hippolytus spurned at her proposals, she accused 
him to his father of designs on her virtue. Theseus, enraged at 
this, prayed to Neptune to punish his son *. Hippolytus fled 
from the wrath of his father, and bent his course to Troezen, 
his native city. But while he pursued his way along the sea- 
shore, his horses being startled by a sea-bull, Ovid. Rem. Am. 744. 
or sea-calves, seton\u.m(immissi) by Neptune, drove the chariot on 
the rocks 5 whereby the axletree and wheels being broken, Hip- 
polytus was thrown from his seat, and his limbs being entangled 
in the harness, he was torn to pieces by the bull. Phae- 
dra, hearing of his fate, confessed her crime, and hanged her- 
self. iEsculapius, at the request of Diana, restored Hippoly- 
tus to life. After which he retired to Italy, where he assumed 
the name of VIRBIUS, [quasi vir bis,) and built the city Ari- 
cia, Serv. hi Virg. JEn. vii. 761.; Ovid. Met. xv. 497. &c 
Fast. iii. 265. ; Pausan. i. 22. ii. 27. & 32. ; Hygin. 47. & 49. 
There Diana is said to have concealed him in an adjoining 
grove ; whence horses were ever after excluded from that place, 
Virg. ib. Hippolytus had a son of the same name, Ib. 761. & 78 1. 
Diodorus relates the story of Hippolytus differently, iv. 62. 

Theseus, in liis old age, was expelled from his kingdom. He 
retired to Lycomedes, king of the island of Scyros, by whom he 
is said to have been slain. But there are different accounts 
about the manner of his death, Pausan. i. 17.5 Plutarch, m 
Thes. fin. 

Cimon, after he took the island of Scyros, brought the bones 
of Theseus to Athens, where they were solemnly interred near 
the gymnasium in the middle of the city, and his tomb served as 
a sanctuary for slaves, and persons of low rank, from the op- 
pression of more powerful citizens, Ib. 

From Theseus the Athenians were called ThesidvE, Virg. G. 
ii. 283. and Juvenal mentions a poem written by one Codrus, 
celebrating his exploits, called Theseis, -tdis y i. 2. 

The fidelity of Theseus to Pirithous was so great, that Ovid 
uses fides Thesea for the most faithful friendship, Prist, i. 3. 66. 
This Statius calls Cecropia fides > Silv. ii. 6. 55. 

* Neptune is said to have once given Theseus the choice of any one of three things, 
{ei tres oplationes dedisse, Cic. Offic. iii. 25.) What these three things were, we are not 
told. But on this occasion Theseus asked the performance of the promise, and desired 
the destruction of his son: which afterwards caused to him the greatest grief, ibid.St i. 10. 

MNES- 



Mnestheus, T/iymeetes, and Codrus. 



425 



MNESTHEUS, the son of Peteus, and grandson of Erech- 
iheus, succeeded, Pausan. i. 17. ii. 25. iii. 18. who assisted 
Agamemnon in the war against Troy, lb. i. 1. ii. 25. After 
his death DEMOPHOON, the son of Theseus, became king s 
Pausan. i. 28. who also was one of the leaders of the Greeks in 
the Trojan war ; and having in his return from thence landed 
in Thrace, engaged the affections of Phyllis, the daughter of 
Lyeurgus, king of that country, hence called Rkodopeia Phyl- 
lis, Ovid. ep. ii. 1 . but proved false to her : For hearing of the 
death of Mnestheus, he suddenly left her, with a promise to 
return in a month, which he did not perform, Ovid. ep. 2. ; 
Pausan. x. 25. Phyllis on the day she expected him, went 
nine times to the shore ; at last, in despair, she put an end to 
her days, either by a rope, or by throwing herself into the sea 5 
Ovid. Remed. Am. 55.5 Hygin. 59.; Serv. in Virg. Eel. v. 10. 

THYMiETES, the son of Oxyntes, was the last of the de~ 
scendants of Theseus that enjoyed the crown, Pausan. i. 3. 1, 
18. He having engaged in war with Xanthus, king of Bceotia, 
was challenged by him to decide their differences in single com- 
bat. This he declined ; but MELANTHUS, one of the noble 
Messenians expelled by the Heraclidse, see p. 408. fought in 
his place ; and having slain Xanthus by an artful contrivance, 
obtained the crown as the prize of his success, lb. An annual 
festival called Apaturia, (from awarij, error,) was instituted 
to commemorate the victory. 

CODRUS, the son of Melanthus, was the last king of Attica, 
The*Dorians and Heraclidce made war on him, for the hospitable 
reception granted at Athens to those Argives whom they had ex- 
pelled. Codrus being informed of the answer which they had 
received from the oracle at Delphi, that they should be victorious, 
if they did not kill the Athenian king ; and that therefore they had 
strictly charged their soldiers to spare his life : Having disguised 
himself under the habit of a peasant, he one day entered the 
enemy's camp, and was slain by a common soldier, whom he 
had purposely provoked. This happened near the Ilyssus, 
Pausan. i. 19. and in the place was a statue of Codrus made by 
Phidias, lb. x. 10. The enemy having understood what had 
happened, went away without righting, Pausan. vii. 25.; Justin. 
ii. 6.; Cic. Fin. v. 22.; Tusc. i.48. Nat. D. iii. 19.; Horat.od. iii. 
9. 2.; Serv. in Virg. Eel. v. 1 1. But the Codrus here mentioned 
by Virgil is thought by some to have been a different person. 

After the death of Codrus the Athenians abolished royalty, 
.and gave the name of ARCHON (imperans) to their chief 

magistrate, 



¥26 



Fabulous History of Bceotia. 



magistrate, whose office was for life. Medon, the son of Co- 
drus, was made first Archon, whose successors being all chosen 
from the same family for about two hundred years, were called 
Medontidje, Fausan. iv. 5. 



VI. Fabulous History of BGEOTIA and iETOLIA. 

CADMUS, the son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, being sent 
by his father in quest of his sister Euro pa, Herodot. iv. 147. 
who had been carried off by Jupiter in the shape of a bull, 
Ovid. Met. ii. 850.; Horat. od. iii. 27. 25. see p. 384. was 
ordered not to return without her, Diodor. iv. 2. In his search 
he came into Greece, and having consulted the oracle of 
Apollo at Delphi, was directed to observe the motions of an 
heifer, and build a city where the heifer should stop ; whence 
he called the country BCEOTIA, Ovid. Met. iii. 10. He 
named the city THEBiE, from Thebes in Egypt, whence he 
derived his origin, Herodot. ii. 49. Finding some of his com- 
panions slain by a dragon, he slew the monster, and having, 
by the direction of Minerva, sown its teeth in a plain, armed 
men suddenly sprung up from the ground ; who immediately 
attacked one another, Juvenal, x. 14. 241.; Lucan. iv. 549. so 
that they all fell, except five, Apollodor. iii. 4. 1. the chief of 
whom was Echjon. By them Cadmus was assisted in build- 
ing Thebes, Ovid. Met. iii. 125, &c. whence that city is called 
EcHiONiiE Theb^e, Horat. od. iv. 4. 64. Draconigena urbs, 
Ovid. Fast. iii. 865. Plebs Echionia, the Theban people, Stat. 
Theb. i. 169. The ancient inhabitants of this country were 
called Hyantes, Strab. vii. 321. ix. 401. & 424. ; Flin. iv. 7; 
s. 12. whence Hyantei agri> Bceotia Stat. Theb. i. 183. 5 Hyan- 
this Iolausy Iolaus the Boeotian, Ovid. Met. viii. 310.; so Hyan- 
tiusy sc. Actteon> lb. iii. 147. ; Hyantea Aganippe, lb. v. 312. ; 
Hyantidesy the Muses. 

Cadmus married HARMONIA, v. ie, the daughter of Ve- 
nus by Mars, Fausan. ix. 5. by whom he had a son named 
Polydorus, and four daughters Ino, Agave, Autonoe, and Se- 
meky Apollodor. iii. 4. 2. — POLYDORUS married Nycteis,' 
by whom he had Labdacus, the father of Laius or Laus, lb. 
5. who is therefore called Labdacides, Stat. Theb. vi. 451. 

hence Labdacida, plur. Thebans, lb. x. 36. INO married 

Athamas king of Bceotia, after he had divorced Nephele, Apol- 
lodor. ib. & i. 9» 1. & 2. Agave married Echlott; and Auto- 

noe, 



Cadmus, 



427 



noe, Aristseus, lb. in. 4. 2. Semele became the mother of 
Bacchus by Jupiter, seep. 381. 

All the gods are said to have honoured this marriage of Cad- 
mus with their presence, Apollodor. iii. 4. 2. ; Diodor. v. 49. 
Vulcan presented to Harmonia, or gave to Cadmus to present 
to her, a famous necklace he had made, which occasioned the 
greatest misfortunes to the possessors of it, lb. & Stat. Theb. ii. 
265. — 306. : Pausan. ix. 41. 

PENTHEUS, the son of Echion and Agave, the daughter 
of Cadmus, having profaned the sacred rites of Bacchus , was 
torn in pieces by his mother and her sisters, Ovid. Met. 'in. fin. 
Ib. 536. Horat. od. ii. 19. 14. after being deprived of his reason 
by the influence of that god, Euripid. in Bacch. 848. ; Virg. JEn. 
iv. 469. 

ATHAMAS, the husband of Ino, was the son of J£6lu$> 
king of Thessaly, and brother of Sisyphus, king of Corinth, 
Apollodor. i. 7. 3. He reigned over that part of Bceotia, where 
afterwards Orchomenos and Coronaea stood, lb. 9. 1.; Pausan. 
ix. 34. Some make him king of Thebes *. He is said to have 
divorced Nephele, his first wife, because she was subject to 
fits of insanity. By her he had two children, Phryxus, and 
Helle, who were saved from the jealousy of their stepmother 
Ino on the famous golden ram, as will be afterwards related. 
Athamas had by Ino two sons, Learchus and Melicerta. Being 
inflamed with a sudden madness by the fury Tisiphone, at the 
desire of Juno ever hostile to the race of Venus, he slew Lear- 
chus g upon which Ino fled with Melicerta in her arms, and 
threw herself into the sea from a high rock called Moluris, 
Pausan. 1. 44. near Megara on the isthmus of Corinth, lb, & 
Ovid. Fast. vi. 495. Neptune, at the request of Venus, turned 
them both into sea-gods ; calling the mother Leucothoe y and the 
son Pabemon, Ovid. Met. iv. 416. — 543. Ino was called by 
the Romans Matuta, and Palsemon, Portumnus, Ovid. 
Fast. vi. 545. Hyginus relates some particulars of this story 
differently, i. 2. & 3, &c. 

Cadmus, affected by the misfortunes of his family, retired 
with his wife Harmonia to Illyria, where they are said to 
have been changed into serpents, and sent by Jupiter to Ely- 
sium f, Ovid. Met. ii. 98. iv. 675, &c. ; Apollodor. iii. 5. 4. 

* Varro says that the first king of Thebes was Ogyges, b.C. iioo, in whose 
time happened a deluge, de re Rust. iii. 1.: so Augustiu deciv. Bet, xviii. 8. whence 
Ogygiusy Theban; Ogygia res y the state or fortune of Thebes, Stat. Theb.x. 173. ; 
Ogygiis ululata fur or ibus antra, Caves resounding with the yells of Theban bacchanals, 
74.329.; Ogygius lacchus., i. e. Thebanus, Ib. ii. 85.; Ogygida, Thebans, Ib. 586. 

f Hence Athamas,, their son-in-law, is called Gener draconum, Ovid. Ib. 349. 

Strabo 



428 



Fabulous History of Thebes, 



Strabo mentions a people in Epire ruled by the posterity of 
Cadmus, vii. 326. 

AMPHION, one of the successors of Cadmus, from his 
skill in music, is said to have moved the stones by playing on 
his lyre, and thus to have built the walls of Thebes ; for Cad- 
mus built only the citadel *, Pausan. ii. 6. ix. 5. ; Ovid. Met. vi. 
178.; Ho fat. od. iii. 1 1. 2. Art. Poet. 394. His twin-brother 
Zethus disliked music, and to gratify him Amphion discontinued 
it, Cic. Herenn. ii. 27. ; Divin. ii. 64. ; Horat. ep. i. 18.42. To 
Amphion Pliny ascribes the invention of music, vii. 56. s. 57. f 

NIOBE, the wife of Amphion* Strab. viii. 360. the daughter 
of Tantalus, king of Paphlagonia, (TantaLis, -idisy Stat. 
Theb. iv. 576. ; Ovid. Met. vi. 211.) proud of her numerous 
offspring, (for she had six sons and six daughters ; some say 
more, JEUan. xii. 36.; GelL xx. 7. %) used to slight the goddess 
Latona, who had only two children, Apollo and Diana; on 
which account they, to gratify their mother, slew at the same 
time all the children of Niobe, Apollo the sons, and Diana the 
daughters, Diodor. iv. 74.; Horat. od. iv. 6. 1. ; Juvenal, vi. 
175. Niobe, overwhelmed with grief, is said to have been 
converted into a stone, Cic. Tusc. iii. 26. She is said by Ovid 
to have been snatched by a whirlwind into her native country, 
and there to have been changed into a rock of marble, which 
exudes a moisture like tears, Ovid. Met. vi. 310. as it is sup- 
posed, on the top of mount Sipylus in Lydia ; whence she is 
called Genitrix Sipyleia, Stat. Silv.v. 1.33.; see Apollodor. iii. 
5. 6. Amphion, from grief, slew himself, Ovid. Ib. 585. 

Plautus makes Thebes the residence of Amphitruo or Amphi- 
tryon, v. -yo } the husband of Alcmena> the mother of Hercules, 
Amphit. Prol. 97. She is said to have brought forth twins with- 
out pain , the one {Hercules) begotten by Jupiter, the other 
{Iphiclusy or -es) by Amphitryo, Ib. v. 1.70. But Diodorus 
says that Hercules was born at Tiryns, a town in Argolis, and 
that his supposed father Amphitryo, being expelled from thence, 

* Hence Thebes is called, Amphionjje arces, Stat. Theb. iii. 1. 1 1$*; Tyrlone 
hac mania plectro, an Getica -venere lyra ? Have these walls been reared by the lyre of 
Amphion from Tyre, or of Orpheus from Thrace ? lb. 16. x. 873. &c. 

f Amphion and Zethus were the sons of Jupiter by Antiope, who was treated 
with great cruelty by Dirce, the wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. Her sons in revenge 
slew Lycus, and having seized Dirce, tied her to a fierce bull, that running through 
the mountains tore her to pieces, Hygin. 7. Ovid, in lbin, 538. Prcpert. iii. 15. ii» 
From her body the fountain DIRCE {font Birczus) on mount Cithajron is said to 
have sprung, Hygin.ib. 

I Ovid makes them seven : the name of one of the sons was Damasichthon, Ib. 583. 

1 1 repaired 



repaired to Thebes, after Hercules was born, and that there 
Hercules was educated, iv. 10. whence he is called by Virgil 
Amphitryoniades, jSEn. viii. 103. & 214. and Tirynthius, 
lb. vii. 662. viiL 228. also Alcides, from Alcaeus, the father 
of Amphitryo, lb. v, 414. vi. 123. ; so Horat. od. i. 12. 25. 

LAIUS, the great-grandson of Cadmus, Herodot. v. 59. hav- 
ing married JOCASTA or Epicasta, the daughter of CREON, 
Diodor. iv. 64. or the daughter of Menssceus, and sister of 
Creon, Apollodor. iii. 5:7. was informed upon consulting the 
oracle of Delphi, that if he ever had a son he should be slain 
by him. Wherefore, when his wife brought forth a male 
child, Laius, having pierced his feet with a sword, gave him 
to a servant to be exposed. But the servant, unwilling to destroy 
the child, gave him to the wife of one Polybus, by whom he 
was brought up, Strab. viii. 380. and called OEDIPUS, from 
the swelling of his feet (ex oihco, tumeo, et novs, pes). * 

When Oedipus grew up, happening to meet Laius in a, 
narrow way, and being insolently ordered by him to go out of 
the road, a scuffle ensued, in which Oedipus slew Laius, not 
knowing him to be his father. 

At this time a monster, called SPHINX, (having the face 
of a woman, the breast, feet, and tail of a lion, and the wings 
of a bird, hence called Oedipodionia ales, Stat. Theb. ii. 505.) 
infested the territory of Thebes ; proposing an senigma or 
riddle, and slaying those who could not interpret it f . The 
senigma was, What animal is it, that in the morning walks on 
four legs, at noon on two, and in the evening on three ? Oedipus 
happily solved it by answering, It is MAN ; who in infancy 
goes on all four, then walks erect, till obliged by old age to use the 
support of a staff. Upon this the Sphinx threw herself from a 
precipice and perished, Ovid. Met. vii. 760. Oedipus, accord- 
ing to the promise of Creon, who ruled after the death of 
Laius, obtained the crown and Jocasta in marriage. By her 
he had two sons, Eteocles and Polytiices, Diodor. iv. 64. Pau- 
sanius says he had no children by her, ix. 5. Being afterwards 
led by an answer of the Delphic oracle in time of a famine, to 
make inquiry into the circumstances of the death of Laius, he 

* Apollodorus says that Polybus was king of Corinth ; that Oedipus, when ex» 
posed, was found by the. shepherds of Polybus, and brought by them to Peribsea, the 
king's wife ; who having cured his feet, gave him the name of Oedipus, and brought 
him up as her own son, iii. 5. 7. ; so Hygin. 66. 

Oedipus (the son of Laius, Laiades W Laides, Ovid. Met, vii. 759.) is also 
called OedipSdes, Stat. Tbeb.l n. ii. 436. vii. 513. which word likewise denotes 
his son, lb. ii. 465. the same with Qedipodiomdes> lb, i. 313. 

f QbstUri hsos Qmbagibm »rw, nm dfdtt 7 Ovid, lb. 379. 

found 



ISO 



Fabulous History of Thebes, 



found that he himself had been the murderer of his father, and 
that he was now married to his own mother. This discovery 
proved fatal both to Oedipus and Jocasta. 

Jocasta hanged herself in despair. Oedipus tore out his own 
eyes, as unworthy to behold the light, and afterwards was 
swallowed up by an earthquake, lb. G? Stat. Tbeb. x. 698. * 

ETEOCLESf and POLYNICES % agreed to reign alternately 
each one year. But Eteocles, who from seniority reigned first, 
refused to resign the crown when his year was expired. Poly- 
nices repaired to the court of ADRASTUS, king of Argos * 
whither Tydeus, at the same time had fled for protection. 
Happening to take shelter in the same place, they first began a 
quarrelling, and then came to blows ; but were pacified by the 
intervention of Adrastus the king ; who, being struck by their 
armour and dress, resembling that which he had been foretold 
by the oracle of Apollo, should be the dress of two strangers, 
whom he was directed to choose for his sons-in-law, gave them 
his two daughters, Argia and De~iphnle> in marriage, Stat. Theb. 
ii. 203. Polynices, supported by Adrastus, attempted to obtain 
his right by force ; which gave rise to the famous Theban war, 
described by Statius in his Thebais or Thebaid. The two brothers 
fell by mutual wounds, Diodor. iv. 65. Creon resumed th 
government, till Leodamas, the son of Eteocles, should attai 
to manhood, Pausan. ix. 5. &c. None of the Argive leaders 
who were seven in number, survived, except Adrastus, wh 
escaped by the swiftness of his horse ArIon, Diodor. ib, Th 
leaders were seven in number, that there might be one t 
attack each of the seven gates of Thebes, the names of which 
are mentioned by Apollodorus §, iii. 6. 6. 

Th 

* Hygimis says, that Oedipus having deprived himself of sight, fled from Thebes 
being led by his daughter Antigona, fab. 67, {quern suajilia rexit, Ovid, Ib. 263. 
and that he afterwards slew himself, fab. 142. 

f Eteocles is called OED1PODES, Stat. Tbeb. ii. 465. Aonia moderator aul 
lb. iii. X< Agenoreus ductor, Ib.$I. Rex Ecbionius, Ib. 342. 

\ Polynices is called Dircjeus heros, from Dircc, a fountain near Thebe 
Stat. Tbeb.n. 142. iv. 74. ; see p. 304. Ismenius heros, from the river Ismenus, 
Ib. 307. Jwvenis Tbeumesius, from a mountain and plain near Thebes, called 
Tbeumesus^Ib. 33 1, whence Awa Tbeumesia et arces Agenorea, Thebes and the fields 
around, i£. 383. — also Ecb'ionins Juvenis, from his progenitor EchTon, Ib. iii. 53. 
Cadmeius beres, Ib. i. 376. iii. 366. vii. 492. Tyrius exul, Ib. 406. LabdagIUS </«*, 
from Labdacus, his great grandfather, Ib. iii. 418. or Labdacides, Ib. vi. 451. 
Oedipodtomdes, 426. Ecbiomdes, 467. Aonius exul, 505. &e. 

§ Creon forbade the dead bodies of the Argive leaders, who had fallen, to be 
buried, and appointed watches to see that his orders were not transgressed. Antigone, 
however, the only surviving daughter of Oedipus, having secretly performed the 
funeral rites of her brother Polynices, and being discovered, was, by the command of 

14 Creon, 



Eteodes. 



431 



The seven leaders were Adrastus *, Polynices, Tydeus the 
son of Oeneus (Oenldes) from Calydon in iEtolia, hence 
called Calydonius heros, Stat. Achill. i. 537.5 Theb. ii. 476. 
Proles Calydone sata, lb. v. 436. Amphiaraus the son of Oecleus 
(Oedldes) from Pylos, Capaneus and Hippomedon, the ne- 
phews of Adrastus, and Parthenopaeus, the son of Meleager 
by Atalanta, king of Arcadia, Hygin. 70. & 99. 

CAPANEUS was slain by Jupiter with a thunderbolt, for 
his impiety, Stat. Theb. iii. 602. ix. 545. ; Ovid. Met. ix. 404. ; 
Pausan. ix. 8. Euadne, the daughter of Iphis of Argos, (Iphias ;j 
-adis; Ovid. Trist. v. 14. 38.) his wife threw herself into his 
funeral pile, and perished, Ovid. Trist. iv. 63. 3. *, Virg. JEn. vi. 
447.; Propert. i. 1 5. 21. iii. 13. 24. j Stat, Theb. xii. 800. ; 
Apollodor. iii. 7. 1. Capaneus first invented the art of attacking 
towns by scaling-ladders \ and being killed by the Thebans with 
a large stone, gave occasion to the fabulous account of his 
death, Veget. iv. 2 1 . 

AMPHIARAUS, knowing from his skill in augury, that if 
he went to the war he should perish, hid himself f . But his wife 
Eriphyle, the daughter of Talaus, Ovid. Ib. 356. bribed by her 
brother Adrastus with a golden necklace set with diamonds^ 
(said to be the same which had been given to Harmonia by 
Vulcan,) discovered the place of his concealment. Being thus 
forced to the war, before he set out, he charged his son 
Alcmxon, that when he heard of his death, he should slay his 
mother j which Alcmseon accordingly did, Virg. JEn. iv. 45. \ 
Homer. Odyss.xi. 325. But after perpetrating the deed, he 
was agitated by the Furies, or the stings of a guilty conscience, 
Diodor. iv. 67.; Hygin. 73. ; Pausan, v. 17. Some say that 

Creon, buried alive, in her brother's tomb. iEmon, the son of Creon, and lover of 
Antigone, slew himself on the same tomb. Propert. ii. 8. 21. Adrastus fled te 
Athens, and implored the assistance of Theseus ; who having speedily marched to 
Thebes with a body of Athenians, inflicted on Creon the punishment which his inhu- 
man cruelty merited, Apoltodor.m. j.seep. 483. Hyginus relates some particulars of 
this story differently, 72. 

The patriotism of MONOECEUS, one of the sons of Creon, is celebrated; who 
being informed of the answer of the prophet Tiresias, that Thebes should be safe, if 
the last of the family of Cadmus submitted to a voluntary death ; supposing himself to 
be meant, fell upon his sword. Stat. Theb. x. 610. &c. Cic. Tusc. i. 48. Juvenal, x. 
14. 240. 

* ADRASTUS, king of Argos, was the son of Talaus or Talaon, Pausan, v'm. 25. 
and Eurynome ; whence he is called Talaonides, Siat. Theb. 'ii. 141. v. iS. genitus 
Talao, Ib. vi. 722. and the grandson of Iasius, or Iasus, whence he is called I asides, 
lb. i. 541. vi. 914. but lasldes, -um, pi. is also put for Argive women, Ib.\\. 254. 
from lasts -idis ; also Inacuics pater, as being descended from Inachus, Ib.199, 
Lernee ductor y Ib. iii. 348. Perseius heros, Ib. 442. &C. 

f Cicero says that he in joining Pompey imitated Amphiaraus; Ut in fabulis Am- 
phiaraus, sic ego prudens } (t sciens, ad peitern ante oculos positam, sum profectus, Cic, 
Bam. vi. 6, 

Alcmseon 



432 



Fabulous Hisiorij of Thebes* 



Alcmseon was assisted by his brother Amphilochus in murdering 
his mother, Apollodor. iii. 7. 51. Alcmseon, to make expiation 
for his crime, went to Phegeus king of Psophis in Arcadia ; 
who, having purified him by the usual ceremonies, gave him 
in marriage his daughter Arsin'de or Alphesibcea hence called 
P 11 /EG is, -idos, Ovid. Rem. Am. 455. to whom Alcmseon gave 
the fatal necklace of his mother Eriphile. Some time after, on 
account of a famine, Alcmjeon went to iEtolia ; where he fell 
in love with Callirrhoe^ the daughter of Achelous, and married 
her, whence he is called Callirrhoes vir, Ovid, in Ibin f 350. 
When she expressed an ardent desire to obtain Eriphyle's neck- 
lace, Alcmseon returned to Psophis, and procured it from 
Alphesibcea, on pretext that he intended to consecrate it to Apollo 
at Delphi. But the true reason of his request being discovered 
by his servant, he was slain by the sons of Phegeus to revenge 
the injury done to their sister, Apollodor. iii. 7. * Thus the 
criminal conduct of Eriphile caused the destruction of the 
family of Amphiaraus, Horat. od. iii. 16. 12. who himself 
perished by an earthquake, Pausan. ix. 8. ; see p. 302. 

But these events happened after the second expedition against 
Thebes, which took place ten years after the former, Apol- 
lodor. iii. 7. 5. 

The sons of these seven leaders, called Epigoni, (i. e. posteri) 
to avenge the death of their fathers, resumed the war under 
Alcmason, the son of Amphiaraus. Pausanias says, under 
Thersander the son of Polynices, ix. 9. Having led an army 
into Bceotia, they took Thebes, and placed Thersander on the 
throne. Laodamas fled into Illyricum, Pausan. ix. 5. 

The seven leaders of the Epigoni were Alcmaeon and Am- 
philochus the sons of Amphiaraus, iEgialeus the son of 
Adrastus, Diomedes the son of Tydeus, {Tydldes,) Promachus 
the son of Parthenopseus, Sthenelus the son of Capaneus, and 
Thersander the son of Polynices, Apollodor. iii. 7. 2. The account 
of Hyginus is different, fab. 71. Several of these afterwards 
went with Agamemnon to the war against Troy. See p. 414. 

XANTHUS was the last king of Thebes, who making war 
on the Athenians, was slain in single combat by Melanthus, 
afterwards king of Athens, lb. ii. 18. The regal government 
lasted at Thebes three hundred years. After this a republican 
government was established, which continued till the destruction 
of that city. 

* But Alphesibrea was so far from being pleased at this, that she is said to have killed 
her brothers, Propert. i, 15. JJ. Hyginus says that Alcmaeon was killed by Phegeus 
himself, /. 

OENEUS 



Oeneus. 



433 



OENEUS, the son of Parthaon, (Stat. Theb. ii. 726.) was 
one of the most ancient kings of ^Etolia. He reigned at Caly- 
don. Oeneus having, in an annual sacrifice to all the gods, 
neglected Diana, that goddess sent a dreadful boar, of huge 
size, which laid waste the country ; whence Calydon is said to 
have been given up by Jupiter to the resentment of Diana, 
Virg.JEn, vii. 306. This animal was so pernicious, that many 
of the neighbouring princes assembled to destroy him. The 
hunting of the wild boar of Calydon is famous in fable. At 
last he was killed by Meleager, the son of Oeneus, (Oenides, 
Ovid. ep. iv. 99. Met. viii. 414.) Stat. Theb. ii. 475. 481. by 
Althaea, the daughter of Thestius, (Thestias, adis,) Ovid. 
Met. viii. 452. who gave the skin and head to Atalanta^ the 
daughter of Schanetis, (Sch^neia virgo, Ovid. Trist. ii. 399. 
Schoeneia*, Met.x.689.) who had first wounded him, Pausan. 
viii. 45. Toxeus and Plexippus, the sons of Thestius, {Thes- 
tiada,) and uncles to Meleager, attempting to rob Atalanta of 
her present, were slain by Meleager., Althsea, informed of the 
success of her son, was going to the temple to thank the gods 
for his victory, when she met those who carried the dead 
bodies of her brothers, who, she was told, had been killed by 
Meleager. Whereupon she threw into the fire a log of wood 

* Some make Atalanta the daughter of Iasu s, or Iaslus^ or lasion of Arcadia , 
Milan, xiii. I. whence she is called Iasis, Propert.\. I. 10. Tegoeea, Ovid. Met* 
viii. 317. & 380. Nonacrlna Atalanta, Id. Art. am. ii. 185. and Manalla Atah.nta, 
Ep. i v. 99. Others suppose two different persons of the same name, Perison. in Milan. 
and Bernart. In Stat. Theb. iv. 246. Atalanta was as remarkable for her swiftness in 
running as for her beauty. She requested of her father that she might be permitted 
to live unmarried. When a great number asked her, to free herself from their impor- 
tunity, she proposed to determine the matter by running. Her lovers were to start 
first and run without arms, she was to follow with a dart. She promised to marry the 
man that vanquished her, but such as she overtook she was to slay. Several thus lost 
their lives. At last she was conquered by Hippomenes, the son of Magareus, Ovid. 
Met. x. 605. or Macareus, and grandson of Neptune, by means of three golden apples, 
which Venus brought him from the garden of the Hesperldes, or from a grove in 
Cyprus, Ovid. Met. x. 644. These apples Hippomenes threw down one after another 
in different parts of the race ; and while Atalanta, struck with their beauty, (whence 
Virgil thus describes her ; Turn canit Hesperidum miratam mala puellam, Eel. vi. 6 1.) 
gathered them up, Bum capta est pomls tardlor ilia t rebus, Ovid. Ib. 374. he reached 
the goal, Hygin. 185. Atalanta had a son called Parthenopoeus, by Hippomenes ; 
some say by Meleager, Hygin. 99. and others by Melanion, Apollodor. hi. 9. a. 
Authors differ about the name of her husband, as about other particulars, Ib. Ovid 
usually calls him Hippomenes, Met. x. 575. (tfc, sometimes also Milanion ; as Art. 
am. ii. 188. So Servius on Virgil, JEn. vi. 480. Parthenopceus is commonly sup- 
posed to have been brought forth by Atalanta before her marriage ; whence his name 
(from vrczpS-ivoi, virgo.) See Stat. Theb. iv. 246. &c. Hippomenes, having failed to 
acknowledge his obligation to Venus, was by her inspired with so impatient a fondness 
for his wife, while they were sacrificing to Jupiter in his temple on Parnassus, that he 
gratified his passion in that place; on which account Jupiter is said to have turned him 
into a lion, and Atalanta into a lioness, Hygin. 185. Apollodor. Ib. Ovid says this 
happened in the temple of Cybele, Met. x. 689. Ib. 459. Pausanias mentions a place 
nearScHOENtrs in Arcadia, which in his time was called the course of Atalanta, 
&po{Aot 'Aru?.Kvr>is,) viii. 35, 

F f on 



434? Fabulous History of Mtolia. 



on which the life of her son depended, Ovid. ep. iii. 93. The 
Fates who had been present at his birth, in predicting hifrfuture 
greatness, among other things declared, that he should live as 
long as the firebrand, then burning, remained unconsumed j 
hence he was said to be fatali vivus in igtie, Ovid. ep. ix. 156. 
Althaea, upon hearing this, instantly snatched the stick from 
the flames, and kept it till this time with the greatest care. 
Mel eager expired as soon as it was consumed, Ovid, in Ibin> 
603. Althaea was so affected with the thoughts of what she 
had done, that she slew herself, Hygin. 172. & 174.; Ovid. 
Met. viii. 270. &C. : Diodor. iv. 34. His sisters, lamenting 
his death, were changed into birds, Ovid. Met. viii. 534.; Stat. 
Theb. iv. 103. called Meleagrides, supposed to be Guinea- 
hens, Plin. x. 26. s. 38. gallina Africans. Varro> de re 
rust. iii. 9. 18. ; Columell. viii. 2. 

After the death of Althaea *, Oeneus married Peribaa, who 
was the mother of Tydeus, Apollodor. ii. 8. 4. 

TYDEUS, when he grew up to manhood, having accident- 
ally slain Menalippus his brother while hunting, Hygin. 69. or 
some other person, Apollodor. i. 8. 5. fled to Adrastus, king of 
Argos, who gave him Deipffle, one of his two daughters, in 
marriage. Tydeus being sent as an ambassador to Thebes, to 
demand that Eteocles would resign the crown to Polynices, 
who had married Argla the elder daughter of Adrastus, ac- 
cording to agreement, see p. 430. upon receiving a refusal 
challenged all the Thebans present, to single combat, and 
defeated them. To revenge this disgrace, fifty of them lay in 
ambush for him in his way home ; but Tydeus slew them all 
except one called Mjeon, Stat. Theb. iii. 404. the son of Hamon, 
(Harnonides,) lb. 42. whom he sent to carry to Eteocles the 
tidings of the slaughter of his companions, Homer. II. iv. 384. 
— 398. Diodor. iv. 65. ; Stat. Theb. iii. 482. — ad. Jin. Tydeus 
afterwards joined Adrastus in the war against Thebes ; in 
which, after performing the bravest exploits, he was slain by 
one Menalippus, the son of Astacus, (Astacides,) f a Theban, 
Apollodor. 1. 8. 6. Stat. Theb. viii. 719. 

In the mean time, Oeneus was expelled from the throne by 
his brother Agrius, Ovid. ep. ix. 153. but was afterwards re- 

* Althjen bore several other children to Oeneus; among the rest Dejanira, who 
afterwards married Hercules. Althaea is said to have been the daughter of Bacchus, 
who communicated first to Oeneus the use of the vine, Apollodor. i. 8. I.; Hygin. 129. 
and from Oeneus the Greek name of wine (oivos) is said to have been derived, lb. 

■f Tydeus is called Acbeloius ieros, from Achelous, a river of iEtolia, Stat. Theb. ii. 
14a. viii. 5^3. and Adrastus Inacbius, from Inachus, a river of Argolis, lb. 145.— 
Tydeus when mortally wounded is said to have caused the head of Menalippus, who 
was also slain, to be brought to him, and having torn out the brains, he greedily de- 
voured them. Ovid. Ib. 430. & 517. Stat, Theb. viii. 761. 

stored 



Prometheus and Deucalion, 



435 



stored by Diomedes, his grandson, whereupon Agr'ius slew 
himself, Hygin. 175. 

Diomedes, called also Oenides from his grandfather, Ovid. 
Met. xiv. 512. ; Stat. Achill. ii. 372. was one of the bravest of 
the Grecian chiefs in the Trojan war. His exploits will be re- 
lated hereafter. 

VII. Fabulous History of THESSALY. 

THESSALY in ancient times was divided into different 
kingdoms. 

The most ancient king is said to have been DEUCALION, 
the son of Prometheus, {Promethldes^ -da 9 ) who married PYR- 
RHA, the daughter of Epimetheus, (Eptmethis t -tdis^) the 
brother of Prometheus ; hence called by Deucalion, his wife 
and sister, or cousin-german ; which soror sometimes signifies, 
Ovid. Met. i. 351. 

PROMETHEUS was the son of Japetus,( Japeti genus, Horat. 
od. i. 3. 27.) He is said to have made a man of clay, Ovid. 
Met. 1. 82. ; Hygin. 142. and to have put in him a particle taken 
from every other animal ; timidity from the hare, cunning from 
the fox, rage from the lion, &c. Acron. in Horat. od. i. 16. 13; 
Having ascended to heaven by the assistance of Minerva, he 
stole fire from the chariot of the sun, by applying to it the 
end of a small rod, (ferula^) which he carried in his hand. 
"With this fire he animated his man of clay, Serv. in Virg. ecL 
vi. 42.5 Fulgent, ii. 9.; Hygin. 144. Jupiter, provoked at such 
artifice and impiety, ordered Vulcan to make a woman of clay, 
which Minerva animated, and the other gods and goddesses 
gave her each their proper gifts ; Venus, beauty ; Apollo, 
music ; Mercury, eloquence, &c. whence she was called Pan- 
dora, (i. e. omne donum, vel ah omnibus donata,) Hygin. 142. 
Jupiter gave her a beautiful box, which she was to give to the 
man that married her. She was first sent with it to Prome- 
theus ; but he, suspecting some hidden mischief, refused it. 
She then went with it to Epimetheus, who was not so cautious; 
but took the box and opened it; and from thence flew all those 
diseases and plagues which have since infested the human race. 
Hope alone remained at the bottom. Pandora is said to have 
been the first woman, Pausan. i. 24. she was the mother of 

Pyrrha : Strabo says of Deucalion, vs.. fin. Prometheus, for 

his impiety, was chained to a rock on mount Caucasus, where 
an eagle (some say a vulture) * continually preyed on his liver, 
Serv. ibid. But he is said to have been loosed from it a thou- 

* Hence Virgil speaking of this story uses the plural number, Caucasiasque refert 
volucres,furtumque Promtbei, Eel. vl 42. 

Ff 2 sand 



435 



Fabulous History of Thessaly. 



sand years after, by Hercules, Strab. xi. 505. xv. 688. ; Apol- 
/odor. i. 7. I. who slew the eagle, Pausan. v. II. ; Hesiod. 

Theog* 521. &c. Juvenal humorously uses Prometheus for 

a skilful potter, iv. 133. 

Under DEUCALION happened a great inundation in Thes- 
saly, Pausan. 1. 1 8. x. 6. Apotlodor. 1.7.2. which Ovid describes 
as a general deluge, that covered the whole earth, sent by the 
wrath of Jupiter to punish the wickedness of men, Met. i. 240. 
& 260. Deucalion and Pyrrha alone, of the whole human 
race, were preserved, lb. 325. on the top of mount Parnassus, 
which was the only place not covered by the water,. Lucan. v. 
75. The'y consulted the oracle of Themis how they could repair 
the loss. An answer was returned, That they should throw 
behind their backs the bones of their great mother, i. e. stones. 
They did so ; and to their amazement, the stones thrown by 
Deucalion became men, and those by Pyrrha women, lb. 412. 
Thence, says Ovid, we are a hardy race, and shew from what 
origin we are sprung, lb. Apollodorus derives \ctos populus, 
from Kctots, lapis, i. 7. 2. — From Hellen, the son of Deucalion, 
Greece was called Hellas, -adis, and the Greeks Hellenes, Strab. 
viii. 383. ix. 432. But about this there was some dispute, lb. 
viii. 370. From what is said of the posterity of Deucalion, 
he appears to have lived at a later period than we should ima- 
gine from the accounts of the poets, Pausan. v. 8. There is 
another deluge supposed to have happened in Attica long be- 
fore that of Deucalion, under Ogyges, the son of Terra, (2>r- 
rigena,) king of Thebes or Bceotia, Varr. de re Rust. Hi. prol. ; 
August in. de civ. Dei, xviii. 8. whence Deus Ogygius, Bacchus, 
Ovid. ep. x. 48. Ogygius Ly^us, Lucan. i. 670. Ogygida, the 
Thebans, Stat. Theb. ii. 586. 

Thessaly was the scene of the battle of the giants (giganto- 
machia) against Jupiter. The giants were sons of Terra 
(q, yYiysvhg) and Ccelus, or Tartarus, Hygin. 1.; Apollodor. i. 6. 
I. {Telluris Juvenes, Horat. od. ii. 12. 7.) of enormous size, 
{minaci statu, Horat. od. iii. 4. 54.) with serpentine feet (ser- 
pentipedes, Ovid. Trist. iv. 7. 17.) Ovid says, they had snakes 
instead of feet, (pro pedibus angues,) Fast. v. 37. So Lucan, 
st antes serpent e gigantes, ix. 656. They tried to get up to 
heaven by piling mountains upon mountains ; Ossa upon 
Pelion, and Pelion upon Olympus, lb. & Virg. G. i. 281. 
(Homer says, Ossa on Olympus, and Pelion on Ossa, Odyss. 
xi. 314.) and armed themselves with trunks of trees torn up 
by the roots. Jupiter himself is said to have been struck with 
terror, and the other gods to have assisted him in the con- 
flict, Horat. ib. & od. ii. 19. 21. The giants were at last 
defeated, and Jupiter drove them with his thunderbolts to Tar- 
13 tarus. 



The Giants, and their Battle mth Jupiter, 



437 



tarus. Some of them were buried under burning mountains, 
Ovid. Met. i. 151. &c. j Virg. JEn. iii. 578. vi. 580. Horat. 
ib. 73. 

The chief of these giants were, — Othos and Ephialtes, 
the sons of Aldeus, (Aiozda, Virg. ib.) who grew nine inches 
every month, Hygin. 28. — Typh5eus, whose body equalled 
the extent of Sicily, Ovid. Met. v. 346. &c. From him iEtna 
is called Typhois, -idis, Ovid. ep. xv. 11. — J£g;eon, with an 
hundred arms and fifty heads, Virg. JEn. x. 566. called also 
Briareus, [centum geminus,) Ib. vi. 287. — Tityos, who wished 
to seduce Latona, (incontinent,) Horat. od. iii. 4. 77.; Virg. 
iEn. vi. 595. whose body extended over nine acres, and whose 
liver a vulture perpetually pounced, Ib. ; Ovid. Pont. i. 2. 41. 
— Mimas, Porphyrion, Rhoetus or Rh^cus, Gyges or 
Gyas, (centimanus, Horat. od. ib. & ii. 17. 14.; CiEUS*, Ence- 
ladus, placed under iEtna, Virg. JEn. iii. 578. &c. 

The place where the giants fought, was called Phlegra, or 
the Phlegrean plains, Campi Phlegmi, Ovid. Met. x. 15 1. 5 
Propert. iii. 11.37. also Phlegrtea Juga*, Ib. 9. 48. which some 
place in Thessaly, some in Thrace, as Statius, Theb. ii. 595. 
and some in Macedonia, in the peninsula of Pallene, anciently 
called Phlegra, Herodot. vii. 123. hence triumphi Pa/Ienai, 
the triumph over the giants, Stat. Silv. iv. 2. 56. But Strabo, 
v. 243. & vi. 281.; Polybius, iii. 91.; Diodorus, iv. 21. j 
Pliny, iii. 5.; and Silius Italicus, xii. 143. place them in Cam- 
pania, see p. 152. where the three last-mentioned authors speak 
of Hercules vanquishing the giants, without any mention of 
Jupiter or the other gods, f 

The battle of the Titans against the gods is sometimes con- 
founded with that of the giants : but the former was against 
Saturn, and the latter against Jupiter, Serv. in Virg. JEn. vi. 
580. They were both the offspring of Ccelus and Terra ; and 
are said to have been produced by the earth, from resentment 
against the gods (ird irritata deorum%, Virg. iEn. iii. 178.) 
The Titans made war against Saturn, for taking the kingdom 
from their father Ccelus, to whom, as being the elder brother, 

• Hence tumoltus Phlegrjei, the battle of the giants, Id. ii. 1. 39. Pr^lia, 
Stat. Silv. v. 3. 196. ; Theb. x. 909. xi. 7. CASTRA, Id. Achill. i. 484. bostes Pblegrai t 
the giants, Senec. Tbyest. 808. 

f The most dreadful of all the giants is said to have been Typhon, produced by 
Terra and Tartarus after the destruction of the other giants. He had an hundred 
heads of dragons. The gods are said to have been so affrighted at his enormous bulk 
and strength, that they fled into Egypt, and several of them, for the sake of conceal- 
ment, converted themselves into beasts of various forms. But Jupiter vanquished 
Typhon with his thunderbolts, and laid him below Mount jffitna, Apollodor. i. 6. 3. ; 
Hyg} n < I 51- some confound Typhon with Typhosus above mentioned. Thus Ovid. 
Met. Y. 3*1.— 340. 

I Whence the name of Titartes, (AVo rns rmus, i. e. ab ultione,) Serv. Hid. 

Ff 3 it 



438 Fabulous History of Thessaly. 



it justly belonged; and the giants against Jupiter, for confining 
their brothers the Titans to Tartarus. * 

PHLEGYAS, the son of Mars, was king of the Lapitha> a 
people of Thessaly, whose capital was Pelethronium, where the 
use of the bit was invented, Serv. in. Virg. G, iii. 1 15. Pliny 
says, this invention was made by one Pelethronius, vii. 56. 
Phlegyas was one of the greatest warriors of his time. His 
daughter Caroms was mother to iEsculapius by Apollo, Pausan. 
ii. 9. To avenge this indignity Phlegyas burnt the temple of 
Delphi. On which account he was slain by Apollo ; and 
placed in Tartarus, under a hollow rock, with meat before him, 
which he was prevented from tasting, by a constant terror lest 
the rock should fall on him, Stat. Theb. i. 713. He with a 
loud voice admonished all to practise justice, and reverence re- 
ligion. Virg. JEn. vi. 618. 

IXION was the son of Phlegyas. Being raised to heaven, 
he attempted to seduce Juno; but she having informed Jupiter 
of the matter, at his desire, substituted a cloud in her place ; 
whence the Centaurs are said to have been produced, Serv. in 
Virg. JEn. vi. 286. Diodorus makes Jupiter to substitute the 
cloud, iv. 69. Ixion, however, had the presumption to boast of 
too great familiarity with Juno. On which account he was struck 
with thunder to hell, and by the order of Jupiter tied by Mercury 
to a wheel, with twisted snakes, Serv. ad Virg. G. llu 38. which 
continually whirls round, Hygin. 62. (Volvitur Ixion; eisesequi- 
turque 9 fogitque,) Ovid. Met. iv. 461. ; Virg. G. iv. 484.1 

Pirithous, the friend of Theseus, was the son of Ixion, 
(Ixzomdes,) Ovid. Met. viii. 566. or of Jupiter, by the wife of 
Ixion, Homer, II. xiv. 318. hence said to be sprung from the 
gods, Virg. JEn. vi. 394. 

The CENTAURS are said to have been half men and half 
horses, hence called bimembres or biformes, and nubigen^, 
from the story of their birth, Virg. JEn. viii. 293. also Semi- 
homines, Ovid. Met. xii. 536.; Semiviri, Id. ep. ix. 141.; 
and Semiferi, i. e. Semiequiy Lucan. vi. 386. ; also Ossai 

* The Titans are supposed to be called genus antiquum Terra, to distinguish them 
from the giants, who were produced afterwards, Vitg. JEn. vi. 580. So Cicero, de 
nat. D. ii. 28. Japetus, the father of Prometheus, was one of the Titans ; hence he 
is called Titan, Juvenal, xiv. 34. and Pyrrha, his grand-daughter, Titania, Ovid. 
Met. i. 395. So Hyperion, the father of Sol and of the stars; whence the Sun is 
called Titan, Cic. in Orat. 60. ; Virg. JEn. iv. 119. Ovid. Met. i. 10. ii. 118. vi. 438. 
x. 79. & 174. xi. 257. and Diana or the Moon, Titania, lb. iii. 173. vi. 346. 
xiv. 438. or Titanis, Stat. Tbeb. i. 337. So Titania astra, Virg. JEn. vi.625. 
and as Sol is put for dies, Horat. od. iv. 1. 26. Virg. JEn. iii. 203. so luctificus Titan, 
the dismal day of the battle of Pharsalia, or the sun which ushered it in, Lucan. vii. 1. 
Juvenal, by a metonymy, puts Titanis fugna for the Titans who fought, viii. 13a. 

f Hence Hasit non stabilis rata, the wheel stopt, which never before used to stand 
still, Senec. Htrc. Oet. 1069. 

1 2 bimembres, 



The Centaurs* 



439 



bimembres, from the place of their abode, Stat. Theb. xii. 554. 
The fable of their figure is supposed to have arisen from their 
being the first that fought on horseback, Plin. vii. 56. when the 
rider and his horse might be taken for one and the same being, 
as the Spanish cavalry at first were by the Mexicans. * 

The chief Centaurs mentioned by Virgil were, f Hyl^eus 
and Pholus, viii. 293. a great number are recounted by Ovid, 
Met. xii. 220. &c. The most renowned of the Centaurs was 
CHIRON, the son of Saturn and Philyra, hence called Phily- 
rtdesy Virg. G. iii. 550. remarkable for his knowledge of 
medicine, music, and shooting ; also for his justice and piety, 
Plin. vii. 56. *, Hygtn. 274. ; Poet. Astron. ii. 38. ; Diodor. iv. 
12- and in that respect different from the other Centaurs, Stat. 
Achil. i. in. — the nurse and preceptor of Achilles, lb. 116. 
& 477. •, Pausan. iii. 18. v. 19. ix. 31. of iEsculapius, Ovid. 
Met. ii. 630. and of Hercules. Being accidentally wounded 
by one of the arrows of Hercules, he prayed to be deprived of 
immortality, and was converted into the constellation Sagit- 
tarius. The bloody cdntest between the Centaurs and 

Lapithse, assisted by Theseus, at the marriage of Pirithous, the 
son of Ixion, and Hippodomla, the daughter of Adrastus, in 
which the Centaurs were utterly routed, and almost totally de- 
stroyed, is - described at great length by Ovid, Met. xii. 210. 

536. alluded to, Horat. od. i. 18. 8. ii. 12. 5.; Virg. G. ii. 

455. 5 5/7. iii. 41.; Propert. ii. 6.17. & ii. 33. 34.; Stat. Theb. v, 
261. & vi. 535. Id. Achill i. Hi. 

JASON and the ARGONAUTS. 

Of all the stories recorded in fabulous history, none is more 
celebrated than the expedition of the ARGONAUTS under 
JASON, the son of ^Eson, {Jason JEsomdes,) king of Iolcos, and 
Alcimede. After his father's death J, PELIAS, his uncle, the 
son of Neptune and the nymph Tyro, the daughter of king 
Salmoneus, usurped the crown. Pelias at first reigned in con- 
junction with his brother Neleus 5 but after his expulsion 

* The first Centaurs therefore were probably so named from their being xtvrepss 
i. e. stimidatores equorum, as Homer expresses it, //. v. 102. Hippocentauri, 
Cit. N. D. i. 38. ii. 2.; so Serv. in Virg. G. iii. 115.; Lucret. iv. 743. Some make 
the Hippocentauri the offspring of the Centaurs, Diodor. iv. 70. Pliny mentions his 
having seen an animal of this kind, vih 3. but Lucretius denies their existence, v. 876. 
888. ; so Cicero, Ibid. Iff Div. ii. ai.; Tusc. i. 37. 

f HyUeus is called by Horace Nimius mero, an immoderate drinker, Od. ii. ia. 5. 
so Virg. G. ii. 557. 

f Ovid represents iEson, the father of Jason, as alive at the return of Jason from 
Colchis, Met. vii. 292. contrary to the account of others. 

F f 4 ruled 



440 Fabulous History of Thessaly* 

ruled alone, NELEUS fled to Messenia, where he built 
Pylos, Pausan. iv. 2. 

Jason was educated under the Centaur CHIRON. When 
he grew up to manhood, he came to demand the crown as his 
right. Pelias had been warned by an oracle to beware of a 
man with one foot shod and the other bare (monocrepis, i. e. 
uno pede calceatus). Jason, by some accident, happened to ap- 
pear in this garb, Hygin. 13. Pelias, to divert his immediate 
claim, proposed that he should go and fetch the golden fleece 
from Colchis, and promised to resign the kingdom to him upon 
his return. — — This famous fleece had been the fleece of a ram, 

said to have been the son of Neptune and Theophane. When 

PHRYXUS and his sister HELLE, the children of Athamas, 
king of Thebes, and Nephele or Nebula^ were obliged to fly 
from that city to escape the cruelty of their step-mother INO, 
the daughter of Cadmus, whom Atharnas, after divorcing their 
mother, married, Nephele brought to them this ram, and bid 
them get on his back and make for Colchis to king ^Eetes, the 
son of Sol, and there sacrifice the ram to Mars. It seems the 
ram carried them through the air •, and Helle, turning giddy, 
fell from him, and was drowned in that strait called afterwards 
from her Hellespontus, or the sea of Helle, Ovid. ep. xix. 
123. & 164.; Virginls jequor, Ovid. ep. xviii. 117.; Atha- 
fnanttdos aquor-a, ib. 137.; Amissd locus infamis ab Helle, ib. 
141.; Phryxi semita, Stat. AchilL i. 409. Augustus Pontus 
Nepheleidos Helles, Ovid. Met. xi. 195. Phryxus brought the 
ram to Colchis. There, according to the directions of his 
mother, he sacrificed him to Mars, and suspended his golden 
fleece in the temple of that god, where it was continually- 
guarded by bulls that breathed fire, and a dragon that never 
slept, Hygin. 3. The ram was translated into the constellation 
ARIES, hence called delapsa portitor Helles, Lucan. iv. 57. 
and from Nephele, the mother of Helle, Pecus Nephel^eum, 
Valer. Argon, i. 56. 

^Eetes or .zEeta at first treated Phryxus with kindness, and 
gave him his daughter Chalciope in marriage 5 but afterwards 
killed him for the sake of the fleece ; having been told by an 
oracle that he should enjoy the kingdom as long as the golden 
fleece should remain in the temple of Mars, Hygin. 22. 

The most illustrious young men in Greece, (semidei 
reges, Stat. Achill. ii. 363.) joined in the expedition of Jason; 
Hercules > Theseus, and Piritki6us 3 Castor and Pollux 3 Orpheus 
from Thrace i Caneus, Mopsus ; Peleus and Telamon ; Clytius 
and Iphttus ; Lynceus and Idas ; Meleager, Philoctetes, Tiphys 9 
the pilot, Ovid, ep, iv. 48. ; JEsculapius, the physician, &c. 

These 



Jason and the Argonauts* 



44! 



These were called ARGONAUTS, Horat. epod. iii. 9. from 
the ship in which they sailed, named ARGO, from Argus, 
the son of Danaus, the builder of it, Hygin. 14, or MINY^Ej, 
Herodot. iv. 145. Ovid. Met. vii. 1. 115. & 120. ep. vi. 47. 
because Jason's mother was the daughter of Clime ne, the 
daughter of Minyas, king of Thessaly: but about this authors 
differ, Hygin. 14.; Serv. in Virg. Eel. iv. 34.; Lactant. in Stat. 
Jheb. iii. 5 1 6. v. 3 37. The ship was built of pines cut on mount 
Pelion, Cic. Cah 8. 5 Catull. 62. 1. hence called Pinus Pelia, 
Stat, ib, 336 j arbor Pelias, -adis> Ovid. ep. xii. 8. near the 
town Pegasa, v. whence Pegas^ea Puppis, Ovid. Met. vii. 

1.; Pegas.eus I ason, Ovid, ep. xix. 175. in the country of 
Magnesia, whence Argo Magnetis, -idis, Ib. xii. 9. also pup- 
pis PLemonia vel JEmonia, i. e. Thessala, a rege Hamone, Ovid. 
Art. Am. i. 6. Amor. iii. 15. 6. by the assistance of Minerva, 
(curd pugnacis facta Minerva,) Ovid. Trist. iii. 9. 7. hence 
called Palladia ratis, Ovid, in Bide, 266. Tritonis pinus, 
Id. ep. vi. 46. This is said to have been the first ship that ever 
sailed on the sea, Lucan. iii. 193. 

Jason stopped at several places by the way; first in Lemnos, 
the women of which (Lemniades) had slain all the men in the 
island, except their queen Hipsipyle, who had preserved her 
father Thoas. They did this out of revenge for being aban- 
doned by their husbands, to whom their breath had been ren« 
dered offensive by the wrath of Venus, whose worship they 
had neglected. Here the Argonauts remained two years. 
Hipsipyle had twins by Jason, and the other women had chil- 
dren by the rest, Jlomer. II. vu.jin s Ovid. ep. vi. ; Lactant. in 
Theb. v. 29. 59. &c. 

The Argonauts went to consult PHINEUS, the son of 
Agenor or Neptune, king of Thrace ; some say of Arcadia, 
Lactant. in Stat. Theb. viii. 255. famous for his skill in augury, 
about their voyage. This king having, at the instigation of 
his wife, put out the eyes of two sons he had by a former 
marriage, (Polydector and Polydorus, called duo Phimda, Ovid. 
Ib. 273.) was himself punished with the loss of sight, by the 
wrath of Jupiter, Ovid. Art. i. 339 : who also sent a kind of 
ravenous birds, called Harpies, (HARPYIiE, ab agTrctoo, vel 
etpwufa, rapio ; or Canes Jovis, quia ipsa furia esse dicebantur y 
Serv. in Virg. J£n. iii. 109.) to torture him, by polluting or 
carrying away his food. Phineus agreed to advise the Argo- 
nauts about their voyage, if they would remove this plague. 
Two of them were employed for that purpose, Zetes or Zethes, 
and Calais, the sons of Boreas and Orythyla, the daughter of 
Erechtheus, king of Athens, Ovid. Met. vi. 712. &c. who are 



Fabulous History of Thessaty, 



said to have had wings on their head and feet, Ib. The Harpies 
being chased away by them from the house of Phineus, {Phineia 
postquam clausa domus,) Virg, ib. 212. fled to the islands called 
Strophades, where iEneas found them. Phineus now in- 
structed the Argonauts how to sail past two islands in the 
mouth of the Pontus Euxinus, the one on the European, and 
the other on the Asiatic side; (called Insula Cyane^e, Mel. ii. 

7. or Cyanei monies, Stat. Theb. xi. 438. and Symplegades, be- 
cause they were said sometimes to meet together *) by following 
the flight of a pigeon, Ovid, in Ibide, 267. Propert. iii. 22. 13. 

Jason having entered the Euxine sea, and sailed past the 
Symplegades, found in the island Dia the children of Phryxus, 
who had been wrecked there in their way to their grandfather 
Athamas. Jason took them up and carried them with him to 
Colchis, (Colchis, tdis 9 ) called also Colchi, Ovid. ep. xii. 23. 
and Colchos, Horat. epod. v. 21. but the best editors here read 
Iolchos. By their advice he landed his ship in a retired place. 
They went before and related the kindness of Jason, to ChaU 
ti6pe their mother, who introduced him to her sister Medea, the 
daughter of -ZEetes, (JEetias, -adis-f,) who fell in love with him. 

The conditions to which Jason was obliged to submit before 
he could obtain the golden fleece seemed in a manner im- 
possible. He had to force to the yoke the brazen footed bulls, 
whose nostrils breathed flames, and to plough with them a field 
sacred to Mars, never before tilled : then he had to kill the 
dragon J, which guarded the fleece, and never slept : and last 
of aH to sow in the ground which he had tilled the teeth of this 
dragon, which should spring up into armed men, ready to 
attack him. All this was to be performed in presence of 
JEetes and the Colchians. The destruction of Jason appeared 
inevitable. But by the assistance of Medea he came off suc- 
cessful. By her magic herbs, {cantatis herbis 9 Ovid. Met. vii. 

08. ) she rendered him invulnerable against the breath of the 
bulls : by throwing a stone, according to her directions, among 
the armed men which rose from the serpent's teeth §, they were 
turned against one another, so that they fell by mutual slaughter. 
The dragon was lulled asleep by a certain juice. Jason seized 

* (Mediis CON currere in undis,) Ovid. Met. vii. 63.; Strab. iii. 149. ; Plin.iv. 
13.; Stat. v. 347. ; Ovid. Met.xv. 338.^. xii. 121.; Hygin. 19.; Senec. Med. ii. 342. 
hence concurrentia saxa Cyanes, Juvenal, xv. 19. comprcssi Symplegades, Ovid, 
ip. xii. 121. eonctirrentes cautes, Id. Amor. ii. 11. 3. 

f By Idya, the daughter of Oceanus; Cic. Nat. D. iii. 18. called also Colchis, 
-idis, Ovid. Met. vii. 331. & 348. and Phasias, -adis, from the river Phasis, Id. Art* 
Am. ii. 103. or Phasis, /</«, Id. ep. xix. 176. Phasias ./Eetine, Ib. vi. 103. 

f Called PoNTlCUS SERPENS, Juvenal, xiv. 114. 

§ {Jnsomni dente creati Terrigena:, Lucan. iv. 552.) 

the 



Jason and the Argonauts, 



the golden fleece, and returned in triumph to his native coun- 
try ; accompanied by Medea, whom he afterwards married 
according to promise, Ovid. Met. vii. ep. vi. & xii. Medea 
carried along with her ABSYRTUS, v. -tes, her brother, a boy; 
whom, when she heard that her father was in pursuit of her, 
she tore in pieces, and threw down his members in different 
places by the way, at a distance from one another ; that while 
iEetes gathered the scattered limbs of his child, she might 
make her escape. * 

The return of Jason to Thessaly (ad Hemonias urbes) was 
celebrated with the greatest joy. The ship Argo was changed 
into a star, Stat. Ach. ii. 363. The fleece was suspended in 
the temple of the gods, [ad patriot deos,) in the city of Iolchos, 
Ovid. Met. vii. 158. ep. xii. 128. His father iESON, enfee- 
bled witrfage, could not be present at the solemnity; but by the 
magic power of Medea he was restored to youth again, Ovid. 
Met. vii. 292. The daughters of Pelias, (Peliades,) seeing the 
wonderful effects of her charms and herbs, entreated her to per- 
form the same service to their father. She, wishing to avenge 
the injuries done by Pelias to Jason, gave them hopes that she 
would effect what they desired. And to convince them still 
more of her power, she took an old ram, and having cut him 
to pieces, boiled these in a kettle ; whence in a short time, to 
their astonishment, sprung out a lamb. The daughters of 
Pelias were persuaded by her to do the same to their father, 
lb. 322. &c. Thus Pelias perished by a wretched death, 
Pausan. viii. 11.; Hygin. 24.; Cic. Sen. 23. Diodorus relates 
this, as well as other particulars concerning Medea, in a differ- 
ent manner, iv. 5 1 . &c. This action obliged Jason and Medea 
to leave Iolchos : whereupon Acasto, v. -us, the son of Pelias, 
succeeded to the crown. 

Jason and Medea retired to Corinth, where they lived in 
great harmony for ten years. But Jason, being captivated by 
Glauce or Creusa, the daughter of Creon, the son of Sisy- 
phus, the king of that place, divorced Medea, and married 
Creusa, (Creusa Ephyraa, i. e. Corinthiaca,) Ovid. Art. Am. i. 
335. Medea, in revenge, slew the sons she had by Jason 
in his presence ; then set fire to the "palace, and burnt Creusa, 
together with Creon and Jason, Hygin, 25. ; Pausan. ii. 3. 
Some say that the two sons of Jason were slain by the Corin- 
thians ; and that they afterwards gave Euripides five talents to 

* Ovid. Trist. iii. 9.; Ib. 437. Cic. Nat. D. ill. 19. & 26. Manil. 9. Justin calls 
the son of ./Eetes JEgialeus or JEgialius, xl. ii. 3.; so Diodorus, iv. 45. Some say 
that he was sent by his father in pursuit of Medea, Hygin. 43.; Strab. vii. 315. v. 
5115. and Ovid makes her say that she left him, *p. xii. 1 13. But he gives a different 
account, Trist, iii. 9. 21. Sec. 

transfer 



444 Fabulous History of Thessaly. 

transfer in his tragedy that crime on their mother, Mian. v. 
21.; Pausan. ii. 3. Diodorus says that Jason escaped that 
calamity, Ib. 54. but that afterwards from despair he killed 
himself, 55. Apollodorus relates that Medea sent to Glauce* 
poisoned robe in a present, which consumed her with flames, 
and likewise her father, who attempted to extinguish them, 
1. 9. 28. Ovid says the present sent by Medea was a crown,* 
(Phasiaca corona,) in Ibin. 605.* 

Medea fled from Corinth to Athens ; where, being expiated 
from her murders, she married .zEgeus, by whom she had a son 
called MEDUS, Pausan. ib. with whom after her disappoint- 
ment in poisoning Theseus, she flew in a chariot drawn by 
dragons to Colchis, Hygin. 26. which was then governed by 
Parses, the brother of JEetes. Medus slew him, and possessed 
the kingdom of his grandfather, which he called, from his own 
name Media, Ib. 27. ; Herodot. vii. 62. and after the death of 
his mother built a city, which, in honour of her, he called 
Medea, Justin, xl. ii. 3. Magic herbs {yenefica herb*) are called 
fromJMedea Medeides herb;e, Ovid. Art. Am. ii. 10 1. and 
Perseides HERBiE, from Perse or Perseis, her grandmother, 
Ovid. Rem. Am. 263. 



»' Peleus. 

PELEUS, the son of ^Eacus, {MacUes,) having been obliged 
to leave his father's dominions for being accessory to the death 
of his brother Phocus, (see p. 385.) went into Thessaly, and 
after various adventures became possessed of the government of 
lolchoS) of Phthia> and Larissa. f 

Peleus aftewards went to the court of AC ASTUS or Acasto, 
the king of Iolchos J, whose wife, Hippolyte or Astydamla, fell 
m love with him ; but finding him deaf to her solicitations, 
she accused him to her husband of designs on her virtue. 
Acastus, unwilling to violate the laws of hospitality by killing 

* Pliny says that Creusa's crown caught fire by means of Naptha, which Mede*a 
artfully used to destroy her, Plin. 2. 105. s. 109. 

f According to Ovid, Peleus first betook himself to CEYX, (Ceych,) the son of 
Lucjfer, and husband of Halcyone or Alcyone the king of Trachis or Tracbin, (Tra- 
chinia Ullus ,) near the foot of mouri* Oeta, who having taken a voyage to consult the 
oracle ot Apollo at Claros m Ionia, was shipwrecked; and Halcyone going to look for 
his return, found his body thrown on the shore: whereupon she threw herself into 
the sea, and was metamorphosed into a bird, called Halcyon or Alcedo; and Ceyx 
into a small bird which breeds in the Halcyon's nest, Ovid. Met. xi. 268. &c. ; Serv. 
m Virg G, 1. 399. m . 338. These birds breed (f Meant) in winter ; at which time 
it is said there is a calm for several days, Plin.x. 3 z. s.47.; Flaut. P*n. i. 1. 143. 
whence Halcyonei dies, Halcyon or peaceful days, Columell. xi. a. %t. hence also 
these birds are said to be beloved by Thetis, (dilate Thetidi Halcyones, Virg. 
G. 1.399. 

t Ovid says that Peleus went to Magnesia, (Magnetas adit -vagus exul,) where he 
received expiation from Acastus for the murder of Glaucus, Ovid. Met. xi, 408. 

Peleus, 



Peleus* 4*5 



Peleus ordered him to be tied to a tree in a wood, that he might 
perish by wild beasts. But Jupiter, knowing his innocence, sent 
Vulcan to loose him. Peleus soon after, having collected his 
friends, took lolchos, and having dethroned Acastus, put to 
death Astydamla, and possessed himself of the kingdom, Apol- 
Indnr iii. 11. 3. ; Horat. od. iii. 7. 17- ■ 

Pdeus married the sea goddess THETIS, {Conjux Dea con- 
thit un h sc. nepotum Jovis, Ovid. Met. xi. 220.) whose consent 
hi found it difficult to obtain, lb. 2 3 S- whence he is called gener 
Nereos, Stat. Theb.v. 437- Jupiter himself 1S said to have 
been fond of her, but avoided asking her, because he learned 
it was determined by the fates, that her son should excel his 
father in bravery, lb. 224*; Hygin. 54. The nuptials of 
Peleus and Thetis were celebrated with great magnificence, 
Caiull. lxii. in a cave of mount Pelion, Stat. Achll. u. 341. 
All the gods and goddesses were invited to the feast, except 
the goddess Discord. She, ofFended at this neglect, during 
the entertainment, threw into the middle of the assembly, a 
golden apple with this inscription, To the fairest, (detur 

FULCHRIORI.— OUTE SIT FORMOSISSIMA, ADTOLLAT.) All the 

other goddesses "yielded their pretensions except three, Juno, 
Minerva, and Venus. Jupiter, unwilling to determine between 
them, referred the affair to Paris, then a shepherd on mount 
Ida His determination in favour of Venus, occasioned the 
destruction of Troy, and all the calamities which followed it, 
Stat. Achill. ii. 335- &c * 



Achilles. 



ACHILLES was the son of Peleus (Pelldes) and of Thetis-, 
called from his grandfather tEacTdes and from his father s 
two principal towns, Phthia and Larissa, Phthius Achilles, 
Horat. od. iv. 6. 4. vir Phthius, Propert. ii. 13. 38. * Laris- 
s,Eus Achilles, Virg. JEn. ii. 197. xi. 404. 

Thetis plunged her son while an infant 111 the river btyx> 
whereby he was rendered invulnerable in every part of his body 
except the heel by which she held him, Stat. Achll. 1. 269. 
This circumstance is no where mentioned by Homer, and ap- 
pears to have been invented posterior to him. Achilles was 
educated by the Centaur Chiron, the son of Saturn and Philyra, 
(Philyrides,) Virg. G. iii. 550. 5 Plin. vii. 56. ; Pausan. m. 18. 
who taught him the art of war and music, Juvenal, vu. a 10. 
and to render him strong, fed him with the marrow of wild 
beasts, Stat. Achill. ii. 381. — ^ fin. Of Chiron he is said to 
have stood greatly in awe, lb. & Ovid. Art. Am. 1. 14. rnce- 

* So Phthias, a woman of Phthia, Ovid, ef. vii. 165. 

niX, 



446 The Chief Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan War. 




nix # , the son of Amyntor, his tutor and companion, taught him 
eloquence, Cic. Orat. iii. 15.*, Homer. II. ix. 443. whom he 
always treated with great respect, lb. Zs? Stat. Silv. ii. 1. yt. 
iii. 2. 96. 

Thetis, knowing that if her son went to the Trojan war he 
should perish in it, carried him to the court of Lycomedes, 
king of the island of Scyros, where he was concealed in a female 
dress among the daughters of that prince, Horat. od. i. 8. 13. 
£9* ibi Scholiast, one of whom, Deidamla, Stat. Achill. i. 296. 
had a son to him, called PYRRHUS, because Achilles was 
called Pyrrha among the king's daughters, from his yellow or 
reddish hair, Hygin. 96. and also Neoptolemus, because he 
went young to the war, [ad bellum ductus est puer,) Serv. in Virg, 
JEn. ii. 263. ; Apollodor. iii. 13. 8. His body is called by Her- 

mione through contempt, Scyria membra, Ovid. ep. viii. 1 12. 

As Troy could not be taken without the aid of Achilles, the 
leaders of the Greeks, hearing that he was with Lycomedes, 
sent to require him. The king, denying that he was there, 
gave the ambassadors leave to search for him ; which they did, 
but without success. Ulysses, however, who was one of them, 
not discouraged, thought of the following contrivance. He 
went to the palace of Lycomedes, under the guise of a pedlar, 
with various kinds of goods to sell ; among the rest were arms 
mixed with female ornaments. While the princesses attentively 
examined the jewels, the necklaces, and the like •, Achilles was 
attracted by nothing but the arms. Ulysses, observing this, or- 
dered Agyrtesy a trumpeter he had with him, suddenly to sound 
an alarm. Achilles, conceiving it to be an enemy, instantly 
tore his female robe, and grasped a shield and a spear. Thus 
Ulysses having discovered who he was, forced him to the war, 
Ovid. Met. xiii. 165. Lycomedes wished to retain him, but in 
vain. His warlike ardour could not be restrained. Cicero, in 
the character of Laelius f, applies this to Neoptolemus, Amic. 
20. Statius relates this story differently, Achill. ii. 167. &c. 

After taking the city of Lyrnessus in Phrygia, Achilles ob- 
tained the beautiful Briseis, as his share of the prey, Ovid. ep. iii. 
45. whence she is called Lyrnessis, -tdis, Ovid.Trist. iv. 1.15. 

The spear of Achilles was so heavy, that it could not be 
wielded by any other of the Greeks ; hence when Patroclus 

* Phoenix {Amyntondes) having had an intrigue with Clytha, bis father^ concubine* 
Tzetzes in Lycophr. or being falsely accused by her, Apollndor. iii. was deprived of 
sight, Ovid. Art. i. 337. Ib. 261. but was cured by Chiron, Propert. ii. I. 61. 

f Some suppose that Cicero applies this circumstance to Pyrrhus instead of Achilles 
to denote the ignorance of the Romans at that time concerning the fables of the 
Greeks. But the reluctance of Lycomedes to part with Pyrrhus may be supposed to 
be at least as great as to part with Achilles. Besides it was not Achilles that took 
Troy, but Neoptolemus or Pyrrhus, as Cicero says, Ib. 

went 



Achilles* 447 

went against Hector in the armour of Achilles, he did not take 
the spear, Homer. II. xvi. 141. The ash of which it was made 
grew on the top of mount Pelion; hence it was called PELIAS 
HASTA, (genit. Peliadis } ) Ovid. ep. iii. 126. Met. xiii. 109.; 
Plin. xvi. 13. s. 24. It was given in a present to Peleus by the 
Centaur Chiron, Homer, ib. 144. and Pausanias speaks of it as 
pointed with brass, and existing in his time, in the temple of 

Minerva at Phaselis, iii. 3. -When TELEPHUS *, the son 

of Hercules, and Auge> king of Mysia, (Mysus juvenis, Propert. 
ii. 1. 63.) who being son-in-law to Priam, opposed the passage 
cf the Greeks through his country, had been grievously wound- 
ed by Achilles ; he was told by the oracle, that the weapon 
which had inflicted the wound, could alone cure it. Upon 
which he came to the Grecian camp, and applied to Achilles 
for relief, Horat. epod. xvii. 8. But Achilles refused, alleging 
he Was no physician. Being however prevailed on by Ulysses^, 
as the assistance of Telephus was necessary to the success of 
their expedition, he scraped a little rust from his spear, and, 
applying it to the wound, cured it, Hygin. 101,; Ovid. Met. 
xiii. 171. Whence Ovid says, Vulnus in Herculeo qua quondam 
fecerat koste, Vulneris auxilium Pelias hasta tulit, Rem. Am. 47. 
So Id. Trist. v. 2. 15.; Propert. ii. 1. 63 f. Claudian makes 
Telephus to be healed by herbs, which Achilles learned the use 
of from Chiron, Epigr. i. 46.; Stat. Achill. ii. 444.; hence a 
certain herb was called Telephion, Plin. xxvii. 13. s. 110. 
Telephus, on account of his connection with Priam, would not 
accompany the Greeks to Troy, as they requested, but gave 
them a free passage through his country, (eos deduxit,) Hygin, 
ibid, and pointed out their way, Cic. Flacc. 29. 

Achilles, being deprived of his mistress Briseis by Agamem- 
non, on account of his vehemence in demanding that Chryseis 
should be restored to her father, see p. 407. in disgust with- 
drew himself from the war. The consequence was, that the 
Greeks were repeatedly defeated by Hector and the Trojans, 
and many of them slain. At last, after the restoration of Bri- 
seis, he was so far mitigated as to permit his friend Patroclus 
to assume his armour, and go out to battle with his soldiers the 
Myrmidons. The death of Patroclus, who was slain and stript 
of his arms by Hector, roused the indignation of Achilles. He 
therefore now determined to oppose Hector in person. Thetis 
procured for him new armour from Vulcan, who engraved on his 
shield the earth, the sea,and the heaven; the sun, moon and stars, 
cities and men, and their various occupations, Homer. 11. xviii. 

* Telephus is said to have been nursed by a hind, MUan. xii. 5a. ; Hygin. 15a.; 
Ovid. Il>. 2$j. whence his name, 
f Achilles was sometimes painted performing this cure, Plin. xxv. 5. 15* juutiv. 15. 

478. 



44?8 The Chief Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan War. 



478. &c. hence Ovid calls it Clypeus vasti ccelatus imagine mundi, 
Met. xii. 110. & 290. Achilles slew Hector, and having tied 
his dead body to his chariot, dragged it thrice round the walls 
of Troy, Virg. JEn. i. 483. ii. 272. to console the manes of 
Patroclus, Stat. Silv. iv. 4. 105. Having thus gratified his 
revenge, he restored it to Priam, who came secretly by night to 
the tent of Achilles, under the conduct of Mercury, Horat. od. 
i. 10. 13. to ransom the body of his son from Achilles*. The 
Iliad of Homer ends with the funeral of Hector. 

After this, Achilles fell in love with Polyxena, one of the v 
daughters of Priam j and while he was celebrating his nuptials 
with her in the temple of Apollo at Thymbra, (hence called 
Thymbkjeus, Virg. JEn. iii. 85.) near Troy, he was slain by 
Paris, who having concealed himself behind the image of that 
god, wounded Achilles in the only vulnerable part of his body, 
the heel, with an arrow directed, according to Virgil, by Apollo 
himself, JEn. vi. 57. After the taking of Troy, Polyxena 
was sacrificed by Pyrrhus on the tomb of his father to pacify 
his manes, Serv. in Virg. JEn. iii. 321. which the ghost of 
Achilles, appearing to Agamemnon, is said to have demanded, 
Ovid. Met. xiii. 439. &c; Pausan. i. 22. Hyginus says, there 
was a voice uttered from the tomb of Achilles requiring this 
to be done, Fab. no. ; so Ovid, Met. xiii. 448. Polyxena 
submitted to her fate with wonderful fortitude, lb. 455. &c. 
Achilles himself had set the example of a like cruelty, by slaying 
twelve Trojan captives, and throwing them into the funeral pile 
of Patroclus, Homer. II. xxi. 27. xxxiii. 175. ; Ovid. Ib. 378. 
— - — Achilles was buried at Sigseum, where many ages after 
Alexander the Great, when he first landed in Asia, offered 
sacrifices to him, together with the other Grecian heroes, Plu- 
tarch. & Diodor. xvii. 17. and crowned his tomb with garlands, 
as Hephestion did that of Patroclus \ intimating that he was 
beloved by Alexander, as Patroclus had been by Achilles, JElian. 
xii. 7. Alexander esteemed Achilles happy chiefly in two re- 
spects, that he had found such a friend as Patroclus while alive, 
and such a poet as Homer to celebrate his virtues after death, 
Plutarch, in vita ejus. There was a tumulus inanis erected to 
Achilles at Olympia, where particular honours were paid to him 
on the first day of the Olympic games, Pausan. vi. 24. 

There was an i'sland in the Euxine sea, nearly half way be- 
tween the rivers Tyras and Boristhenes, called LEUCE, sacred 
to Achilles, where his tomb was supposed to be, and where a 
temple was consecrated to him f, Strab. vii. 306. ; Mel. ii. 7. 

* This action Virgil disparages by calling it a sale ; Ter cir:um Illacos raftavcrat 
Hectora muros, Exanimumgue auro corpus vendebat Achilles, i. 483. 
f Hence the island is called humus Achillea* Ovid, in Ibin, 333. 

Pausaniae 



Achilles, 



449 



Tausanias says, this island was near the mouth of the Ister, Hi. 
19. Here the poets represent the souls gf heroes enjoying hap- 
piness after death, as in a separate Elysium ; and here Achilles 
was supposed by some to have married Helen, Pausan. iii. 19. 
Near Leuce was a peninsula, called Hylaa, and in it a place 
called Cursus Achilleus, Herodot. iv. 55. & 76.; Plin. iv. 12. 
s. 26. or Dromos Achilleos, lb. & Mel. ii. I. 5 1. ; Strab. 
vii. 307. 

The circumstance by which Achilles is chiefly distinguished 
in Homer, is nimbleness of feet, (fl-oSac coxu$ 'A^iKKsvg,) to 
which he was trained by Chiron, Stat. Achill. ii. 395. thus Ovid, 
velox cantatus Achilles, Amor. ii. 1. 29. He is described by 
the Latin poets, as proud, insolent, cruel, inexorable, Sec. Ho- 
rat. art. p. 120. od. ii. 4. 2.; Virg. JEn. i. 30. ii. 29. but as 
scorning artifice, Horat. od. iv. 6. 13. &c. hence called Mag- 
NANIMUS, Ovid. Met. xiii. 298. MAGNUS, Virg. eel. iv. 36. and 
honoratus, i. e. MAGNiFicus, says the old scholiast on Horace, 
art. p. 1 20. but this epithet may more properly express his 
being greatly celebrated by Homer and others. Achilles was put 
for any brave man ; thus L. Siccius Dentatus was called the 
Roman Achilles, Gell. ii. and Turnus is said to be, Alius 
Latio jam partus Achilles, Virg. JEn. vi. 89. 

The most illustrious action of Achilles next to his conquer- 
ing Hector, was that of slaying MEMNON the son of Tithonus 
and Aurora, the leader of the ^Ethiopians, (Eoa. acies,) that 
came to the assistance of Priam*; who killed Antilochus the 
son of Nestor, in single combat, and was himself in like manner 
slain by Achilles, Hygin. 112. Pausanias says, that Memnon 
came not from ./Ethiopia, but from Susa in Persia, x. 31. A 
number of birds are said to have sprung from his funeral pile ; 
which dividing into two parties, fell a fighting with one another, 
[par entali Marte,) so that one half of them fell down dead 
among the ashes, as an atonement to his manes, Ovid. Met. xiii. 
610. &c. These birds, called from him MemnonTdes, were 
supposed to come ever after annually from -^Ethiopia to Ilium, 
and fight near the tomb of Memnon, and to do the same in 
^Ethiopia every fifth year at his palace, Plin. x. 26. s. 37.5 
Pausan. ibid. Isidore tells this story somewhat differently, xii. 7. 
There was a wonderful statue of Memnon at Thebes in Egypt, 
whether of this Memnon or not is uncertain, which uttered 
vocal sounds every morning when first struck by the rays 

* Hence called NlG£R, Virg.JEn.\. 489. & 751. and color Memnsnius ic put for 
black, Ovid. Pont. iii. 3. 96. Mtmnonia regna^ Persia, Lman,\\\, 

G g of 



450 The Chief Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan War, 



of the sun, Plin. xxxvi. 7. s. 11.; Tacit. Annal. ii. 61. 5 J woe* 
nal. xv. 5. Strabo says he heard the sound, but could not explain 
the cause of it, xvii. 816. The vestiges of it still remain.* 

After the death of Achilles, there was a keen contest about 
the possession of his armour, between Ajax and Ulysses. The 
Grecian chiefs, before whom this cause was pleaded, determined 
it in favour of Ulysses. Upon which Ajax, being deprived 
of his reason, is said to have slain a number of sheep and oxen ; 
Supposing that while he did so, he was slaying Ulysses, Aga- 
memnon, Menelaus, &c. Horat. Sat. ii. 3. 187. ; JuvenaL 
xiv. 286. &c. which seems to have been often acted on the 
Roman stage, Cic. Tusc. iv. 23. Off. i. 13. When he recovered 
his reason, he slew himself ; and, according to Ovid, the blood 
which flowed from his wound on the ground, produced a hya- 
cinth, lb. 395. On this flower are inscribed the two first let- 
ters of his name. Ib. or the complaint of Phcebus on the loss 
of his favourite boy Hyacinthus, Ai, ai, lb. x. 215. ; Plin. xxi. 
11. /. 38. seep. 411. 

AJAX and TEUCER. 

AIAX was the son of Telamon, (Telamoniades,) who having 
inadvertently slain his brother Phocus, while playing at the 
quoit, was obliged to leave his native country ; to which Ulysses 
alludes, Ov. M. xiii. 149. Telamon married Glauce, the daugh- 
ter of Cycbreus, king of Salamis; and after his death became king 
of that place. He was armour-bearer to Hercules when thatHero 
took Troy, and was rewarded by him with Hesione, the daugh- 
ter of Laomedon, to wife. He afterwards married Peribxa, the 
daughter of Alcothous, of whom Ajax was born, Pausan. i. 42. 
Ajax was the bravest of the Greeks, next to Achilles, (Heros, 
stb Achille secundus,) Horat. Sat. ii. 3. 193. and therefore is 
said to excel his father, as Achilles did Peleus, JuvenaL xiv. 
214. His shield was covered with seven plies of a bull's hide 
(<ruxos hurot^omv) j hence he is called Clypei dominus septemplicis 
Ajax, Ovid. Met. xiii. 2. He was the only person that with- 
stood Hector in the absence of Achilles. 

TEUCER was the son of Telamon and Hesione. Upon his 
return from the Trojan war, he was not received by his father, 
because he had not brought back Ajax his brother 5 as Tela- 

* Combyses supposing the sound to proceed from some secret wheels or springs with- 
in, caused it to be opened ; but nothing was found. Strabo says one half of the statue 
was overturned by an earthquake ; on which account Juvenal calls it Dimidtus Mem- 
non. There was a harp in the hand of the broken statue, the strings of which were, 
thought to ?ound by magic influence ; hence called magka chorda. Ibid. 

mon 



Ulysses* 



451 



mon had charged them at their departure, not to return the 
one without the other, Veil. i. i. Telamon is said to have 
forced him to plead his cause on ship-board, without permitting 
him to land, Pausan. i. 28. ii. 29. on which account Teucer 
set sail with his companions for Cyprus, where he built a city, 
and called it Salamis, or from the name of his native city, 
Justin, xliv. 3.; Strab. xiv. 682. having been previously assured 
of success by the oracle of Apollo, (Ambiguam tellure nov% 
Salamina futuram,) Horat. od. i. 7. 29. Here his posterity 
continued to enjoy the crown to the time of Evagoras, Pausan. 
ii. 29. This Teucer is represented as remarkable for shooting 
the arrow, Horat. od. iv. 9. 17. — There was another A J AX, the 
son of Oileus, Ovid. Met. xii. 622. king of Locris hence 
called Narycius Heros, from Naryx, -ycis 9 a town in that 
country, lb. xiv. 468. not so impetuous in his temper (mode- 
ratior ; lb. 3. xiii, 356.; non tam impatiens ira,) as the other 
Ajax, lb. and inferior in strength ; hence called Ajax secun- 

dus, Stat. Achill. i. 500. This Ajax, after the taking of 

Troy, offered violence to Cassandra in the temple of Minerva \ 
on which account, in his return home, he was burnt with 
lightning by Pallas, and his ship dashed on the rocks, Serv. in 
Virg. JEn. i. 39.; Propert. iv. i. 1 1 7.; Ovid in Ibtde, 339.5 
Senec. Agamemn. 532. A number of his fleet also perished on the 
Capharean rocks in Eubcea, Virg. JEn. xi. 260. hence called 
from him Ajacis Petr^:, Hygin. 116. Homer says he was 
drowned by Neptune, because he had said that he would escape 
in spite of the gods, Odyss. iv. 505. 



ULYSSES. 

ULYSSES* was the son of Laertes, {Laertiades ',) king ofi 
the island Ithaca, (hence called Ithacus, Virg. J&n. ii. 104. 
Ithacensis Ulysses, Horat. ep. i. 6. 63.) and of Anticlea, 
the daughter of Autolycus, a noted robber, Hygin. 201. Ulys- 
ses was commonly said to be the son of Sisyphus, the son of 
JEolus, see p. 416. from the connection of Sisyphus with An- 
ticlea, before her marriage with Laertes, lb. & Ovid. Met, 
xiii. 32. hence, by way of reproach, Ulysses is called iEoLiDES, 
Virg. JEn, vi. 529. 

After the marriage of Ulysses with Penelope, see p. 413. his 
father resigned to him the kingdom. To avoid engaging in the 

* UlysstSy v. -eus ; genit. «, v. -i. Ulyxes, v. ~ws t '02tW£t/tf, tta dktus, quod 
mater turn in itinere psptrtrit) ab ties, "via 3 vel tx ira homimim in ovum Autolicum i 
ohvtrwf irastor. 

G g 2 Trojan 



452 The Chief Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan War. 



Trojan war, and to prevent his being torn from the company of 
Penelope, he counterfeited madness ; and as a proof of it, used 
to put on a cap*, {pileus^) and yoke in a plough animals of differ- 
ent kinds, as an ox and a horse, to till the land, and sow salt 
instead of corn. To put the truth of this insanity to the test, 
Palamedes, the son of Nauplius, (Naupliades,) king of Eu- 
bcea, took Telemachus, the son of Ulysses, then an infant, and 
placed him before the plough. Upon which Ulysses stopped, 
or raised the plough, that he might not hurt his child •, and thus 
was obliged to drop his disguise, Hygin. 95.; Serv. in Virg. ii. 81. 
& 44.; Ovid. Met. xiii. 36. Homer however takes no notice 
of this fact, Cic. Off. iii. 26. nor of the concealment of Achilles. 

Ulysses, during the course of the war, performed the most 
important services to the Greeks. He forced Achilles from his 
concealment : He carried away privately the ashes of King 
Laomedon from the Scsean gate of Troy : In company with 
Diomedes, he slew Rhesus, king of Thrace, who had come to 
the assistance of Priam, and carried off his horses, before they 
had tasted the fodder of Troy, or drunk of the river of Xanthus; 
for if they had tasted of either, Troy could not have been taken, 
Serv* in Virg. Mn. i. 469. Rhesus was betrayed by Dolon, 
a Trojan spy, who had fallen in with Ulysses and Diomedes, 
who had likewise been sent to spy the camp of the enemy in the 
night-time; and having got what intelligence they wanted from 
Dolon, slew him, Serv, in Virg. 'JEn. xii. 347. ; Homer. II. x. 

299.1 Ovid. Met. xiii. 243. Ulysses and Diomedes also 

carried off the Palladium or image of Minerva from the 
citadel of Troy, after slaying the watches, Virg. JEn. ii. 162.5 
Ovid. Met. xiii. 377. &c. hence called Diomedeum furtum, 
Stat. Silv. v. 3. 179. In company with Diomedes, or as others 
say, with Pyrrhus, Ulysses obtained from Philoctetes the arrows 
of Hercules, or prevailed on Philoctetes himself to come with 
them to Troy. On the accomplishment of each of the above- 
mentioned particulars the fate of Troy depended. 

PHILOCTETES was the son of Pcean or Pceas, king of 
Melibcea, at the foot of mount Oeta in Thessalyf. Being 
wounded in the foot, some say by a serpent sent by the wrath 
of Juno, for his having reared the pile of Hercules, Hygin. 

* Whence he used to be thus painted, (pileatus,) Serv. in Virg. JEn. ii. 44. 

jpiin. xxxv. 10. s. 36./. The Greeks and Romans used to go with their heads bare. 

f Hence called PoEantiades, Ovid. Met. xiii. 313. Poeantia proles, 

lb. 45. POEANTIUS, Tritt. V. I. 6l. & 2. 13. POEANTIUS HERO 3, Id. rem. 

am. iii. Poeantius Herculis HiERES, Ovid in Ittdt, 253. and Dux Meli- 
j*,oeuSj, Virg, Mn, iii. 401, 

102. 5 



Phihctetcs. 



102.; seep. 402. Ovid.Trist. \. 2. 13. others say, by one of 
the arrows of Hercules falling on his foot, as a punishment for 
discovering where that hero was buried, contrary to his promise, 
Sew. in Virg. JEn. iii. 402. he was, on account of the intole- 
rable stench of his wound, by the advice of Ulysses, left in the 
island of Lemnos, Ovid Met. xiii, 45. where he lived in grief 
and solitude, lb. & Homer. II. ii. 228. Afterwards, however, 
when the Greeks were told by the oracle, that Troy could not 
be taken without the arrows of Hercules, hence called debita 
Trojanis spicula fatis, Ovid. Met. xiii. 54. Ulysses had the 
address to prevail on him to come to the Grecian camp, and to 
take part in the war ; in which, among others, he slew Paris, 
Hygin. 112.; Apollodor. iii. 12. 6. He is said to have been 
cured of his wound by Machaon, Propert. ii. 1. 59. and to 
have put a period to the war, {supremam bellis imposuisse manum,) 
Ovid, remed. am. 113. After the taking of Troy, instead of 
returning to his native country, he retired to Italy, where he 
built Petilia. Strabo says he was expelled from Melibcea by a 
sedition, vi. 254. 

Ulysses always retained an implacable resentment against 
Palamedes for having exposed the falsehood of his insanity, till 
he effected his destruction. He forged a letter to him from Priam, 
promising him a reward if he would betray the Grecian camp °, 
and when Palamedes denied the charge, Ulysses convicted him 
by shewing the money concealed in his tent, which Ulysses had 
bribed the slaves of Palamedes to deposit there the night before, 
Ovid. Met. iii. 56. &c. On this evidence, (infando indicio, as 
Virgil expresses it, jEn. ii. 84.) Palamedes was condemned, and 
stoned to death, Serv. Ib. 82.; Hygin. 105.* 

* Palamedes was descended from Belus king of Egypt; hence called BelFdes, Virg. 
ib. 82. and distinguished for his ingenuity. He is said to have completed the Greek 
alphabet, by adding four letters, 6, g, ^, <p, Plitt. vii. 56. and to have invented the 
method of drawing up an army in order of battle, the use of signals, the watchword, 
(tessara, i. e. symbolum bellicum,) and the placing of sentinels, lb. which last he is 
thought to have learned from cranes; as described by Pliny, x. 23. s. 30. and by 
Cicero, de Nat. D. ii. 49. hence called the birds of Palamedes^ Martial, xiii. 75. See 
Raderus on this passage. Manilius ascribes to Palamedes also the invention of num- 
bers, weights, and measures, Astron. iv. 206. So Philostratus, in heroic. 

NAUPLIUS, the father of Palamedes, in revenge for his son's death*, when the 
Greeks, returning from Troy, were overtaken by a storm, raised a torch in the night- 
time, from the top of Caphareus, a promontory in the south-east corner of Eubcea, 
very dangerous to mariners on account of the whirlpools and hidden rocks around it, 
Sil. xiv. 144.; Senec. Agamemn. 558. The Greeks, supposing this torch to be a 
signal of a contiguous harbour, made towards it; and thus a number of their ships 
were wrecked, Propert. iv. 1. 115.; Serv in Firg.JEn.z60.; Ovid, remed. am. 
735- Trist. i. 1. 83. whence Caphareus is called ultor, Virg.iL and importunus, 
Ovid. Met. xiv. 481. Nauplius having learned that Ulysses and Diomedes, whose de- 
struction he chiefly sought, had escaped, threw himself headlong into the sea, Senec. 
Med. 65%, 

G g 3 After 



454 The Chief Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan Wan 



After the destruction of Troy, Ulysses wandered for ten 
years, Ovid. Pont. iv. 10. 10. over many seas, and visited many 
countries before he returned to Ithaca, Horat. ep. i. 2. 18. so 
that he Was twenty years absent, {Quatuor enteritis per bella, per 
aquora y lustris,) Stat. Silv. iii. 5. 7. 

Ulysses first sailed to the country of the Cicones, in Thrace, 
and took and plundered their town Ifmarus, situate near a 
mountain of the same name, not far from the mouth of the 
Hebrus, Odyss. ix. 39. where afterwards Orpheus was torn in 
pieces by Bacchanals, Virg. G. iv. 520. — — Next to the L5to- 
phagi, (i. e. the eaters of the lotos, an herb, the fruit of which 
was so luscious, that it made those who ate of it forget then- 
native country,) a people in Africa between the two Syrtes, 
Homer, ib. Plin. xiii. 17. s. 32. Strabo says they inhabited the 
island Meninx, opposite to the Lesser Syrtis, iii. 157. called 

also Lotophagttis Syrtis*, Ib, xvii. 834. < From thence to 

the country of the Cyclopes in Sicily, near mount ^Etna, a 
kind of gigantic men with one eye in the middle of their 
forehead, (a xvkXoc, circulus, et oculus>) who fed on human 
flesh. Ulysses entered the cave of Polyphemus, their chief, 
with twelve of his companions, of whom Polyphemus de- 
voured six, two at a time. But Ulysses, having intoxicated 
him with wine, which he had brought with him, see p. 345. 
bored out his eye, while asleep, with a stick burnt at the end, 
and made his escape with the rest of his companions, Homer, 
ib. ; Virg. JEn. iii. 612. 

Ulysses next sailed to one of the Lipari islands, called JEolia* 
or the island of ^lolus, the god of the winds *, from whom he 
received all the winds inclosed in leathern bags, (utribus ificlu* 
sos,) Ovid. Amor. iii. 12. 29. except the west wind, which 
was favourable for him. But his companions, suspecting that 
these bags contained gold, while Ulysses was asleep loosed 
them, esse ratos aurum, demsisse ligamina ventis, Ovid. Met. 14. 
230. and thus raised a storm, which drove them back again 
on the island of iEolus, who would not now receive them. 
They were therefore driven on the coast of the L^strigSnes, 
whose king, called Antiphates, devoured one of the three sent 
to examine the country, Homer, od. x. 1 14. ; Ovid. Met. xiv. 233. 
&c. ; Horat. art. p. 145. and sunk with stones all the ships of 

Ulysses except his ownf > Homer & Ovid. ibid. —Ulysses next 

arrived at the island of the goddess CIRCE, the daughter of Sot, 

* Lotos is put for tibia, a flute; Ovid. rem. am. 753. because flutes used to be 
made of that wood. 

f The Lasttigones lived in the south of Latium, between the promontory Cajeta 
and the mouth of the Liris, where Formia afterwards stood, Plin. iii. 5. whence Les* 
trigonia amphora, a cask made at Formia;, Horat. od. iii. 16. 34. 

or 



Ulysm* 



455 



or the Sun and Perse or Perseis, Cic. Nat. D. iii. 18. hence called 
Titanis, idis, Ovid, Met. xiii. fin. xiv. 14. and 376. the sister of 
Metes, and aunt of Medea, whom she is said to have instructed 
in the knowledge of magic and poisonous herbs, Diodor. iv. 46. 
called JEjea Circe, from v£a, the capital of Colchis, Ovid. 
Met. iv. 205. \ Virg. JEn. iii. 386. and her enchantments, JSLej^ 
carmina, Ovid. Amor. i. 8. 5. vel Artes, lb. ii. 15. 10. by 
which she converted men into beasts, Virg. JEn. vii. 20. Thus 
by her herbs and charms, (potentibus her bis et carminibus,) she 
changed some of the companions of Ulysses sent to her, into 
swine, Homer, lb.', Virg. eel. viii. 70. ; Horat. ep. i. 2. 2,6. \ Ovid. 
Met. xiv. 277. &c. But Ulysses having received an herb, 
called Moly, from Mercury, as an antidote against her enchant- 
ments, went to her abode, with his sword drawn, and forced 
her to restore his companions to their former shape, lb. Ulysses 
remained for some time with Circe, and had by her a son, called 
Telegonus. He next went to the country of the Cimmerians, a 
people that lived in perpetual darkness, Homer, od. xi. ; Tibull. 
iv. i. 64. ; seep. 152. Then he descended to the infernal 
regions to consult T1RESIAS, the Theban augur, about his 
future voyage, Ovid. Met. iii. 323, &c. 

TIRESIAS, the son of Eueres, was originally a shepherd on 
mount Cyllene. He is said to have struck with his staff two 
snakes in the act of copulation, [venerantes v. coeuntes,) and 
to have been therefore turned into a woman. Some years after, 
by similar means, he recovered his former shape. Jupiter and 
Juno referred to him a dispute which had arisen between them, 
(Sumptus est judex de lite jocosd, Ovid, in Ibin, 265. Quis magis 
de re venerea voluptatem caper et, mascidus, an fcemina ?) He deter- 
mined in favour of Jupiter*, Juvenal, vi. 253. On which ac- 
count he was deprived of his sight by the wrath of Juno, hence 
put for Cjecus, Juvenal, xiii. fin. but, to compensate his loss 9 
was endued by Jupiter with the gift of prophecy, and that he 
should live for seven ages, Hygin. 75.5 Cic. Tusc.v. 39. whence 
he is called Apollined clarus in arte senex, Ovid. ib. He was 
-consulted as an infallible oracle by the Greeks, Pausan. ix. 33. \ 
Strab. xvi 762. ; Cic. Div. i. 40. ii. 3. hence Laius, when he 
came from the infernal regions, assumed his appearancef, Stat* 
Theb. i. 95. 

* Dixit tres uncias habere wirum, et now em feeminam ; Fulgpnt. ii. or thus : rm% 
ftmguv igut %ixa t rev avSgec m^vrtoSon rnv (ttav, rr t v o*t yvvouxu, rag msae, Decern in 
partes voluptate ista divisa> imam <viro, novem mulieri obtingere s Phiegonj & Scoi. 
in Juvenal vi. 253. See Heyne on Apollodorus, iii. 6. 7. 

f Horace supposes Ulysses, after his return 1 Ithaca, to raise the spirit of Tiresias, 
and to consult him about the best means of repairing the ruined state of his affairs, 
Set. ii. 5. where he begins abruptly, as if a long conversation had previously taken place. 

G g 4 Ulysses, 



456 The Chief Leaders of the Gi'eeks in the Trojan War, 



Ulysses, after his return from the infernal regions to the abode 
of Circe, was instructed by her how to avoid the dangers which 

he had to encounter. He first sailed past the rocks of the 

Sirens, (Sirenes,) the daughters of the river Acheldus {Ache- 
loidesy v. -ades) and the muse Melpomene, Serv. in Virg. v. 864. 
three in number ; some say more : having in the upper part the 
appearance of virgins, and in the lower part of birds, Ib. & 
Hygin. 125. & 141 Ovid. Met. v. 552. and that he might not 
be conquered by their songs and music, (called Siculi cantus^ 
Juvenal, ix. 150. because the islands where they resided were 
on the Sicilian sea, vid. p. 156.) he caused himself to be bound 
to the mast of the ship with ropes, and ordered his companions, 
whose ears he stopped up with wax, JuvenaL ix. 149. to disregard 
his commands about altering their course, till they got beyond 
that dangerous coast # . The Sirens, who were destined to perish 
when any one should sail past them in safety, threw themselves 

into the sea, Hygin. ibid. Ulysses next passed Scylla and 

Charibdis, see p. 174. the former of which devoured six of his 
companions, Homer, ib. — He landed on that part of Sicily 
where Phxthusa the daughter of Sol, and her two sisters, fed the 
cattle of their father ; which Ulysses, according to the directions 
of Circe, charged his companions not to touch. But they, urged 
by hunger, while Ulysses was asleep, slew the most beautiful of 
them. For this crime they were all soon after destroyed by ship- 
wreck. Ulysses alone was saved by keeping hold of the mast 5 
and after being tossed for nine days, was driven on Ogygia> the 
island of the nymph CALYPSO, where he remained seven years, 
Tzetzes ad Lycophron. 744. (Ovid says six years, Pont. iv. 10. 13. 
Hyginus says only one, 125.) At last Jupiter sent Mercury to 
order Calypso to let Ulysses go ; which she did with reluctance, 
Ovid. Art. ii. 125. *, Homer, od. v. 203. Propert. i. 15. 9. and 
furnished him with a ship and every thing requisite for his 
voyage, Homer, ib. But Ulysses being overtaken by a storm 
through the wrath of Neptune, who was enraged against him for 
having deprived his son Polyphemus of sight, he lost his ship r 
but by the aid of the goddess Lucoth'de, called by the Romans 
Mother Matuta, who supplied him with a belt or plank, he 
swam to the island CORCYRA, the country of the Phaacians ; 
where he was hospitably entertained by king ALCINOUS and 
his queen Arete, to whom he was introduced by their daugh- 
ter Nausicaa, who first discovered him, after he reached the 
land, as he concealed himself under the leaves of trees. To 

* Cicero says that the Sirens enticed- passengers to their rocks, by professing to 
communicate to them the knowledge of many useful things, Cti. Fin. 5. 18. 

them 



Ulysses. 



457 



them he related his adventures. Alcinous gave him a ship, 
which carried him to Ithaca, where the crew landed him while 
asleep with the presents which he had received from Alcinous, 
and so left him, Odyss. xiii. Thus, after an absence of twenty- 
years, and after the loss of all his companions, Ulysses was 
at last restored in safety to his native country, Hygin. 125. 
When he awoke, he did not know that he was in Ithaca, But 
Minerva having appeared to him in the form of a young man 9 
told him of every thing. 

In the absence of Ulysses, his wife PENELOPE had been 
assailed by many suitors \ but she always put them off with a 
promise that she would marry when she finished a web she was 
weaving, and constantly undid by night what she wrought during 
the day ; hence quasi Penelope ielam retexere, to labour in vain, to 
undo what one has done, or to overturn any thing by the same 
arguments by which one has established it, as the Dialectics 
did, Cic. Acad. iv. 29. Her fidelity to her husband was so re- 
markable, that her name was put for a virtuous woman, Pene- 
lope VENIT, abit Helene, Martial, i. 63. In the mean 
time the suitors lived luxuriously and riotously in the house of 
Ulysses, wasting his substance, (dilaniantes opes,) Ovid. ep. i. 
89. hence Sponsi Penelope is put for dissolute f ellows, Horat. 

ep. i. 2. 28. Telemachus (proles patientis Ulyssei, Horat. 

ep. i. 7 ."40.) went to various places in quest of his father, 
particularly to the court of Nestor at Pylos, and of Menelaus 
at Sparta, by both of whom he was treated with the greatest 
hospitality, Odyss. i. h\ iii. & iv. Menelaus offered him a pre- 
sent of fine horses, which he refused, because the rocky island 
of Ithaca was not fit for breeding these animals, Horat. ib. 
Finding his search fruitless, he resolved to return to his native 
country. The suitors formed plots to assassinate him by the 
way, Ovid. ep. i. 99. but he was preserved by the assistance of 
Minerva, Homer, ib. \ Ovid. ep. i. 99. 

Ulysses having, by the advice of Minerva, assumed the ap- 
pearance of a beggar, first went to the house of his shepherd 
EUMiEUS, who did not know him. In the mean time, by 
the direction of Minerva, Telemachus returned privately to 
Ithaca. Ulysses discovered himself first to his son, and then to 
Eumseus. With them he concerted measures for the destruc- 
tion of the suitors. He went under his disguise to the palace, 
where he was recognized by Argus, an old dog. Being 
abused by IRUS, a beggar of large size, whom the suitors sup- 
ported on account of his drollery, Ulysses challenged him to 
fight; which the suitors forced Irus, niuch against his will, to 

submit 



458 The Chief Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan War. 

submit to. Ulysses slew him with a blow of his fist*. Upon 
this, being introduced to Penelope, he was asked by her many 
questions concerning himself ; and thus had the strongest proofs 
of her affection and wonderful fidelity. Soon after, by the 
assistance of Telemachus and a few faithful domestics, he slew 
all the suitors, and punished their retainers. Then he made 
himself known to Penelope and his father. 

The wanderings of Ulysses form the subject of the Odyssey 
of Homer. They are often spoken of by other ancient authors, 
Herodot. in vita Homeri, c. 7. & 26. ; Thucydid. iv. 24^ Polyb. ix. 
15. xii. 15.; Liv. i. 49. j Cic. or at. iii. 19, &c. Strabo men- 
tions vestiges of his having been in Spain, iii. 149. and in many 
other places, i. 17, 18, &c. but speaks doubtfully about their 
reality, i. 44. Some affirmed that he had been in Germany, 
Tacit. Ger. 3. and also in Britain, Solin. c. 25. 

Ulysses is said to have lived sixteen years after his return to 
Ithaca. Concerning the manner of his death, see p. 186. Hy- 
ginus says, that Penelope, after the death of Ulysses, married 
Telegonus, and had by him Italus, who gave name to the 
country of Italy ; and that Telemachus married Circe, of whom 
was born Latinus, whence the Latins were named, Fab. 127. 
But Servius on Virgil gives a different account, uSn. xii. 164. 
i. 277, & 533. x. 76. vii. 47. viii. 322. 

Festus says that Italy was called Ausonia> from Auson> the son 
fcf Ulysses and Calypso 5 so Serv. in Virg. JE?i. iii. 171. 

Diomedes, and other Leaders of the Greeks in the Trojan War. 

DIOMEDES, the son of Tydeus (Tydldes), and Deipjle, 
the daughter of Adrastus, king of jEtolia, and the companion 
of Ulysses in his most dangerous undertakings, was one of the 
bravest of the Greeks, said to be superior to his father, ( patre 
tnelior,) Horat. od. i. 15. 28.*, Stat. Achill. ii. 58. so also 
his charioteer Sthenelus excelled his father Capaneus, Stat. 

Achill. i. 467. Diomedes often encountered Hector, and 

having engaged in single combat with ^Eneas, would have slain 
him, had not iEneas been rescued by the interposition of Ve- 
nus, whom Diomedes wounded in the right arm, Virg. JEn. 
xi. 277. j Homer. II. v. 335. He also wounded Mars, lb. 
857. whence he is said to be ope Palladis superis par, Horat. 

* The proper name of this beggar was Arnjeus; he was named Ixus from his 
loquacity. Homer. Odyss. xviii. pr. hence called Binominis, Ovid, in Jbide, 417. Iru* 
it est subitO) qui modo Creesus erat y \. e. a beggar, Ovid. TrisU iii. 7. 43. So Crcrso 
BiviTiOR : Iro paujerior, Marital, v. 40. *i. 77. 

cd. 



Diomedes, Idomeneus, fyc. 



459 



td. k 6. t& His wife JEgiUle v. -ea, having disgraced him 

in his absence by connecting herself with Cyllabarus or Co- 
metes, the son of SthEnelus, Serv, in Virg. JEn. viii. 9. xi. 
269. Ovid. ib. 351. which is said to have happened to him by 
the wrath of Venus, Ib. Ovid. Met. xiv. 477. he did not re- 
turn into his native country, but went into Italy, see p. 186. 
where his companions, while Agmon> one of their number, ut- 
tered impious language against Venus, were changed into birds, 
Ovid. Met. xiv. 484. &c; Virg. ib. hence called the Birds of 
Diomedesy a species of sea-fowl, supposed to be herons, (ardex,) 
similar to swans, Ovid. ib. 509. Pliny says they were like coots 
(fultca) ; that they were found only in the insula Diomedea 9 
small islands in the Hadriatic, near mount Garganus j that they 
shewed a fondness for Greeks, and a dislike to those of other 
nations, x. 44. s. 61. Strabo speaks of this metamorphosis as 
having happened after the death of Diomedes, from the grief 
of his companions at that event ; and mentions nearly the same 
wonderful things concerning the nature of these birds with 
Pliny, vi. p. 284. 

IDOMENEUS, the son of Deucalion and grandson of MU 
nos, king of Crete, Pausan. v. 25. another of the generals of 
the Greeks against Troy, being overtaken by a tempest m his 
return home, vowed to sacrifice to the gods whatever he should 
first meet upon his landing. This happened to be his own 
son. Having performed his vow, or, as others say, having 
attempted to perform it, and a pestilence having followed, he 
was expelled by his subjects, as a person unnatural to his off- 
spring, and odious to the gods, Serv. in Virg. JEn. iii. 122. ; 
and having sailed into Italy, settled in Calabria, (Et Salentinos 
obsedit milite campos Lyttius, i. e. Cretensis Idomeneus,) Ib. 400. 
Diodorus writes that Idomeneus died in Crete, and was 
honoured as a god after his death, v. 79.; Strabo speaks of him 
as an excellent man, (a^o-roj,) xiii. 589 *, and Homer says, he 
had the good fortune to lose none of his men in returning from 
Troy, Odyss. v. 191. He is called by Horace ingens, Od. iv. 9. 

19. Meriones, another Cretan leader, was cousin-german 

to Idomeneus, the son of Molus and grandson of Minos, 
Diodor. v. 79. also distinguished by his bravery, Horat. i. 6. 15. 
et Ib. 15. 26. He fought with Deiphobns, the son of Priam, 
and wounded him. 

There was a prediction, that the first person who landed on 
the Trojan coast should fall, Ovid. ep. xiii. 93. Protesilaus 
©r IolkuS) however, the son of Iphiclus, from Phylace> a city 

of 



460 



History of Greece, 



of Thessaly, Lucan. vi, 352. hence called Phylacides, Pro-- 
pvt. i.. 19. 7. or from his grandfather Phy/atus, sprung on 
shore, and was slain by Hector, Ovid. Met. xii. 67. His wife, 
{conjux Phylaceia, Ovid. Trist. v. 14. 39.) called Laoda- 
mia, the daughter of Acastus, overwhelmed with grief at the 
news, caused an image of him to be made, which, to mitigate 
her sorrow, she placed in her bed-chamber, and used to em- 
brace as the real person, Ovid. ep. xiii. 151. The father 
having got notice of it, ordered the image to be burnt on a 
funeral pile*, Laodamia, unable to sustain her grief, threw herself 
into the flames, and perished, Hygin. 103. & 104. Others 
say, that she begged of the gods to be permitted an interview 
with her deceased husband for three hours \ which, being 
granted, she expired in his embraces. Ib. & Serv. in Virg* 
JEn. vi, 447. 



GENERAL HISTORY of GREECE. 

THE original inhabitants of Greece, as of most other coun- 
tries, lived long in a savage state. Dispersed over the 
~ country, they had neither cities nor laws. In process of time^ 
they formed themselves into a number of states, governed by 
kings or princes called tyranni. The most ancient kingdom is 
said to have been SlCTON, founded by JEgialeusy b. C. 2089. 
The kingdom of Argos began under Inachus, 1856 ; that of 
JMycene under Perseus, 1344. 

Cecrops from Egypt first civilized the rude inhabitants of At- 
tica-, b. C. 1556. He divided the country into twelve districts 
or boroughs, and instituted a court of justice called the Areo- 
pagus. Amphictyon, the third king of Athens, procured a con- 
federacy among the states of Greece, called from him the council 
of the Amphictyons ; which met twice a year, in spring at Delphi, 
and in autumn at Antela y z. village near the straits of Thermo- 
pylae to offer up common sacrifices, and to consult for the 
common interest. 

THESEUS, one of the succeeding kings, united the twelve 
boroughs of Cecrops into one city, ATHENS, and admitted 
the people into a large share of authority in the administration of 
government, b. C. 1234. CODRUS was the last king of this 
line, who devoted himself to death for his country, b. C. 109T.. 

After 



History of Greece, 



461 



After him the title of king was abolished ; and a chief magis- 
trate, called Archon, appointed for life. Afterwards, the con- 
tinuance in this office was limited, first to ten years, and then 
to one year. At last nine Archons were chosen, and the chief 
of the nine was called the Archon, and gave his name to the 
current year. See p. 425. 

The kingdom of Thebes was founded by CADMUS from 
Phoenicia, who built that city, and first introduced letters into 
Greece, b. C. 1493. The adventures of his posterity, La'ius, 
Jocasta, Oedipus, Eteocles, and Polyn'ices, afforded ample mat- 
ter for the fictions of the poets, see p. 429, 

The first enterprise in which the Greeks exerted their united 
force, was the war against Troy/ which they took after a ten 
years' siege. For the expedition of Jason to Colchis is so in- 
volved in fable, {see p. 439. ) as indeed all the early transactions 
of the Greeks are, that nothing certain can be affirmed con- 
cerning it. 

The states of Greece were united together, not only by one 
common language and religion, but also by various games, to 
which they all resorted, and during which all hostilities were 
suspended. These were the Olympic, the Isthmian, the Pythian, 
and Nemaan games, see p. 281. But the chief bond of union, 
was the council of the Amphictyons, by which they were after- 
wards enabled to sustain the formidable attacks made upon 
them. This council, however, did not possess any absolute 
power of internal controul. Hence, among the different states, 
intestine contentions were carried on with the greatest ani- 
mosity. 

The first state which obtained an ascendancy over the rest, 
was SPARTA or LACEDiEMON. This was owing to the 
laws of LYCURGUS, an institution the most singular that 
occurs in history. Sparta had been long governed by the de- 
scendants of Hercules, under whom, instead of one king, two 
ruled with equal authority, see p. 416. Lycurgus, being invested 
with regal authority in right of his nephew Charilaus, a minor, 
after travelling through various countries, established a body of 
laws, copied chiefly from the laws of Minos in Crete, Strabo, x. 
482. The two kings were continued ; but their authority was 
restricted by a senate of twenty-eight, nominated for life by the 
people, and by five Ephtiri created annually. He instituted an 
equal division of land, abolished the use of gold and silver, and 
ordained that all should eat in public. His chief attention was 
directed to the education of youth. At seven years of age they 

were 



462 



History of Greece, 



were taken from their parents, and intrusted to the charge of 
elderly men of the first rank in the city, who by a rigid dis- 
cipline might train them to obedience, to love their country, 
to respect the aged, to bear hardships, and to scorn danger, 
The Spartans were a nation of soldiers. Their chief employ- 
ment was hunting and bodily exercise. The ground was cul- 
tivated by the Heiota, a kind of slaves, whom they treated with 
the greatest cruelty •, which is the more surprising, as in other 
respects they were generous and humane.* 

* The Helotx, or Helors, were different from domestic slaves, of whom there is 
said to have been a greater number at Lacedaemon than in any other city of Greece, 
Thucydid. viii. 40. The Helots occupied a middle state between slaves and free citi- 
zens. Being the property of the public, they could not be sold, nor made free, but by 
public authority, Strab. viii. 365. ; Pausan. hi. 20. They not only cultivated the 
ground, but served in the fleet and in the army. In the army every Opplites or heavy 
armed soldier was accompanied by one or more of them, Ib. iv. 8. Sometimes by seven. 
Thus at the battle of Plat*ea there were 5000 Spartans, and 35,000 Helots, Herodot. 
is, 10. & a8. The Helots, from their number and courage, were a continual source 
of apprehension to the citizens, especially in times of public danger. In the Pelopon- 
nesian war, acoo of the bravest of them were, by the basest treachery, destroyed at 
once. Freedom having been publicly promised to such as had distinguished themselves 
most by their valour, these 2000 claimed the proffered reward ; and the justice of their 
pretensions being admitted, they were led in solemn procession round the temples, with 
chaplets of flowers on their heads, which was the ceremony usually observed when they 
were made free. They soon after disappeared, nor was it known in what manner 
they perished, Thucydid. iv. 80.; Plutarch, in Lycurg. Diodorus says, that their 
masters were charged to put them to death privately at their houses, xii. 67. The 
Spartans affixed no criminality to such cunning. To train their youths to the strata- 
gems of war, they were encouraged to commit petty thefts, provided they did it with- 
out being discovered ; but if they allowed themselves to be detected, they were se- 
verely punished. Hence, to prevent detection, a boy who had stolen a young fox, and 
hid him under his garment, suffered the animal to tear out his very bowels, so that he 
died on the spot. Plutarch, who relates this fact, says, that he himself had seen boyc 
scourged to death at the altar of Diana, without uttering a groan : in vita Lycurgi, 
This scourging boys were obliged to submit to, at a sacred solemnity, in presence of 
their friends and relations, not by way of punishment, but to enure them to bear pain ; 
and it was sometimes applied so severely as to prove fatal, Cic. Tusc. ii. 13. & 14.; 
Senec. de provid.4.; Lactant. in Stat. Tbeb. viii. 437. Cicero mentions his having 
seen similar instances of their hardiness, while they were engaged in their exercises, 
Tusc, q. v. 37.- ■ To accustom young men to the arts of war, some of the stoutest 
among them were sent to the country, armed only with daggers, and carrying with them 
a little necessary provision. During the day-time they lay in ambuscade, concealed 
among the bushes; whence that custom was called CRYPTIA; and in the nighttime 
they sallied forth, and slew such of the Helots as they found in their way. Plutarch 
thinks this practice was not instituted by Lycurgus, but took place afterwards; as well as 
other instances of cruelty exercised towards the Helots. The Helot* were some-, 
times forced to drink to excess, and in that state introduced into the public halls, that 
by seeing the baseness of drunkenness, young men might be deterred from it, ib. The 
Helots were made to sing low and vulgar songs, and forbidden to repeat any of a li- 
beral kind ; as those of Aloman and Terfander. This harsh treatment of the Helots gave 
occasion to the saying," That at Sparta a freeman was the freest of all men, and a slave 
the greatest of slaves," Ib. Hence it is not to be wondered at that the Helots were 
always disposed to take part against their oppressors, Thucydid. i. ioi.iv. 80. 

12 The 



History of Greece* 



The institutions of Lycurgus are said to have continued in 
force about five hundred years. The courage of the Lace- 
daemonians was soon put to the test by a long war, in which 
they were engaged with the Messenians, who, after a 
desperate struggle, were in the end completely subdued, b. C» 
664.* 

The 



* There were three different wars, each of considerable length, betwixt the 
Lacedemonians and Messenians. The first took place soon after the time of Lycur- 
gus. It was occasioned by an injury offered to some Spartan virgins by a body of 
Messenian young men, at the temple of Diana, which stood on the confines of both 
countries. Teleclus, one of the Spartan kings, who happened to be present, attempting 
to prevent this outrage, was slain. The Messenians alleged that these supposed vir- 
gins were young men in disguise, with daggers under their cloaths, placed there with 
an intention to surprise them. Other causes of hostility concurring, a bloody war 
commenced, which was carried on for above twenty years with the greatest animosity. 
The Spartans bound themselves by an oath not to return till they reduced Messene ; 
but after an absence of ten years, fearing the consequences of a want of progeny, they 
sent home such young men as had joined the army after the oath had been taken. 
Their offspring were called PARTHENIiE v. -it. Messene was at last taken by stra- 
tagem, and the hardest conditions imposed on the inhabitants. The Parthenians finding 
themselves treated with contempt by the Spartans after their return from the Mes- 
senian war, formed a conspiracy with the Kelots for their destruction. But the plot 
being discovered, they were expelled from Lacedasmon; and having sailed into Italy 
under PHALANTHUS, settled atTarentum, Pausan.iv. 14. Seep. 166. 

After a rigorous subjection of thirty-nine years, Pausan. iv. (Justin says eighty 
years, iv. 5.) the Messenians resumed the war under ARISTOMENES, a man of sur- 
prising courage and abilities. The Spartans being defeated after an obstinate engage- 
ment, sent to consult the oracle of Delphi about the event of the war. They were 
directed to seek a general from the Athenians. That state, as Justin says, through 
contempt, sent them TYRTiEUS,a poet, and a schoolmaster, who was lame of a foot, 
Pausan. iv. 15. ; Sirab. viii. %<)%. The Spartans, although by no means pleased with 
their new general, yet, from veneration for the oracle, obeyed his commands. Their 
success did not answer their expectations. Being routed in three different actions, they 
were now reduced almost to despair, and had thoughts of concluding a peace upon any 
terms. But Tyrtasus so animated them by his verses in praise of military glory, Horat. 
<ari.p. 204. Justin, iv. 5. that they determined to try another battle, in which they 
gained a complete victory ; chiefly by the treachery of Aristocrates, king of the 
Arcadians, who were joined in confederacy with the Messenians. Aristomenes, after 
performing prodigies of valour, was some time after made prisoner, with fifty of his 
companions. Being thrown into a deep cavern, the usual punishment of the meanest 
malefactors at Sparta, they were all killed by the fall, except Aristomenes; who, after 
remaining three days among the dead carcases, made his escape in the most wonderful 
manner ; and afterwards getting possession of the town of Era> defended it against the 
Lacedaemonians near eleven years. At last, however, by a strange accident it fell into 
their hands, and the Messenians who defended it retired into Sicily, where they settled 
at Messina, Pausan. iv. 23. See p. 357. Aristomenes remained in Greece, where 
he married all his daughters to persons of the first rank, except the youngest, who mar- 
ried a prince of Rhodes. Aristomenes accompanied her to that island, where he died. 
He had formed a plan, in conjunction with the Arcadians, of surprising Sparta, but was 
again betrayed by Aristocrates, the Arcadian king, on which account that prince was 
stoned to death by his subjects, Pausan. iv. 23.— —The Messenians were reduced 
nearly to the same state of servitude with the Helots; whence the Helots were all called 
Messenii, Tbucydid. i. 101. and Sparta having gained so great an accession of terri- 
tory, soon began to assume the pre-eminence among the other states of Greece. 

Some 



464 



History of Greece. 



The Athenians, agitated by discord under their Archons 3 
and seeing the good effects of the institutions of Lycurgus, 
pitched upon DRACO, a man of wisdom and integrity, to draw 
up a body of laws for them, b. C. 623, The laws of Draco 
punished all crimes equally with death ; hence they were said 
to be written with blood. Their excessive severity made them 
soon be abolished. SOLON was next chosen as legislator, b.C. 
594. ; and his laws remained in force while Athens continued a 
free state. The chief power was lodged in the hands of the 
people, which, as it was not properly balanced, they often 
abused. The most illustrious citizens, upon mere suspicion, 
were banished for ten years, by what was called the Ostracism*; 
a form of punishment not intended as a disgrace, but by way 
of precaution, to dispel the jealousy of the people. 

The laws of Solon were as remarkable for their lenity, as those 
of Lycurgus were for their rigour, see p. 299. There was an 
"asylum even for slaves ; and when animals were exhausted with 
labour, they were sometimes supported in a public inclosure, 
Plutarch, in vita Catonis Censoris. 

Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece. The other 
six were, 1 hales of Miletus, Bias of Priene, Chilo of Sparta, 
Pittacus of Mitylene, Qleobulus of Rhodes, and Periander of 



Some time after the expulsion of Xerxes and his army from Greece, a great part of 
Lacedsemon was overwhelmed by an earthquake, in which above twenty thousand of 
the inhabitants are said to have perished, Diodor. xi. 63. JElian says, there were only 
five houses left, vi. 7. The Messenians and Helots thinking this a favourable oppor- 
tunity for regaining their liberty, took up arms, and marched to Sparta to crush their 
oppressors. But Archidamus, the Spartan king, apprehending what happened, having 
collected and armed those citizens who remained, repulsed the aggressors. They hav- 
ing seized on Itbuxie, a strong fort in Messenia, made frequent inroads from thence into 
Laconia. The Lacedaemonians, in their distress sought assistance from the Athenians, 
which, after some opposition, was, by the advice of Cimon, granted them. Ci- 
mon marched with a large body of men into Laconia. Some other Grecian states, 
prompted by the example of the Athenians, also sent auxiliaries. But the Spartans, 
suspecting the Athenians of being too much inclined to the interest of the Messenians, 
sent back their forces ; which greatly exasperated the Athenians. Ib. 64.; Justin, iv. 6.; 
Plutarch, in Cimone. This, joined with other causes, gave occasion to the long and 
bloody W3r which afterwards took place between these two states, and finally termi- 
nated in their mutual destruction. The Messenians and Helots defended themselves in 
Ithome for about ten years. At last they were obliged to surrender, on condition of 
leaving Peloponnesus altogether. The Athenians received them with their wives and 
children, rather, as Thucydides says, from enmity against the Lacedaemonians, than 
from motives of compassion ; and granted them a settlement at Naupactus, which city 
the Athenians had lately taken from the Locri Ozoke, Thucydid. i. 103. In the Pelo- 
ponnesian war the Athenians having possessed themselves of Pylos, transplanted the 
Messenians to that place, as being in their native country ; from whence they greatly 
infested the Lacedaemonian territory by their depredations, lb. iv. 41. 
- * It was so called, because the people gave their votes by writing the name of the 
person on shells or small pieces of brick (otrrgeucu, testa vel festal*). 

*4- Corinth. 



History of Greece. 



465 



Corinth, Contemporary with whom were, JEsop the author 
of fables, and Anacharsis the Scythian philosopher ; the poets, 
Archilochus of Paros, Steskhorus of Himera, Simonldes of Ceos % 
Hipponax of Ephesus> Aristaus of Proconnesus, Orpheus of Croton, 
Sappho and Alcxus of Lesbos ; and somewhat later, Anacreon of 
Teos in Ionia, Pythagoras, and r^fjpcr the inventor of tragedies 

Before the death of Solon, PISISTRATUS, his relation, 
an artful man, by patronizing the poor, had the address to make 
himself master of the government of Athens, b. C. 560. which 
he held for thirty years, and transmitted it to his sons Hippias 
and Hipparchus. But tyranny was abolished by means of two 
friends, Harmodius and Aristogzton, and the family of Alcmseon, 
aided by the Lacedaemonians. — Hipparchus was slain, and Hip- 
pias fled to DARIUS king of Persia, b. C. 510. which gave 
occasion to his war with Greece. 

The Grecian cities in Ionia, which had been subject to Persia, 
were at this time induced to revolt, by Aristagoras, deputy to 
Hystiseus the Persian governor of Miletus. Having obtained 
assistance from the Athenians, they burnt Sardis. To revenge 
which Darius, having crushed the lonians, sent an army of one 
hundred thousand foot and ten thousand horse against Athens, 
under Datis and Artaphernes, attended by Hippias. But they 
were defeated by Miltiades in the battle of Marathon, with 
only ten thousand Athenians, b. C. 490. Hippias was among 
the slain. Darius resolved to make war on Greece in person, 
but was prevented by death. 

XERXES, his son, having ma4e a bridge of boats over the 
Hellespont, and cut through mount Athos, led into Greece a 
prodigious army of about two millions of men, according to 
some, five millions, attended by a fleet of one thousand two 
hundred sail, besides lesser vessels, containing about six hundred 
thousand men. But this mighty host was opposed at Ther- 
mopylae, by LEONID AS king of Sparta, with only three hun- 
dred men, who nobly devoted themselves for their country, after 
killing twenty thousand of the enemy, b. C. 480. See p. 311. 
The Persian fleet was soon after defeated by the Greeks near 
Salamis, with about only three hundred sail, chiefly by the con- 
duct of THEMISTOCLES, the Athenian, who had persuaded 
his countrymen to abandon their city, and commit themselves 
to their wooden walls or ships. — Xerxes, who had been witness 
of the battle from a lofty throne erected on shore, terrified at 
the event, fled towards the Hellespont, which he crossed ia 
a fishing boat, leaving the care of his army to Mardonius, whs 



History of Gi-eece, 



some time after was defeated and slain by Pausanicts * king of 
Sparta, and ARISTIDES, the Athenian, at Plataea. On the 
evening of the same day, the combined fleet of the Lacedaemo- 
nians and Athenians under Leotychides and Xantippus, land- 
ing their men, burnt the Persian fleet at Mycale in Ionia, cut- 
ting to pieces forty thousand of the enemy who guarded it, 
together with their general Tigranes. — After this no Persian 
army ever crossed the Hellespont. The Persian monarchs 
henceforth employed a more successful method against Greece, 
by their emissaries and bribery setting the different states against 
one another. 

By the art of Themistocles, by the moderation of Arisfides, 
deservedly surnamed the Just, and by the generosity and abilities 
of CIMON, the son of Miltiades, the Athenians obtained the 
ascendancy over the Lacedaemonians among the confederated 
states of Greece. Cimon being placed at the head of affairs at 
Athens, prosecuted the war against the Persians with great 
success. He gained three victories over them in one day. 
Having destroyed their fleet at the mouth of the river Eury- 
me'don, he disembarbed his troops, and defeated their army by 
land, and the same evening overpowered a fleet of Phoenicians, 
which was coming to their assistance. At last a peace was 
concluded, by which liberty was granted to all the Grecian states 
in Asia and the islands, in the reign of Artaxerxes, b. C. 470. 

About this time flourished Herodotus the historian ; the poets 
Pindar zn&JEschylus ; the philosophers Anaxagoras, Empedocles, 
and Democrittis. 

At Athens, after the death of Cimon, PERICLES, the son 
of Xantippus who commanded at the battle of Mycale, by his 
eloquence and popular arts, procured the chief direction of 
affairs, which he retained for forty years. He adorned the city 
with buildings,, and gratified the taste of the citizens for every 
thing that was splendid and elegant. By these expences, he 
exhausted the public revenues, corrupted the morals of the 
people, and alienated the allies by rigorous exactions. At 
last the jealousy which Sparta had long entertained against 
Athens broke out into an open war, b. C. 431. which was 
called the PELOPONNESIANWAR, and lasted twenty-seven 
years. It was carried on with the greatest animosity on both 
sides. The history of it is written by Thucydtdes, who then had 
a share in the management of public affairs. 

* Pausanias having afterwards formed a plot against his country, and perceiving 
that his treachery was discovered, fled to a temple for protection. There he was 
blocked up, that he might perish through want of food. His mother, who was then 
alive, being informed of his guilt, is said to have brought the first stone to barricade 
«he temple, Nep. 5. Ovid, in U. 617., 

The 



History of Greece* 



467 



The Lacedaemonians led an army into Attica, and ravaged 
the country. The numbers which flocked into the city pro- 
duced a plague, of which many died, and among the rest Peri- 
cles. The famous physician HIPPOCRATES on this occasion 
exerted his skill. — The Lacedaemonians next besieged Plataea, 
which they took after a desperate resistance, and put the inha- 
bitants to the sword. 

The Athenians recovering from their distresses, made various 
attacks on the territories of the Lacedaemonians and their allies 
with great success. At the instigation of ALCIBIADES, a 
man remarkable for his virtues and his vices, they sent an army 
into Sicily against Syracuse ; where, after various turns of for- 
tune, their fleet was totally destroyed by the Syracusans, aided 
by the Spartans, under Gylippus, and their land-forces either 
cut to pieces or made captives. Their generals Nicias and De- 
mosthenes were put to death. Here the glory of Athens * fell* 
Soon after another fleet of theirs was destroyed at JEgos Potamos, 
by Lysander, general of the Lacedaemonians, who took Athens 
after a six-months siege, and set over it thirty men called Tyrants, 
who unjustly put many of the citizens to death. According to 
Xenophon, more perished in eight months by their cruelty, than 
had fallen in the war for several years. They were expelled 
by the conduct and courage of THRASYBULUS, who was 
secretly aided by the Thebans. Attempting afterwards to re- 
cover their authority by the assistance of Sparta, they were put 
to the sword. To calm the minds of the citizens, Thrasybulus 
proposed an amnesty^ or act of oblivion, for all that was past. 
The seeds of rancour however still remained ; and amidst these 
popular dissensions, Socrates, the most illustrious of the ancient 
philosophers, fell a sacrifice to the malice of his enemies, aged 
70. b. C. 400. 

SOCRATES had devoted himself to the education of youth 
for forty years. His exemplary virtue, his superior talents, and 
the attachment of his scholars, excited the hatred of the Sophists^ 
or pretenders to science, and of their adherents. They first em- 
ployed Aristophanes, the writer of comedies, to expose his cha- 
racter to ridicule on the stage ; which he did in an illiberal satire, 
called the Clouds, still extant. They now brought him to a for- 
mal trial. They charged him with corrupting the youth, and in- 
troducing new deities. Socrates made'a noble defence; but the 
faction of his enemies prevailed. He was sentenced to drink 
hemlock, the usual mode of putting condemned citizens to death 
at Athens. During his imprisonment, which lasted thirty days, 

* Hie primum opes illius civitatis victa, cQmm'tnttta, depress&que sunt; in hocportu 
fsc. Syracusarum) Atbentimium wbilitatisy imperii gloria naufragium factum txistimatur t 
Ciu Verr, v, 37. 

Hh2 he 



History of Greece. 



he behaved with amazing tranquillity of mind, entertaining his 
friends who came to visit him, with lectures on philosophy. He 
might have made his escape, but from regard to the laws of his 
country, he would not. He drank off the fatal cup without 
emotion. It was not till some time after the death of this truly 
great man that the Athenians became sensible of their error* 
They were penetrated with shame and remorse for their injus- 
tice. They condemned Anytus * and Melltus, his principal ac- 
cusers, to suffer capital punishment, disgraced all those who had 
any hand in his death, and decreed the highest honours to his 
memory. From Socrates sprung the various sects of philoso- 
phers, whose different opinions have ever since engaged the at- 
tention of the learned. Cic. de Orat. iii. i<5. & 17. 

Contemporary with Socrates were the tragic poets Sophocles 
and Euripides ; Lysias, the orator 5 Phidias and Scopas, architects 
and statuaries. 

The most famous of the scholars of Socrates were PLATO 
and XENOPHON, who have both given us some account of 
his life. Xenophon was no less conspicuous for his military 
skill, than for his learning. CYRUS, having rebelled against 
his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia, engaged a considerable 
body of Greeks in his service, whom he led all the way from 
Sardis to the plains of Cunaxa near Babylon. By their assist- 
ance the king's army was defeated ; but Cyrus being slain in 
the moment of victory, and the rest of his troops joining the 
king, the Greeks were left alone. Their commanders, Clear* 
chus, Menon, Proxenus, Agias, and Socrates, with several infe- 
rior officers, being induced to go to the Persian camp under 
pretence of a conference, were treacherously put to death. 
The Greeks giving up all for lost, were roused from their de- 
spondency by Xenophon, then a volunteer in the army. By his 
advice, they chose new commanders, and himself among the 
rest \ under whose conduct they forced their way through the 
enemy's country for upwards of two thousand miles ; and after 
surmounting incredible difficulties and dangers, at last arrived 
safe at the Euxine sea. This is called the Retreat of the ten 
thousand, one of the most memorable transactions in history.f 

AGESILAUS, king of Sparta, being sent into Asia with 
an army, took several cities in Phrygia, defeated Tissaphernes, the 
Persian general, near the river Pactolus, and spread terror 
through the whole empire ; but in the midst of his successes he 
was recalled by the Ephori, to defend his country against a 

* Hence Socrates is called Anyti rkus, Horat. Sat. 1. 4. 3. Ovid, in Ibin> 561. 

f Xenophon in his old age usually resided at Scillus^ (-untie*,) a small town in Elis, 
about twenty stadia, or two miles and a half from Olympia ; where he composed most 
®f his works; Ex f edit. Cyr. vi. ; Diogen. Laert, ii. $%. 

confederacy 



History of Greece* 



469 



fconfederacy formed against it, through the influence of Persian 
gold, by the other states of Greece, who, under the conduct 
of Conon and Iphicrates, the Athenian generals, had gained 
considerable advantages over the Lacedaemonians. This was 
called the Corinthian war, and was terminated by a shameful 
peace which the Spartans made with the king of Persia, called 
the peace of Antalcides^ from the person who concluded it, where- 
by the Grecian states in Asia were again subjected to the em- 
pire of Persia, b. C. 387. Thus, by the dissensions of the Greeks, 
were annihilated all the advantages of many glorious victories. 

Some time after this the Lacedaemonians, taking advantage 
of some divisions at Thebes, seized upon the citadel of that city, 
called Gadmxa, and held it for four years. It was recovered by 
the brave conduct of PELOPIDAS, assisted by the Athenians, 
b. C. 377. 

EPAMINONDAS, the most accomplished of the Greeks, 
being joined with Pelopidas in the command of the Theban 
army, defeated the Lacedaemonians under Cleombrotus their 
king, in the memorable battle of Leuctra, b. C. 370. After 
which they led their forces into Peloponnesus, to the very city 
of Sparta, which was defended by Agesilaus. In a subsequent 
campaign, Epaminondas a second time overcame the Lacedae- 
monians, who were now joined by the Athenians and other 
allies, in the battle of Mantinea but being mortally wounded 
by a javelin, the head of which remained in his body, he was 
carried off the field, and survived, till being assured that his 
men had gained the victory, and seeing his shield safe, he 
drew the head of the javelin out of his body, and expired. 
As the glory of Thebes had risen with Epaminondas, so it also 
fell with him, b. C. 363. A peace was soon after concluded 
between the states of Greece, which lasted for several years. 

The Greeks were now greatly degenerated from the virtue 
of their ancestors. An universal spirit of party, the lust of 
power, and regard to private intefest, had extinguished patri- 
otism and every noble sentiment. Sparta was corrupted by the 
introduction of riches by Lysander 5 and Athens, misled by her 
orators, became daily weaker and weaker. 

PHILIP, king of Macedonia, at this time began to display 
his great abilities. He had been educated under Epaminondas 
at Thebes, having been carried thither as an hostage, at ten 
years of age, with several others, by Pelopidas ; when he, as 
arbitrator, settled a difference concerning the crown between 
Amyntas the father of Philip, and Perdiccas his uncle, in favour 
of the latter. Philip being informed of his uncle's death, secretly 
fied from Thebes. Being raised to the throne at twenty-four 
H h 3 year* 



470 



History of Greece. 



years of age, in preference to his nephew, the lawful heir, he 
first subduecj the Illyrians and other neighbours, and then be- 
gan to turn his views towards Greece. By wonderful art, dis- 
simulation, and bribery, he embroiled the different states with 
one another, and then attacking with open force the Athenians 
and Thebans, his most violent opponents, who were incited 
by the eloquence of DEMOSTHENES, he completely defeated 
them in the famous battle of Cheron^a, which maybe con- 
sidered as the final period of the liberties of Greece, b. C. 337. 
Soon after, he was appointed general of the Greeks against the 
Persians, by the council of the Amphictyons, into which he 
had procured himself to be admitted. But while he was pre- 
paring for this expedition, he was murdered by a young man, 
named Pausanias, in revenge of a private affront he had received 
from one of the king's relations, for which Philip had declined 
giving him satisfaction, b. C. 336. 

ALEXANDER the Great, his son, succeeded at twenty-years 
of age. He had studied under ARISTOTLE, the most famous 
philosopher of his time. Upon his accession to the throne, the 
conquered states revolted. But Alexander, with amazing 
ability and dispatch, reduced them. Thebes was taken and de- 
stroyed. The Athenians, upon making their submission, were 
pardoned. Alexander then bent his whole attention on the 
Persian war. He crossed the Hellespont with only thirty 
thousand men, and five thousand horse. He defeated the Persian* 
first at the river Granlcus, and a second time at Issus, under the 
command of DARIUS CODOMANNUS, their king. That 
monarch's mother, Sisygambis, his wife and son, two daughters, 
and several other relations, fell into the hands of the conqueror, 
who treated them with the greatest generosity. After this 
Alexander over-ran Syria. Being refused admittance into Tyre, 
he laid siege to it, and took it in seven months, by carrying a 
bank across an arm of the sea, by which it was joined to the 
continent. From Tyre Alexander marched to Jerusalem, where 
he is said by Josephus to have granted the Jews particular pri- 
vileges. Having taken Gaza, which was nobly defended by 
Bcetis, he next subdued Egypt, and founded the city of Alex- 
andria near one of the mouths of the Nile. From thence he 
advanced into Lybia, to visit the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 
whose son he desired to be accounted. After his return, he 
set out in quest of Darius. Having crossed the Euphrates and 
Tigris, he came up with him near the city Arbela, at the head 
of an immense army. After a bloody engagement, Alexander 
gained a complete victory. Darius was soon after murdered 
by Bessus, governor of Bactriana, to whom he had fled,b. C. 330. 

12 In 



History of Greece. 



In him the Persian empire ended, after having existed, from its 
first establishment under Cyrus the Great, two hundred and six 
years. , 

After this Alexander, intoxicated by prosperity, gave himself 
up to intemperance and debauchery. He assumed the manners 
and dress of the Persians, ordering himself to be worshipped as 
a god. He put to death several of his best friends, Parmenio; 
C/itufy and Callitthenes. Still however he pursued his conquests. 
Having crossed the river Jaxartes, he defeated an army of the 
Scythians. He then turned his arms against India, and in a 
great battle defeated Porus, an illustrious prince of that coun- 
try on the banks of the Hydaspes* It was here he lost his 
famous horse Bucephalus, and built a city which he called after 
his name. He advanced as far as the Hyphasus, conquering 
a great many nations in his progress, and performing incredible 
exploits. He was resolved to lead his forces as far as the Ganges 
and beyond it •, but his soldiers refused to follow him. Where- 
upon he was with reluctance obliged to return. He divided 
his army into two parts. The one part, under Nearchus, 
coasted it along from the Indus to the mouth of the Euphrates, 
and from thence sailed up to Babylon : the other, under Alex- 
ander himself, proceeded by land, and encountered the greatest 
hardships. Upon Alexander's return to Babylon, ambassadors 
from all parts came to do him homage. But his intemperance 
and immoderate drinking threw him into a fever, of which he 
died, in the thirty-third year of his age, and twelfth of his reign, 
b. C. 324, having ordered his body to be conveyed to the temple 
of Jupiter Ammon. 

After the death of Alexander, his generals having met, ap~ 
pointed his brother Aridaus, a person of a weak understanding, 
and his infant son by Roxana, to succeed. PERDICCAS, to 
whom Alexander in his last moments had given his ring, was 
made regent. The empire was divided into thirty-three go- 
vernments, which were distributed among the different com- 
manders, each of whom resolved to make himself absolute, 
while Perdiccas proposed subduing them all one after another. 
They soon engaged in fierce and bloody wars, in which acts 
of the most horrid perfidy and cruelty were committed. The 
whole family of Alexander were, at different times, sacrificed 
to the ambition of his generals, and few of themselves died a 
natural death. Such were the effects of the unjust conquests 
of Alexander. 

Perdiccas, and EUMENES his friend, the only faithful adhe- 
rent to the royal family, with several others, being cut off, ANTI- 
GONUS and his son DEMETRIUS, called Mhrches* or the 

Hh 4 taker 



History of Greece. 



taker of cities, became the most powerful *, oil which account 
a Combination was formed against them by Ptolemy governor of 
Egypt* Seleucus of Babylon, Cassander of Macedonia, and Ly- 
simachus of Thrace* A great battle was fought near IPSUS in 
Phrygia, in which Antigonus was defeated and slain, b. C. 301. 
The conquests of Alexander were shared among the victors, 
who now assumed to themselves the title of Kings. Two only 
however transmitted their dominions to their descendants, 
Ptolemy and Seleucus, who were indeed the most deserving. 

During these transactions, there had been great revolutions 
in Greeee. The Lacedaemonians had taken up arms in the 
life time of Alexander, and were subdued by Antipater, whom 
Alexander had left governor of Macedonia in his absence. The 
Athenians, upon hearing of Alexander's death, gave vent to 
immoderate joy. Having engaged several states to join them, 
by the persuasion of Demosthenes, they marched against Anti- 
pater, and having defeated him, under the command of Sosthenes, 
obliged him to shut himself up in Lamia, a city of Thessaly. 
But he having received reinforcements, at last proved victorious. 
He demanded that those should be given up to him who were 
authors of the war. Demosthenes, that he might not fall 
into his hands, poisoned himself, see p, 287. During the strug- 
gles between the generals of Alexander, Athens frequently 
changed masters, and as often its form of government. Some- 
times aristocracy, sometimes democracy prevailed. The people 
favoured or condemned their chief citizens according to the 
caprice of their conquerors. 

Under Polysperchon, whom Antipater had appointed to suc- 
ceed him in the regency of Macedonia, in preference to his son 
Cassander, the democratical faction at Athens put to death 
the virtuous PHOCION, at an advanced age, a favourer of 
oligarchy, who had often commanded the armies of the republic 
with success. 

Cassander having become master of Athens, appointed 
DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS to govern it, which he did with 
great justice and moderation for ten years. The Athenians, 
out of gratitude for his merits, erected to him three hundred 
and sixty statues, the number of days at that time in the year, 
according to the Greeks. But Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, 
having expelled the Macedonian garrison from the city, 
restored the popular government. Phalereus retired into 
Egypt, where he got the charge of a splendid library which 
Ptolemy was then collecting at Alexandria. All his statues 
were now thrown down, and sentence of death pronounced 
against him. The Athenians paid almost divine honours to 

15 their 



History of Greece. 



473 



fcheir present master. But after the fatal battle of Ipsus, they 
refused him admission into their city. Demetrius, however, 
having retrieved his affairs, forced them to surrender, and still 
treated them with clemency. He was making rapid progress 
in the reduction of the rest of Greece, when he was called off 
by the information that Ptolemy and Lysimachus had stript 
him of his remaining possessions in Asia. Next year, however, 
upon the death of Cassander, he found means, by the murder 
of Cassander's son, to procure the crown of Macedonia, which 
he held for seven years. Ambitious to regain his father's 
dominions, he made great preparations for invading Asia. But 
being deserted by his troops, who, offended at his haughtiness, 
proclaimed Pyrrhus king of Epire, he fled into Greece, in the 
disguise of a common soldier. There having collected what 
forces he could raise, and leaving such places as continued 
faithful to him to his son Antigonus, he embarked for Asia with 
about eleven thousand men. But being unsuccessful in all his 
attempts, he was at last obliged, from mere want, to surrender 
himself to Seleucus. He died about three years after in capti- 
vity, by his intemperance in eating and drinking ; — a striking 
example of the uncertainty of fortune. 

PYRRHUS was soon obliged to relinquish Macedonia by 
Lysimachus ; who, engaging in war with Seleucus, was defeated 
and slain, b. C. 281. Seleucus, now the only surviving gene- 
ral of Alexander, was soon after assassinated in Macedonia by 
Ptolemy Ceraunus, brother to the king of Egypt, on whom 
he had conferred the greatest favours. Ceraunus, now made king 
of Macedonia, and also of Thrace, by the destruction of the 
family of Lysimachus, did not long enjoy the reward of his 
crimes. He was defeated and slain by the Gauls under Bren- 
nus, who at that time made an irruption into those countries. 
The Gauls, dispersed up and down after their victory, were 
unexpectedly attacked by a body of troops suddenly collected 
by Sosthenes, a private individual, and many of them cut to 
pieces. But Brennus, in a short time being strengthened by 
new reinforcements, overpowered Sosthenes. Advancing from 
thence to pillage the temple of Delphi, he is said to have pe- 
rished, with a great part of his troops, in a storm. Such as 
survived were cut off by the inhabitants of the country. Much 
about this time another body of Gauls settled in Asia, and gave 
name to the province of Galatia. 

After the death of Sosthenes, Antigonus Gonatus, the son 
of Demetrius, obtained the kingdom of Macedonia, b. C. 276, 
but was dispossessed of it by Pyrrhus, after returning from 
liis wars in Italy. Pyrrhus being slain at the siege of Argos, 

by 



History of Greece, 



by a tyle thrown by a woman from the top of a house, {eum op- 
pressit hostili tegula jacta manu. Ovid. Ib. 304.) Antigonus again 
recovered the crown, and after enjoying it thirty-four years, 
left it to his son Demetrius. 

The Lacedaemonians and Athenians, alarmed at the power 
of Antigonus, entered into a war against him \ but without 
success. The Athenians were again obliged to admit a garrison 
into Munichia. But while these two states were so miserably 
sunk from the lustre of their ancestors, the spirit of liberty was 
again revived by a few inconsiderable cities in Peloponnesus, 
Patra, Dyma y Phara, Leontium, Pal/ene, tsfc. These had for 
a long time been united together by a confederacy, called the 
Achaan League, upon terms of perfect equality and freedom ; 
but had never before made any figure. The abilities of a single 
man, at this time, raised them to eminence. ARATUS of 
Sicyon, having expelled the tyrant Nicocles from that place, 
engaged his countrymen to join the Achaean league, b. C. 252. 
Being made praetor of the Achaean s, he, with wonderful intre- 
pedity and conduct, took the citadel of Corinth from the Mace- 
donians by surprise, and induced that city, with several others, 
likewise to accede to the league. His great ambition was, to 
unite all the cities of Peloponnesus in one republic ; but he met 
with unsurm ountable obstacles in executing this design. AGIS 
king of Sparta, grieved at the corrupt morals of his city, and 
animated with an enthusiastic love of virtue, endeavoured to 
revive the ancient institutions of Lycurgus ; but failing in the 
attempt, was condemned and executed by the influence of his 
colleague Leonidas, who died soon after, b. C. 244. Cleomenes, 
the son of Leonidas, succeeding, accomplished the reformation 
which his father had opposed. He engaged in war with the 
Achaeans, and gained considerable advantages over them* 
Whereupon they asked assistance from Antigonus Doson, who 
reigned in Macedonia during the minority of his nephew Philip, 
the son of Demetrius. Cleomenes was defeated, and obliged to 
fly into Egypt, where he afterwards met with a miserable fate* 
Antigonus using his victory with great lenity, left the Spartans 
the full enjoyment of their liberty. But henceforth that city 
sunk into oblivion. It at last fell under the power of tyrants, 
first of Machanidas, and after him of Nabis. 

The Achaean league continued to flourish by the prudent 
conduct of Aratus. But being attacked and defeated by Scopas 
at the head of the iEtolians, a fierce people, who now began to 
distinguish themselves, they called in Philip king of Macedon, 
at that time a young man, to their assistance, who by his suc- 
cesses, 



History of Greece* 



475 



cesses obtained great influence in Peloponnesus. He was at 
first directed by the counsels of Aratus j but being offended at 
the freedom of his remonstrances on some parts of his conduct, 
and incited by the wicked suggestions of his flatterers, he caused 
him to be poisoned, while praetor the seventeenth time, toge- 
ther with his son; by which means he afterwards lost the 
assistance of the Achseans in his wars with the Romans. After 
the death of Aratus, the Achaean league was supported by 
PHILOPCEMEN, called, on account of his singular virtues* 
the last of the Greeks. - He, attempting to reduce Messene by 
surprise, which had revolted from the league, was taken pri- 
soner, and put to death by poison, b. C. 183. The Achseans 
afterwards revenged this outrage with great severity. 

After the reduction of Macedonia, the Romans, laying aside 
their former affected moderation, treated the states of Greece 
with less deference. They interposed their authority in all 
disputes, and assumed the same superiority over them as if they 
were already conquered. The Achseans having made war on 
the Lacedsemonians, at that time in alliance with Rome, were 
required in a commanding tone, to desist from hostilities. Pro- 
voked at this haughtiness, and stimulated by Diaus and Crito- 
laus, two seditious magistrates, they had the imprudence, by 
insulting the Roman deputies, to bring on themselves the whole 
weight of the Roman power, under which they were finally 
crushed, and together with them the whole of Greece. # 

Athens, however, although subdued, continued to maintain 
the most flattering of all empires, that of genius and taste. It 
was the school to which the most illustrious citizens of Rome 
repaired, to learn the arts of elegance and refinement. The 
democratical government was still preserved, and the people 
permitted to enjoy almost all their former privileges. In the war 
against Mithridates, Athens was constrained to side with that 
monarch, by Archelaus his general, and Aristion, a native of 
the place. Sylla having taken the city by assault, gave it up to 
be plundered by his soldiers, b. C. 86. The tyrant Aristion 
and many others were put to death. The Athenians, however, 
were still left in the enjoyment of their democracy. Upon the 
invasion of the northern nations, Greece was over-run by 
Alaric king of the Goths. Athens capitulated ; and by paying 
a ransom, was preserved, A. D. 396. 

* Peloponnesus and Grasia Propria were reduced into the form of a province, under 
she name of ACHAIA ; because at that time the Achaians were the principal people 
•f Greece, Peusan.vn.ifa 



History 



476 



History of the Greek Empire* 



HISTORY of the ROMAN EMPIRE in the East, 
or the GREEK EMPIRE. 

The Eastern empire, called also the Greek or Constantinopolitan 
empire, was saved by the settlement of the barbarous nations in 
the West, where they seem to have spent their force. Satisfied 
"with their acquisitions, or divided among themselves, they 
thought no more of new conquests. The great policy of the 
Greek emperors was to foment their divisions. 

The history of the Greek empire is seldom interesting. It 
presents a sad picture of disorder and weakness, attended with 
all the calamities which arise from luxury, superstition, fanati- 
cism, and cruelty. The imperial dignity was neither hereditary 
nor elective. It was usually procured by guilt, and often led 
to an untimely death. The emperors, immersed in pleasure, 
and taken up about theological controversies, or the disputes of 
the circus, paid little attention to the affairs of government. 

Zeno, who sent Theodoric into Italy, against Odoacer, is said 
to have been buried alive, in a fit of intoxication, by the orders 
of the empress Ariadne, A. D. 491, by whose influence Anas- 
tasius, one of the lowest officers about court, succeeded and 
reigned twenty-seven years. 

Justin, his successor, was the son of a Thracian shepherd, 
and could neither read nor write. He reigned nine years. 

Justinian, 527, the nephew and successor of Justin, re- 
covered Africa from the Vandals, and most of Italy from the 
Goths, by means of his general Belisarius, whose great abilities 
might have restored the empire ; but he was treated with base 
ingratitude by Justinian. Still however his allegiance continued 
inviolable *. Narses, who completed the conquest of Italy, met 
with the same return from the son of Justinian ; but he, in 
revenge, when recalled from his government, is said to have 
invited the Lombards to take possession of that country. 

Justinian reduced the Roman laws into a regular form, by 
the assistance of Tribonian, and some other lawyers. This 
code of laws, called the Corpus Juris, is divided into three 
parts, which were published at different times, the Institutions) 
Digesta or Pandects, and Novella, 

Under this emperor the manufacture of silk was first intro- 
duced into Europe from Persia by two monks. 

* The circumstance of Belisarius being deprived of his sight, and forced to beg by 
the highway, (date obolum Bulisakio,) is thought to be fabricated. See Gib' 
Sens Decline of the Roman Empire. 

Justin 



History of the Greek Empire, 47? 



Justin II. A. D. 565, unable to oppose the Persians under 
Chosroes, chose Tiberius, a man of merit, and at first only a 
soldier of fortune, as his associate in the empire ; who named 
Mauritius as his successor. He was dethroned and cruelly 
murdered, with his wife and five sons, by Phocas, who was 
originally a common soldier, and raised to the empire by an 
army of rebels, A. D. 602. This odious tyrant acknowledged 
the supremacy of the Roman Pontiff, as universal bishop, and 
gave up to Pope Boniface III. the famous temple called Pan- 
theon, to be converted into a church, which was consecrated to 
the Virgin Mary and all saints. Phocas was ignominiously slain 
by his successor Heraclius, formerly praefect of Africa, A.D.610. 

Heraclius, having terminated the Persian war with success 
and recovered the cross of our Saviour, sunk into indolence \ 
and, regardless of the state, devoted his chief attention to the. 
controversies of the church. 

In the reign of Heraclius, MAHOMET began to publish his 
new religion, at Mecca, in Arabia, his native city. The book 
which contains it is called the Koran or Al-Coran*, which Ma- 
homet pretended he received, chapter by chapter, from the an- 
gel Gabriel. It was at first written on the plate-bones of 
camels by his amanuensis ; for he himself could neither write nor 
read. He is said to have composed it by the assistance of a Jew, 
and of one Sergius a monk. The magistrates of Mecca, con- 
vinced of his imposture, and suspecting he had a design on the 
government, proposed apprehending him ; but he having got 
notice of their intention, fled to Medina, A, D. 622. This forms 
the famous sera of the Mahometans, called the Hegira, or flight, 
from which they compute their time by lunar years. At Me- 
dina Mahomet met with a more favourable reception, being 
joined by a number of proselytes, whom he called Mussulmans, 
or faithful men, and made all of them soldiers. He soon 
acquired sufficient force to reduce the city of Mecca ; and in a v 
short time after became master of all Arabia, chiefly by the asto- 
nishing valour of his general Kaled. Mahomet died, A. D.632. 
His successors who were called Caliphs, extended their con- 
quests with incredible rapidity. In a few years, they over-ran 
Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia ; they conquered 
Egypt, and ail Africa, to the straits of Gibraltar. 

The successors of Mahomet were Abubeker, who reigned 
two years, Omar twelve, Osman ten, Hali three, Mahias, &c. 

The Emperor Heraclius died A, D. 641, and was succeeded 
by his son Constantine III. who reigned but four months, 
being poisoned by the Empress Martina, his mother-in-law, to 

* Al denotes tbe^ and Koran or Cor an denotes book. It is improper to say the Alcoran. 

make 



4?8 



History of the Greek Empire. 



make room for her own son Heracleonas ; but six months 
after, he was deposed, his nose cut off, his mother's tongue cut 
out, and both banished. The senate elected Constans, the 
son of Constantine, to the empire. He having gone to Rome, 
plundered it cf some of its most valuable ornaments. In the 
reign of his son Constantine IV. sirnamed Pogonatus from his 
early beard, the Saracens, under Mahias, laid siege to Constan- 
tinople ; but several of their ships being destroyed by a fire- 
work, called Greek fire, from its being invented by Callinicus, 
a Greek of Heliopolis in Syria, which water could not extin- 
guish, they were obliged to raise it with great loss, A. D. 673. 
In the reign of Leo the Isaurian, they besieged it again under 
Zuliman for a whole year, but without success, and with still 
greater loss, A. D. 708. This Leo was called Iconemachus, be- 
cause he ordered all the images in Christian churches to be 
pulled down as a relict of Paganism, which gave rise to the 
most dangerous disturbances. He was opposed in that matter 
by Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople, and Gregory III. 
pope of Rome, the former of whom was banished 5 and the lat- 
ter, dreading the Emperor's resentment, called in the assistance 
of Charles Martel, king of France. Those who favoured the 
destruction of images, were called Iconoclasts, The worship of 
images was restored by Irene, who having poisoned her hus- 
band Leo IV. reigned for some time as regent, and then in 
junction with her son Constantine Porphyrogemtus, who wish- 
ing to reign alone, she put out his eyes, a punishment common 
at that time, which occasioned his death, A. D. 797. Charles 
the Great is said to have proposed asking Irene in marriage ; 
but in the mean time she was deposed, and shut up in a mona- 
stery, by Nicephorus, a nobleman of Constantinople, who 
succeeded her, 802. He acknowledged Charles the Great as 
emperor of the west. Nicephorus was slain in a battle with the 
Bulgarians, who continued long to be dangerous enemies to the 
empire. They were at last subdued, together with the Abari 
and Russians, first by John Zimisces, A. D. 971, and after- 
wards by his successor Basilius. 

The death of this emperor, which happened A. D. 1025, * n 
the 50th year of his reign, was followed by a complication of 
such horrid crimes, perpetrated by the influence of his niece 
Zoe, as can hardly be equalled in history. 

About the year 1054 was completed the famous schism or 
separation of the Greeks from the Latin Church, which had 
been begun by Photius patriarch of Constantinople under Leo, 
called the Philosopher, 858. 



History 



History of the Greek Empire, and of the Turh> 479 



History of the GREEK EMPIRE, and of the TURKS. 

While the Greek Empire exhibited such a scene of anarchy 
and wretchedness, the Turks, or Turcomans, over-ran a great 
part of Asia. This people were thought to be of Scythian or 
Tartar extraction, their name signifying Wanderers. In the 
year 844, they had settled in Armenia, hence called Turco- 
mania. About the year 1043, a body of them under Tangro- 
lopix, being employed by the Sultan of Persia against the Ca- 
liph of Bagdat, gained for him a signal victory; but pretending 
to be dissatisfied with their hire, they turned their arms against 
their ally ; defeated and slew him in battle. Tangrolopix, em- 
bracing the Mahometan religion, became Sultan of Persia. He 
next reduced Bagdat, and overturned the empire of the Caliphs ; 
still however leaving them their spiritual authority, as supreme 
pontiffs of the Mahometan religion, 1055. Another body of 
Turks made themselves masters of Palestine; and laid the 
Christian pilgrims who visited the sepulchre of our Saviour 
under such heavy contributions, and treated them in other re- 
spects so harshly, as gave rise to the Crusades. Seep. 253. 

Alexius Comnenus was emperor of Constantinople when 
the first crusade was undertaken. He died after a reign of 
-thirty-eight years, A. D. 11 18. 

John Comnenus, his son, was a virtuous prince, a rare ap- 
pearance in the history of the Greek empire, and therefore 
called Kalo-Joannes. 

Manuel, the son of John, is said to have betrayed the Cru- 
saders, under Conrad, emperor of Germany, which proved 
their destruction, A. D. 1148. His son Alexius was murder- 
ed by his cousin Andronicus, who, succeeding to the empire, 
ordered a general massacre of the Latins at Constantinople. He 
himself was soon after torn to pieces in a popular tumult, 1 190. 

Constantinople was distracted by cruel dissensions, till it was 
taken by the crusaders and Venetians, 1204. The Venetians^ 
for their services, got the Morea, Candia, and several other 
places. 

. Baldwin Earl of Flanders was made emperor; but the 
year following he was defeated and slain by the Bulgarians. 
Four Latin Emperors reigned successively after Baldwin, who 
being mere soldiers, and despising commerce, did great hurt to 

the 



480 History of the Greek Empire, and of the Turks. 

the empire. Constantinople, notwithstanding all its misfor- 
tunes, still continued, by its trade and opulence, to be one of 
the most flourishing cities in the world. 

Two branches of the family of the Comneni established inde- 
pendent governments, the one at Trebizond, and the other at 
Nice ; and gave their petty states the name of empires. 

Michael Paleologus, emperor of Nice, retook Constanti- 
nople from the Latins, A.D. 1261 ; but Trebizond remained 
a distinct state. 

During these revolutions in the Greek empire, the dominion 
of the Turks and Saracens in Asia was overturned by Gengis- 
Kan, the chief of the Mongol or Mogul Tartars, who was 
perhaps the greatest conqueror that ever existed in the world. 
He over-ran Russia, Tartary, a great part of China, and In- 
dostan, and in short almost all Asia. He died at an advanced 
age, A. D. 1226. 

A number of Turks, to screen themselves from the yoke of 
the Tartars, had taken refuge in the mountains of Bithynia. 
Othman or Ottoman, their chief, from whom the Turks take 
the name of Ottomans, and from whom their Sultans or Em- 
perors are descended, by his courage and address made con- 
siderable conquests in Asia Minor about the year 1298. 

Orcan, his son, took Prusa, and made it the capital of his 
government, 1327. He first invaded Europe, and took Galli- 
poli. 

Amurath, his son, having reduced the Thracian Cherso- 
nesus, Servia, Bulgaria, and the city of Adrianople, obliged by 
the terror of his arms John Paleologus, the Greek emperor, 
to pay him a tribute. This Sultan first instituted the Janissa- 
sariesy or new soldiers, a body of troops which ever since has 
been so remarkable. 

Bajazet, sirnamed Ilderim, or the Thunderer, was still 
more formidable as a conqueror than his father. The princes 
©f Europe were alarmed at his progress. Sigismund, king of 
Hungary, afterwards emperor of Germany, joined by the flower 
of the French nobility and other auxiliaries, marched against him. 
A battle was fought near Nieopolis, in which the Christians, 
after displaying prodigies of valour, were completely defeated 
by the art of Bajazet, who drew them into an ambuscade. 
A great many were made prisoners, most of whom were 
cruelly massacred ; an act of inhumanity of which the Chris- 
tians had formerly set the example. Bajazet next laid 
siege to Constantinople ; but Manuel Paleologus, the son 
of John, purchased a peace by agreeing to pay an additional 

tribute. 



History of the Greek Empire, and of the Turks, 481 



tribute. In the mean time Tamerlane, a native of Samar- 
cand in Usbeck Tartary, said to be descended from Zingis-kan, 
by his mother, having subdued Persia, India, and Syria, upon 
the earnest application of those princes, both Christian and Ma- 
homedan, whom Bajazet had made his enemies, led an im- 
mense army into Asia Minor. Bajazet met him near Ancyra 
{Angouri) in Phrygia, where, after one of the most bloody 
battles recorded in history, in which three hundred and forty 
thousand men are said to have fallen on both sides, Bajazet was 
entirely defeated and taken prisoner, A. D. 1402. According 
to the Oriental historians, he was generously treated by the 
conqueror; instead of being confined in an iron cage, and 
trampled under foot, as is commonly asserted. 

Tamerlane having turned his arms to another quarter, the 
Turks recovered their possessions ; but were for some time dis- 
tracted by the bloody contests which arose among Bajazet' s sons. 
Mahomet, the youngest, having become sole sovereign, sub- 
dued Wallachia and Transylvania ; and afterwards reigned in 
peace till his death, A. D. 1422. 

Amurath II. his son, having subdued Thessaly and Mace- 
donia, laid siege to Constantinople ; but was obliged to quit it, 
in order to quell the revolt of his brother Mustapha ; after which 
he made war on Hungary, and laid siege to Belgrade. It was 
saved by John Hunniades, a brave man, governor of Tran- 
sylvania, who defeated Amurath in several engagements, and 
obliged him to sue for peace ; whereupon he resigned the sceptre 
to his son Mahomet. The Christians, by violating the treaty, 
drew him from his retreat, his son being yet too young to com- 
mand the army. He marched against the enemy, and defeated 
them at Varna in Bulgaria, where Ladislaus king of Poland, 
and Cardinal Julian, the Pope's legate in Germany, the authors 
of the war, were slain, A. D. 1444. Amurath again abdicated 
the empire ; and a second time was obliged to quit his retire- 
ment, by the exploits of George Castriot, sirnamed Scander- 
beg, (Lord Alexander,) a prince of Albania; who having 
been educated as a hostage, at the Ottoman court, made his 
escape from thence, and took by stratagem Croia, the capital 
of that province. Having raised his countrymen, he con- 
ducted his affairs with such extraordinary valour and abilities* 
that Amurath could never overpower him. This Sultan died 
A.D. 1451. 

Mahomet II. called the Great, laid siege to Constantinople 
in the year 1453 » anc * nav ^ n g made himself master of the port, 
by an expedient almost incredible, by transporting part of his 

I i fleet 



482 History of the Greek Empire, and of the lurks. 

fleet over land for the space of two leagues, which he did in 
one night, by sliding the vessels on a wooden platform covered 
with grease, he took the city by assault. Constantine Paleo- 
LOGUS, the last Greek emperor, fell, fighting bravely, on the 
breach. The conquest of Constantinople was followed by the 
submission of all the countries which belonged to it. Mahomet 
assumed the title of Emperor. He soon after reduced the city 
of Trebizond, which had remained a distinct state since the 
taking of Constantinople by the Latins, and subjected to his 
power all the petty Mahometan princes in that part of Asia. 
After the death of Scanderberg, he became master of Albania, 
and meditated the conquest of Italy. All Europe was struck 
with consternation, as in the time of the Arabians ; but this 
mighty conqueror died, A. D. 148 1, being only fifty-one 
years old. 

The Turks continued to extend their conquests under a suc- 
cession of illustrious princes; Bajazet II. who died 1512* 
Selim, 1520; but chiefly under Solyman II. sirnamed the 
Magnificent, who was illustrious also as a lawgiver, and died 
A. D. 1566'. Some additions were also made under Selim II. 
Amurath III. and Mahomet III. who died 1595. Since that 
time the Turkish empire has been on the decline. 



SPAIN. 

SPAIN is situate between 36 and 44 north lat. io° west long, 
and 3° east long. ; about 700 miles long, and 500 miles 
broad ; surrounded on all sides by the Atlantic and Mediterra- 
nean, except where it is separated from France by the Pyrenees. 
It is in general a mountainous country, but of a fertile soil, 
abounding in pasture, and famous for its breed cf sheep. 

Hispania was called by the poets Iberia and Hesperia, or Hes- 
peria Ultima. It was little known by the Romans till their wars 
with the Carthagenians. They divided it into two provinces, 
called Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, or the two Spains, go- 
verned by two prsetors. The whole country was subdivided 
into a certain number of conventus, or districts, in each of which 
assizes were held for the administration of justice. Augustus 
divided it into three parts, Tarraconensis, Boetica, and Lusi- 
tania. 

TARRACONENSIS was equal in extent to the other two, 
comprehending all the north of Spain from the Pyrenees to 

the 



Spain, 



48$ 



the mouth of the Durius. Its chief cities on the Mediterranean 
were, Rhoda, Roses *, Emporia, Ampurias •, Barcino, Barcelona ; 
TARRACO, Taragona Sagwitum or -us, the besieging of 
which by Hannibal gave occasion to the second Punic war ; Va- 
lentia ; Sucro, at the mouth of a river of the same name, now 
Xucar ; Nova Carthago, Carthagena. The chief people in this 
part of Spain were the Celtiberi. North-east from Tarraco 
Stood Ilerda, Lerida, the capital of the Hergetes, near the Sicoris^ 
the Segro, which runs into the Iberus on the north, where 
Csesar reduced Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of Pom- 
pey *, Segovia, near the source of the Tagus, famous for the noble 
remains of an aqueduct, supposed to be built by Trajan. On 
the Tagus, Toletum, Toledo; NUMANTIA, near the source 
of the Durius: the inhabitants [Numantini) made a desperate 
resistance against the Romans, and with a small number of men 
defeated several armies sent against them, Fior. ii. 18. The 
city was at last taken by Scipio Africanus, the younger, who 
destroyed Carthage, Sallust. Jug. 8. *, Strab. iii. 162. North of 
this were the Vascones, whose capital, Calagurris, underwent a 
horrid famine in the war against Sertorius, Juvenal, xv. 95. the 
Concani, famous for their savage manners, and drinking the 
blood of horses, Horat. od. iii. 4. 34. Si/, iii. 361. and the Can- 
tabri, the last nation in Spain which was subdued by the Ro- 
mans, under Augustus. From them the Bay of Biscay was 
called oceanus Cantabricus. At the mouth of the Durius stood 
Calle, on a rising ground, now Oporto, or Port a Port ; whence 
is derived the name of Portugal, as it were a portu Calle. North 
of this dwelt the Callaci, along the Minium, Minho, whence the 
country is now called Gallicia; east from whom dwelt the Astures y 
the country Asturia, chief town Asturica Augusta, Astorga, 
where was held the conventus juridicus, or assizes of the Astures* 
In BCETICA the most remarkable places were, Cordujba, 
Cordova, the birth-place of the two Senecas, and of Lucan ; 
where there still remains a noble mosque, built by Almanzor, 
five hundred and ten feet long, and four hundred and twenty 
feet broad, supported by 800 pillars or more of alabaster, 
jasper, and black marble, now converted into a cathedral. 
Hispalis, Seville *, Italica, the native city of Trajan, Adrian, 
and the poet Silius Italicus ; Custulo, the birth-place of Imilce 9 
the wife of Hannibal, Liv. xxiv. 41. called Parnassia and Cas- 
talia, because it is said to have been founded by a colony from 
Phocis, Sil. iii. 47. 391.; all which towns were situate on the 
Bostisy called by the Moors Guadi-al-Kiber ? or the great river j 

1 i 2 at 



484 



Spain, 



at the mouth of which is the island GADES, Cadiz, peopled 
by a colony from Tyre, Strab. iii. />. 169. &c. now the great 
emporium of Spanish commerce. On the straits, Carteia, called 
also Heraclea, near, mount Calpe> now the rock of Gibraltar, be- 
longing to Britain, opposite to Abyla on the African side ; which 
two mountains were called Columna Herculis, the pillars of 
Hercules. North of this, not far from the sea, stood Munda> 
where Cae ; ar fought his last battle, against the sons of Pompey 
and Labienus •, Malaca y Malaga. The chief people in this 
division were the Turdttani. 

In LUSITANIA, now Portugal, there were few places re- 
markable. On the Anasy Augusta Emerita, Merida ; on the 
north side of the frith of the Tagus, O/isippo, LISBON, &c. 
The principal states in this division were the Lusitani * and 
Vettones. 

* The Lusitani, and such as possessed the west and northern parts of Spain, are 
said to have been rude and savage in their manners. Being without commerce, they 
made r.n use of money, hut bartered one commodity for another, or for pieces of 
uncoined silver. The men wore black cloaths, as the Spaniards commonly do still, 
and the women coloured cloaths They had very little wine ; but generally used a 
beverage made of barley, called Zython. Those condemned of capital crimes 
were thrown from some rock; parricides were carried beyond the confines of their 
country, and stoneo to death. Ihe sick were exposed, after the manner of the 
./Egyptians, in the public ways, that such as passed might give their advice, 
Strab. iii. 155. 

The first inhabitants of Spain, as of Gaul, Germany, and Britain, are thought 
to have been the Celta. The Phoenicians afterwards possessed several places on the 
sea-coast. The Carthaginians, attracted by the gold and silver mines with which 
this country abounded, Strab. iii. 150. &c. Diodor. v. 35. &c. conquered the 
greatest part of it, chiefly under Ham Hear, sirnamed Bartas or Barca, the father 
of Hannibal, Polyb. ii. 1. ; Diodor. xxv. 2. They were soon after expelled by the 
Romans, who retained the dominion of it during the existence of their empire in the 
west. Spain was the first province which the Remans possessed on the continent, 
and the last that was completely subdued. The Cantabrians remained unconquered 
till the time of Augustus, to whose victorious arms they were obliged to submit, 
Zrv.xxviii. \%. Tiberius held it in subjection by three legions, Tacit. Annal.'w.S^ 
Strab. iii. 156. The inhabitants of hither Spain, when subdued by Cato, were so 
affected at being disarmed, that many of them laid violent hands on themselves, 
Liv. xxxiv. 17. 

Under the government of Rome the Spaniards appear to have greatly cultivated 
both learning and commerce. Quinctilian, Seneca, Martial, Silius, Lucan, Pomponius 
Mela, and others, were natives of this country. Strabo speaks of their exporting 
large quantities of corn, wine, and oil, and the last of an excellent quality; also wax, 
honey, pitch, vermilion, &c. But their chief commodity was wool. So great 
attention was paid to the breed of sheep, that a ram is said to have sold for a talent, 
i. e. near £.100 sterling, Strab. iii. J 44. There is said to have been more gold and 
silver, brass and iron, in Spain, than in any part of the then known world, lb. 146. 
whence Silius calls it auriftra terra, iii. 401. and Horace uses the master 0/ a Spanish 
trading vtssel, as a synonymous term for a person of great riches, Od iii. 6. 31. The 
gold and silver mines of Spain failed in process of time ; but what is singular, that 
loss has heen more than compensated to the people of this country by much richer 
mines, which they have acquired in the new world. 



Spain. 



485 



The chief promontories of Spain are, Promoniorium Sacrum, 
St. VINCENT, where the land projects in the form of a 
wedge, hence called Cuneus ; Prom. Ct/ticum, Nerium, or At- 
tabrum, CAPE FINISTERRE. 

The islands belonging to Spain were, the Baleares, Major 
and Minor, opposite to the mouth of the Iberus, called by the 
Greeks Balearides, now MAJORCA and MINORCA. They 
were named Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at 
slinging *. Pityiesa Insula, opposite to the mouth of the Sucro ; 
Ebususy now IVICA, famous for breeding cattle; and 
Qphiitsa, so called from being infested with serpents, now 
Formentera. 

Modern Divisions of Spain. 

Chief Toivns. 
Compostella, Mondonedo, Ferrol, Corunna, Vigo. 
Oviedo, Santillana. 

Bilboa, Tholosa, St. Sebastian, Andero. 
Pampeluna, Olita, Tudela, Sanguesa. 
Saragossa, Jacca, Taracona, Huesca. 
Barcelona, Lerida, Tortosa, Tarragona, Roses. 
Valentia, Villa Hermosa, Altea, Alicant. 
Murcia, Lorca, Carthagena. 
Granada, Malaga, Almeira, Guadix. 
Seville, Cordova, Medina Sidonia, Xerez, Cadiz, 

St.Lucar, Gibraltar. 
MADRID, { jo J Escurial> Toledo> 

Almanza. 
Burgos, Vallodolid, Segovia, Avila. 
Leon, Astorgo, Salamanca, Alva, Cividad Ro- 

drigo. 

Merida, Placentia, Alcantara. 



Historical Account op SPAIN. 

UPON the overthrow of the Roman empire in the "West, 
Spain was first conquered by the Vandals, A. D. 411. 
They were expelled by the Goths, and Visigoths, or West Goths, 
who held it till the year 7125 when the Saracens or Moors, by 
the invitation of two exiled princes, as it is said, and of Oppas, 
archbishop of Seville, their uncle, invaded it in the reign of 
RODERICK, whom they vanquished in battle near Xerez, 

* The boys of these islands are said to have been trained to this art by their mothers, 
who used to suspend the breakfast of their sons on the top of a pole, and to let them 
remain fasting till they struck it down with a stone from a sling, Diodor. v. 18. 
FJor.iu. 8. 



Divisions. | Provinces. 

CGallicia. 
Northern. <Asturia. 

(.Biscay, 
f" Navarre. 
J Arragon. 
"l Catalonia. 
tValentia. 
f" Murcia. 
\ Granada. 



Eastern. 



Southern. 



Middle. < 



Andalusia, 

New Castile. 

Old Castile. 
Leon. 

Estremadura. 



and 



486 



Spain, 



and in eight months made themselves masters of almost the 
whole country. Under Abderaman, the emir or governor of 
Spain, they attempted to conquer France ; but were defeated 
in a bloody battle, near Tours, by Charles Martel, in which 
Abderaman was slain, and according to the exaggerated ac- 
counts of those times, upwards of three hundred thousand 
men. A. D. 732 

The Saracens brought along with them into Spain, that taste 
for the arts, that love of elegance and splendour, which began 
to be cultivated by their brethren in the east. 

Upon a revolution in the califate at Damascus, 750, Prince 
Abderaman or ALMANZOR, having escaped from the mas- 
sacre of his family into Spain, laid the foundation of an inde- 
pendent kingdom in that country. He fixed his residence at 
Cordova, where the arts and sciences were studied, when the 
other nations of Europe were degraded by ignorance and bar- 
barity. But his death, which happened 788, was followed by 
cfuel discord and War among his children. 

In the mean time, such of the old inhabitants as would not 
submit to the government of the Moors, had taken refuge in 
the mountains of Asturias ; where, under PELAGIO, a hero 
of the blood royal, they defended themselves by their valour, 
and in process of time gathered strength. ALPHONZO, the 
son-in-law of Pelagio, taking advantage of the civil wars in 
which the Moors were engaged, attacked them in several places 
with success, and made considerable conquests. The con- 
test between the Christians and Moors was maintained for near 
eight centuries, during which, according to the pompous rela- 
tion of the Spanish historians, three thousand seven hundred 
battles were fought. The possessions of both were split into a 
number of independent states. Almost every great town of 
the Moors had its separate sovereign, Toledo, Valentia, Se- 
ville, &c. which disunion rendered them more easy to be 
conquered. 

The chief kingdoms of the Christians were those of Leon and 
Asturias, Navarre, Castile, Arragon, and Portugal, which 
were established at different times. At length FERDINAND, 
King of Arragon, having united all the kingdoms of Spain, ex- 
cept Portugal, by his marriage with ISABELLA, Queen of 
Castile, took Granada, the last city which the Moors retained 
in Spain, 1492, and expelled them from the kingdom, to the 
number of one hundred and seventy thousand families; on which 
account he obtained from the Pope the title of Catholic. The 
expulsion of so many industrious inhabitants, mostly artists and 
manufacturers, proved very hurtful to the country ; and the in- 
*8 flux 



Spain, 



487 



flux of wealth after the discovery of the new world, which was 
made much about this time, by COLUMBUS, added to that 
calamity, by rendering the Spaniards extremely indolent. The 
evil was still farther aggravated, by the introduction of that 
horrid court, the Inquisition, to prevent the return of the Moors 
and Jews. Isabella died, 1504, and Ferdinand, 15 16. 

CHARLES V. of Germany, or I. of Spain, of the house of 
Austria, grandson to Ferdinand and Isabella, by their daughter 
Joanna, succeeded, by inheritance, to the greatest dominions 
that any prince in Europe had possessed since Charles the Great : 
Spain, the best part of Italy, the Netherlands, some provinces 
in Africa, and the new acquisitions in America ; to all which 
was afterwards added, the dignity of emperor of Germany, to 
which he succeeded upon the death of his grandfather Maxi- 
milian, 15 19. During his minority Spain was govei*ned by 
Cardinal XIMENES, a person of a singular character, but of 
great abilities, who crushed the liberties of that country, by abo- 
lishing their free assemblies called Cortes. The ambition of 
Charles involved the most part of Europe in disturbance during 
his long reign. At last, being finally unsuccessful, he resigned 
his hereditary dominions to his son Philip, at Brussels, October 
25. 1555 ; and after endeavouring in vain to get him elected 
Emperor, he resigned the Imperial crown to his brother Ferdi- 
nand, King of Hungary, August 27. 1556, after which he re- 
tired to a monastery in Spain, near Placentia, in Estremadura, 
where he lived, regardless of worldly affairs, till his death, 
1558, aged fifty-eight. 

PHILIP II. prosecuted the same ambitious views that his 
father had done, and with still less success. His tyranny in the 
Low Countries, and his cruel bigotry in the cause of Popery, 
occasioned the revolt and loss of the United Provinces. 

So long a continuation of war exhausted Spain ; and the de- 
scendants of Philip proving weak princes, this kingdom long con- 
tinued in a feeble state. 

The Austrian line failing in the person of Charles II. who 
died without issue, 1700, a long and bloody war was carried 
on between the powers of Europe about the succession. It was 
at last determined in favour of Philip, Duke of Anjou, grand- 
son to Lewis XIV. of France, by the treaty of Utrecht, 17 13. 
The late king of Spain, Charles IV. was his grandson, and 
succeeded his father in 1788. He is now succeeded by his son 
Ferdinand VII. 

The kings of Spain are inaugurated by the delivery of a 
sword, without being crowned. Their signature is, / the king, 

I i 4 without 



488 



Spain and Portugal, 



without mentioning the name. Their usual place of residence 
is the Escurial) fifteen miles from Madrid, the largest palace in 
Europe. It has about eleven thousand windows. It was built 
by Philip II. and dedicated to St. Laurence, to commemorate a 
great victory which his troops gained over the French, at St. 
Quinton, on St. Laurence's day, 1563 ; and because that saint 
is said to have suffered martyrdom by being broiled on a grid- 
iron, the palace was built in that form, and the same figure 
observed in its principal ornaments ; which conceit has spoiled 
its appearance. It is said to have cost above three millions 
sterling. 

The king's eldest son is styled Prince of Asturias ; the 
younger sons, Infants ; and the daughters, Infantas. 

Although the king of Spain be an absolute prince, he treats 
the grandees with great distinction. They have the privilege 
of appearing covered in his presence. 

The Spaniards are grave and stately in their deportment, but 
honourable, generous, and humane. They are very zealous 
Catholics j and no other religion is tolerated. The Inquisition 
used to reign here in all its terrors, the sentence of which was 
called Auto de Fe, or The Act of Faith ; but of late it has been 
somewhat moderated. There are eight archbishops and foTty 
bishops. The archbishop of Toledo is styled Primate of Spain, 
and has an annual revenue of above a hundred thousand pounds 
sterling. There are in Spain two thousand one hundred and 
forty convents and nunneries, containing at least fifty thousand 
monks and nuns. 

Arts and sciences are not much cultivated in this country, 
although they have twenty-two universities. 



PORTUGAL. 



T>ORTUGAL is bounded by Spain on the north and east ; 

and on the south and west by the Atlantic ; about 300 
miles in length, and 100 in breadth; lying between 37 and 
42° north lat. and 7 and to h west long. It is in general as 
mountainous as Spain, and those mountains are usually barren 
rocks. The most remarkable of these is Cape Roca, or the 
Rock of Lisbon at the north entrance of the Tagus, twenty- 
two miles west of Lisbon. 



Divi- 



Portugal, 



489 



Divisions of Portugal. 

Chief Toivns. 

Oporto, Braga, Viana. 

Miranda, Braganza, Villa-real, Castel Rodrigo. 
Coimbra, Lamega, Guarda. 

Lisbon, Lat. 38. 4*. W. Ion. 8. 53. St. Ubes, Leira. 
Evora, Elvas, Beja. 
Tavira, Faro, Lagos. 

Portugal was anciently a ^province of Spain, and under- 
went the same revolutions with it. The kingdom of Portugal 
was founded by HENRY of Burgundy, who married one of 
the daughters of Alphonso king of Castile, by whom he had 
been created Count of Portugal, 1088. The Portuguese had 
the honour of leading the way to all the discoveries which were 
made in the 15th and 16th centuries. DON HENRY, son of 
John II. by his genius excited a thirst for navigation among his 
countrymen. They turned their attention to the western coasts 
of Africa and in 1420 discovered the island of Madeira, where 
they planted sugar-canes, a production of the Indies, which 
had been brought by the Arabians into Sicily and the isle 
of Cyprus; and was afterwards transplanted into America. 
After the death of Henry, 1 461, the Portuguese still pushed on 
their enterprises. In the year 1497, EMANUEL I. sent 
VASQUEZ GAMA to the Indies, with a crew only of 160 
men, including soldiers as well as seamen. Gama surmounted 
all the dangers of the ocean, turned the southmost point of 
Africa, which he called the Cape of Gootl Hope, landed in several 
parts of India, and returned to Portugal in two years. His 
discoveries and those of Columbus have entirely changed the 
face of Europe. ALPHONSO ALBUQUERQUE, who suc- 
ceeded De Gama, carried the fame of his name to the remotest 
parts of the east. Sebastian king of Portugal being cut off 
in a rash expedition against the Moors in Africa, 1578, and 
leaving no children, Philip II. king of Spain annexed Portu- 
gal to his own dominions by force of arms. This put a stop 
to all the further discoveries of the Portuguese ; and the Dutch 
afterwards became masters of some of their most valuable 
acquisitions. Portugal continued subject to the yoke of Spain 
till the year 1640, when the DUKE of BRAGANZA, whose 
family Philip had unjustly deprived of the succession to the 
crown, by a well conducted conspiracy, and without any 
bloodshed except that of a tyrannical minister, Vascancellos, 

and 



Provinces. 
Entre Minho Douro. 
Tralos Montes. 
Beira. 

Estremadura. 
Alentejo, or Entre-7 
Tayo-Guadina, 3 
Algarva. 



490 



Portugal. 



and his secretary, was placed on the throne, by the name of 
John IV. The late Queen of Portugal, Maria Frances Isabella, 
died lately, and was succeeded by her son. 

In 1807 the court of Portugal went over to the Brazils, 
where they, with their sovereign, still remain. 

The Portuguese retain nothing of that spirit of enterprise for 
which their ancestors were distinguished. They are represented 
in general as an indolent, superstitious people, without taste 
for science or literature. The court of Inquisition, which used 
to rage here with the same cruelty as in Spain, is now taken out 
of the hands of ecclesiastics, and converted into a state-engine 
of despotism. 

LISBON is the greatest port in Europe, except London and 
Amsterdam. It is supposed to contain about two hundred 
thousand inhabitants. In the year 1755, Nov. 1. this city was 
destroyed by an earthquake, which was followed by a dreadful 
conflagration. At the same time also St. Ubes, not far from 
Lisbon, was overwhelmed by the same calamity. 



BRITAIN. 



BRITANNIA, called also Albion, from the white rocks or 
its coast, extends near 700 miles in length, and 300 miles 
in its greatest breadth ; between 50 and 6o° north lat. The 
Romans considered it as a distinct world by itself, Et penitus toto 
divisos orbe Britannos, Virg. Eel. i. 67. They divided it into 
two parts Romano, and Barbara, of different extent at different 
times, according to the progress of their conquests. Britannia 
Romana was divided into Superior, answering to Wales, and In- 
ferior, comprehending the rest of it : likewise into Britannia pri- 
ma, secunda ,• Valentia : Maxima Casariensis, and Flavia Gasa- 
riensis ; but the limits of these are not known. 

The principal rivers of Britain are Tamesis, Thames ; Sa- 
brina, the Severn ; Abus, the Humber, composed of the Ouse, 
Trent, and other branches ; Vedra, the Were or Tees, rather 
the former ; Tina, the Tyne 5 Ituna, the Eden, running into 
the jEstuarium Ituna, the Solway frith ; Tuasis, or Tuesis, the 
Tweed ; Bodotria, or Boderia, the Forth ; Glota, the Clyde ; 
Taus, the Tay ; Devana, the Dee, &c. 

The west part of the island is in general mountainous. The 
only mountain, however, which the Romans have distinguished 



Britain. 



by a name, is Mons Grampius, the Grampian Mountain, 
called also Cross-benn, or the cross mountain, which, beginning 
near the mouth of the Dee, not far from Aberdeen, runs west- 
ward to Cowal in Argyleshire, almost the whole breadth of the 
island. 

The chief states were, Cantii, inhabiting Kent ; Trinobantes, 
Middlesex; Belga, or Regni, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Somer- 
setshire ; Durotriges, Dorsetshire •, Damnonii, Devonshire and 
Cornwall ; Atrebates, Berkshire ; Silures, South Wales ; Ordo- 
mcesi North Wales ; Icent, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, &c. ; Bri- 
gantes, Yorkshire ; and several others. 

Brittania Barbara, called also Caledonia, was never subdued 
by the Romans, who did not penetrate farther than the monies 
Grampii. It was inhabited by the Caledonians and Picts, so 
called, because they painted their bodies; which practice 
indeed was common to all the Britons, as to other barbarous 
nations. Scoti, the Scots, are only mentioned by later writers 
after the time of Theodosius •, and generally supposed to have 
come from Ireland : but by some they are reckoned to be a co- 
lony of Saxons. 

The south-east part of Britain is thought to have been peo- 
pled from Gaul. Tacitus imagines the Caledonians, from their 
size and the colour of their hair, to have been of German extrac- 
tion. The Si/ures, or Welsh, for similar reasons, are believed 
to have come from Spain. 

The Britons had scarcely any towns of note when invaded by 
the Romans. The termination Chester, which is common to so 
many towns in England, is thought to be derived from the 
Latin castra, they having been places of Roman encampments. 
LONDINIUM, London, was early remarkable for the great 
resort of merchants. Camalodunum, Maiden, or according to 
others, Colchester, was the first Roman colony in Britain. 
The port most frequented under the emperors, was, RutupU, 
Richborough in Kent. The Portus Dubris, or -a, Dover, was 
afterwards more famous : and Lemanis, Lime, near which 
Caesar is supposed to have first landed. Other remarkable 
places were, Durovernum, Canterbury ; Durobrivis, Rochester ; 
Venta Belgarum, Winchefter ; Durnium or Durnovaria, Dor- 
chester ; Isca, Exeter; Verulamium, Verulam, near St. Alban's; 
Aqua Solis, or Calida, Bath ; Clanum, Gloucester ; Deva, 
Chester, on the River Dee, where the ancient walls and forti- 
fications still remain ; Lindum Colonia, Lincoln ; Eboracum, 
York ; Luguvallum, Carlisle ; Alata castra, supposed to be Edin- 
burgh, called anciently Edmodunum, from its Celtic appellation 

Dune 



492 



Britain, 



Dune Aidan, the eminence or citadel of Aidan, its proprietor ; 
Burg is Saxon, answering to dune in the Celtic : Or rather, 
according to others, from Eden or Edwin, a Northumbrian 
king, who either built or possessed it. 

The chief islands round Britain are, Vectis, Wight ; Cassite- 
ridesy supposed to be the Scilly Islands, so called, from their 
producing tin, by the Phoenicians and Greeks, who gave this 
name likewise to promontorium Bolerium> Landsend, and Dam- 
nonium or Ocrinum> the Lizard point, as also to a part of Corn- 
wall ; Mona, Anglesey, the seat of the Druids, and Mona or 
Monada, Man ; Ebuda y or -des t called also by a more modern 
name Hebrides, the western isles of Scotland ; Orcades, the 
Orkneys, opposite to the promontory Orcas, Dungsbyhead : to 
which add the Shetland islands, supposed by some to be the 
Ultima Thule of the ancients, which they imagined the most 
remote part of the earth towards the north. 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons. 

When the Romans invaded Britain, it was divided into a 
number of small independent states, which facilitated the con- 
quest of it. Each state was governed by a king or chief ma- 
gistrate, and under him by several chieftains, who ruled each 
his own tribe with a kind of subordinate authority *. One of 
the chief parts of the regal office was to command in war ; 
which these sovereigns always executed in person, whether they 
were kings or queens ; for in this respect, as in succeeding to 
the crown, there was no distinction of sexes, (neque en'tm sexum 
in imperils discernunt,) Tacit. Agric. 16. These kings were 
frequently at war with one another, lb. But Diodorus Siculus 
says they usually lived in peace, v. 21. 

The authority of the kings of Britain was greatly controuled 
by the priests, called DRUIDS, (Druida,) who were not 
only the ministers of religion, but also possessed the right of 
making laws, of explaining and executing them. Their power, 

* Thus Caesar mentions four kings of the Cantii, or people of Kent, v. 18. i. 22. 
The power of these kings appears to have been very limited, as of those in Geimany, 
Tacit, de mor. G. 7. ; and in Gaul, Casar. b. G. v. 23. s. 27; Xiphilin, from Dio 
Cassius, says, that the Caledonians and Mast*, in the time of Severus, were mostly 
under a popular government, lxxvi. 12. But other authors represent the different 
states of Britain as governed by kings, Casar. b. G. iv. & v. passim ; Tacit. Agric* 
12. Suet, CI, 21.1 Diedor. v. 41,; Mel. iii. 6.; Strab, iv. 2QO. \ Solin. 31. 



10* 



and 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons. 493 



and consequently the honour paid them, was incredibly great. 
They were considered as the interpreters of the gods ; they 
were exempted from all taxes and military services ; and their 
persons were held sacred and inviolable.* 

There were two other classes of men highly respected both in 
Gaul and Britain, the one called Bards, (BARDI,) who sang 
historical and heroic songs in praise of brave warriors ; and the 
other, prophets, (VATES,) who foretold future events, from 
omens and the entrails of victims, Diodor. £s* Strab. ibid, for 
the Druids were much addicted to divination, Cic. Divin. i. 41. 
and to gratify that propensity committed acts of the greatest 
cruelty f, Diodor. v. 3 1. 

The 



* The Druids commonly resided in thick groves, chiefly of oak; Lucan. i. 453. 
whence Pliny derives their name, (from fyvg quercus,) xvi. 44. s. 95. They were 
objects of such veneration that the rage of hostile armies about to engage was not only 
suspended, but entirely suppressed, by their interposition, Diodor. v. 31. ; Strab. iv. 197. 
There was a chief Druid chosen by the suffrages of the rest ; which was an office of so 
great dignity, that the appointment to it was somet'unes determined by arms. The 
chief residence of the Archdruid of Gaul was at Dreux, in Pais Chartrain (in Jinihus 
Carnuiwn, qua regio totius Gallia media babebatur,) whither all those who had law-suits 
came to get them determined, Casar. vi. 13. The Archdruid of Britain resided, as 
it is thought, in the island of Anglesey, {in Mona,) where the vestiges of his palace, and 
of the houses of the other Druids who attended him, are said still to be visible. Row- 
land's Mona Antiqua, p. 83, &c. 

The religious principles of the Druids are thought to have been similar to those 
of the Gymnosophists and Brahmans of India, the Magi of Persia, and the Chaldeans 
of Assyria, and therefore to have been derived from the same origin. Caesar thinks 
that the doctrine of the Druids was transferred from Britain into Gaul ; and therefore 
in his time, such Gauls as wished to understand their doctrines more accurately, re- 
paired to Britain for instruction, lb. But Pliny supposes druidism to have crossed 
from Gaul into Britain, xxx. I. s. 4. The Druids, like the other priests just now 
mentioned, kept some of their opinions secret, and taught others publicly, Mel. iii. %. 
The education of youth was one of their most important charges. They taught their 
scholars a great number of verses; and some spent twenty years in learning them. 
They thought it unlawful to commit their tenets to writing ; although in other public 
affairs, and in their private accounts, they used the Greek letters, Cas. ib. Whatever 
opinion the Druids privately entertained, in public they worshipped a multiplicity of 
deities, Casar. b. G. The names of their two chief divinities were Teutates and Hesus, 
to whom they offered human victims, Lucan. i. 445. ; Lactant. de fals. relig. i. 21. 
It was an article in their creed, that nothing but the life of man could atone for the life 
of man. On solemn occasions they reared huge images, whose members, wrought 
with osiers, they filled with living men, and, as Strabo says, with other animals, Strab. 
iv. 198. then setting fire to the images, they burnt these miserable creatures, as an 
offering to their cruel divinities. Thieves, and robbers, and other malefactors, were 
preferred for this purpose ; but if these were wanting, innocent persons were taken, 
Casar. Ibid. Diodorus says, that condemned criminals used to be reserved for five years, 
and on a certain day burnt all together. Captives in war also used to be immolated in 
the same manner, v. 32. Tacit. Ann. xiv. 30. 

The Druids performed all their acts of worship in the open air ; for they thought it 
derogated from the greatness of their gods, to cofine them within walls, or to resemble 

them 



494 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons. 

The Britons were much more united with respect to religious 
than political matters. The constant jealousy and frequent 
hostility which subsisted between the different states were very 
unfavourable to external defence. To this want of union Ta- 
citus ascribes their subjection to the Romans, Agric. \1. who, 
according to their usual art, first formed alliances with some of 
the states, and employed their assistance to crush the rest, Ib. 
14.; Annal. xii. 31. & 32. then quarrelling with their allies, 
they reduced them also : which was sooner or later the fate of 
all the allies of Rome.* 

When 



them to any human form, Tacit. Mar. G. 9. Several circles of stones are to be seen in 
different parts of Britain and the western islands which still go by the name of Druid 
temples ; of which those at Stanehenge, about six miles from Salisbury in Wiltshire, and 
at Stennes, a small lake near Stromness in Pomona, one of the Orkney islands, are the 
most remarkable. 

The most sacred solemnities of the Druids were usually held on the sixth day of the 
moon, which was always the first day of their months, Plin. x\\.jin. To be excluded 
from these sacred rites, {sacrijiciis interdici,) was esteemed the most grievous punishment 
which the Druids inflicted on such as they judged proper. Those against whom 
this sentence of excommunication was pronounced, were considered as impious and 
ivicked, and avoided by every one as if infected with a. contagious disease. They were 
denied the protection of law, and rendered incapable of any honour or trust, C<zsar. Ib. 
The Druids enforced their authority by holding forth to their votaries the rewards and 
punishments of a future state ; and thus inspired them with a contempt of danger and 
of death, Mela. iii. 2. Caesar and Diodorus say, that the Druids taught the Pythagorean 
doctrine of the transmigration of souls into other bodies, Ib. But Lucan and Marcel- 
linus represent them, as teaching that the soul after death ascended into an higher orb, 
where it enjoyed a more perfect happiness. Thus Lucan, i. 455. Umbra non tacitas 
Erebi sedes, Ditisque profundi pallida regnapelunt ; regit idem spiritus artus Orbealio: — 
Cerie populism quos despicit Arctos, Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum Maximus, baud 
urget leti mefus, — inde ruendi in ferrum mens prona wins, &c. So Marcellinus, xv. 9. 
-—The Druids also taught their disciples many other things, about astrology, astronomy, 
geography, physiology, and theology, Cesar, ib. 

The great power of the Druids brought upon them the vengeance of the Romans, 
who in other instances were seldom intolerant. The pretext for this was the cruelty 
committed by the Druids in their sacred rites; but the true reason was their influence 
over the people. The authority of the Druids in Gaul was by various means so much 
reduced in the time of Claudius, that that emperor is said to have destroyed them 
altogether, about A. D. 45. Suet. CI. 25. and in Britain, Suetonius Pauliimus, 
the governor of that country under Nero, having taken the island Anglesey, not only 
cut down the sacred groves of the Druids in that place, and overturned their altars, 
but also burnt many of the Druids themselves in those fires which they had kindled for 
sacrificing the Roman captives, if the Britons had gained the victory, Tacit. Annal. 
xiv. 30. So many of the Druids were destroyed on this occasion, and in the subsequent 
revolt under Queen Boudicea or Boadicea, that they never afterwards made any figure. 
Their superstition however continued, and prevailed even long after the introduction 
of Christianity. 

* Although the Romans, by disarming the Britons, reduced them to a very 
defenceless state, as appeared when the Roman legions were withdrawn, yet they 
greatly improved the country by the introduction of arts and civilization. To secure 

their 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons. 495 



When the Romans first invaded Britain there was hardly 
in the island any thing answering to our ideas of a city or 
town*. The dwellings of the Britons were scattered over the 
country, like those of the ancient Germans, and generally 
situated on the brink of some rivulet, for the sake of water, and 
on the skirt of some wood or forest, for the convenience of hunt- 
ing and pasture for their cattle, Tacit. Mor. G. 16. For, when 
invaded by the Romans, most of the inhabitants of the interior 
parts of Britain lived on milk and flesh, without corn ; and had 
no clothing but skins. + 



their conquests, and to accustom the vanquished to the Roman manners, they planted 
colonies in different parts, as at York, Lincoln, and Chester : The first colony pLnted 
in Britain was at CAMELODUNUM, Tacit. Annal. xii. 32. which Camden and 
Horseley think was the same with Maiden in Essex; some suppose it to have been 
at Colchester. Other places they made municipia, that is, they granted to the inhabitants 
the privileges of Roman citizens; as to London, and Verulam near St. Alban's, 
which in consequence of this advantage suddenly increased in opulence and population ; 
to such a degree, that in the great revolt under Boadicea, in these two towns alone no 
fewer than seventy thousand were slain on account of their attachment to the Ro- 
mans, Tacit. Annal. xiv. 33. So great progress did the Britons rcnke in agriculture 
and the other arts under the Romans, that they did not recover the effects of the de- 
vastation which succeeded the departure of the Romans for several hundred years. 

* The Britons called by that name a thick wood fortified by a rampart and ditch 
to secure them against the incursions of an enemy, Cas. b. G.v. 17. s. ax. Having 
cut down the trees, they formed a circle, where they built cottages for themselves, 
and hovels for their cattle, Strab. iv. 400. The houses of the Britons, like those 
of the ancient Germans, consisted only of a few stakes driven into the ground, 
interwoven with wattles, and covered over with the boughs of trees, Tacit, de mor. 
G. 46. According to Diodorus they were constructed of wood, and covered with 
straw, v. ai. as it is thought, in a circular form, with high tapering roofs, and an. 
opening at the top, as those of the Gauls, Strab.'w. 197. Hence the first stone edifices, 
of which there are still some remains in the westsrn isles, were built in the form of a 
circle, and have a large aperture at the top. The inhabitants of Cantium had learned 
from the Gauls to build houses somewhat more substantial and convenient, Cas. b. 
G. v. 10. s . 12. 

f Tacitus represents the soil of Britain as fertile in grain, and all kind of 
fruits, except the olive and vine, and such fruits as require a warmer sun. 
Vegetation, he observes, is quick in shooting up, but slow in coming to matu- 
rity; both owing to the great moisture of the ground and of the atmosphere, 
Agric 12. 

All the Britons painted their bodies with woad, (vitrum vel glastum,) which gave 
them a bluish appearance, and a more dreadful aspect in battle. — They wore their 
hair long, and shaved all the other parts of their body, except their head and upper 
lip. There was a community of wives, especially among brothers, and other near 
relations. The children were supposed to belong to those by whom each had been 
married when a virgin. Dio Cassius says their children also were brought up in 
common, lxii. 6. lxxvi. 12. & 16. — They used either brass or iron rings, adjusted 
to a certain weight, for money. Ca?sar mentions neither gold nor silver in Britain, 
B. G. v. io.f. 12. and Cicero says he had been informed, probably by his brother 
Ouintus, that there was none in it, Ep.Fa?n.v\Wj.\ Att.'w. 16. But Strabo says 
it produced both, iv, 199. So Tacitus, Agric. 12. Suetonius imputes Csesar's 

invasion 



496 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons. 



The principal strength of the British forces consisted in in- 
fantry ; although they also had a numerous cavalry ; and some 
nations likewise fought from chariots (currus, esseda v. covini ; 
unde ESSEDARii w/coviNARll) vocabantur y qui inde pugnabant,) 
armed with scythes, Mela. iii. 6. which they managed with 
great dexterity. The chieftains managed the reins, while 
their dependants fought from the chariot*, Tacit. Agric. 12. 
Diodor. v. 21. 

The 

invasion of Britain to his hope of obtaining pearls, (margarita v. uniones^) 57. which 
Pliny informs us were found on different parts of the coast, ix. 35. but, as Ta- 
citus observes, of a dark and livid colour, Agric. 12. There was plenty of timber 
of all kinds, except the beech and fir. Most of the country indeed was covered 
with wood — It was reckoned unlawful to taste of hure, fowl, (gallina,) or goose ; 
although they bred these animals for the sake of fancy and pleasure. Dio Cassiuf 
relates, what is hardly credible, ihat they in like manner abstained from fish, lxxvi. 
12. The climate of Britain is said to have been more temperate than that of Gaul, 
Casar. ib. 

The Britons were remarkable for their size, according to Strabo, (who mentions 
his having seen them, iv 200.) exceeding the tallest persons at Rome by half a foot ; 
but ill set on their limbs, and clumsy in their make. They had blue or azure-co- 
loured eyes, {C<erula lumina^ and yellow hair, Ib. as the Germans, Juvenal, xiii, 
164. but less yellow {ytrcrov SavB^orpi^ss) than the Gauls. Strab. ib. The Cale- 
donians had ruddy hair, which, with their large limbs, Tacitus observes, indicated 
a German origin. The swarthy or olive-coloured complexion and curled hair of the 
Silures, together with the situation of their country, opposite to Spain, rendered it 
probable that they were sprung from a colony of Iberians. — Similarity of customs, 
temper, and language, shewed that the parts of Britain next to Gaul were peopled 
from thence, Tacit. Agric. 11. The remarkable figure of the Britons, as well as 
their being a newly conquered enemy, seems to have induced the Romans to ex- 
hibit them in the scenery on the stage; Firg. G. iii. %$. being represented on the 
purple curtains, (jntexti, interwoven in the cloth,) which on the Roman theatre, 
contrary to our custom, used to be raised (tolli) from the flooring to the top; where 
the figures appeared to rise gradually with the curtain, as it is beautifully described 
by Ovid, Met. iii. in. whence the Britons themselves are said to raise these curtains, 
Virg. ib. Possibly some captives or slaves of that nation were also employed 
for this purpose ; for the words of Virgil, in the opinion of Servius, convey both 
these senses. Servius, however, is mistaken in ascribing to Augustus the conquest of 
Britain. 

* Ca?sar, in describing the British mode of fighting from chariots, B. GAv. 29. 
s. 33. appears to differ somewhat from Tacitus. The ancient Britons, except the 
Druids* were all trained to arms, and even their youthful diversions were usually of a 
martial kind. Solinus informs us, c. *a. that when a woman in Britain brought 
forth a male child, she laid its first food upon the husband's sword, and with the point 
gently put it within the infant's mouth, praying to her country deities, that his 
death might in like manner be in the midst of arms. But this must be understood of 
the dirk or dagger, Dio. lxxvi. 12. for the Britons, at least the Caledonians, used a 
broad sword without a point, Tacit. Agric. 36.; Veget.\.\2. Besides the sword and 
dirk, they had also a spear, with which they sometimes fought hand to hand, and 
sometimes used it as a missile weapon, with a thong fixed to it for recovering it again : 
and at the butt end a round ball of brass, filled with pieces of metal to make a noise 
when they engaged with cavalry, Bio. ib. tsf Herodiatx, iii. 14. & 46. Some instead 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons. 497 



The cruel policy of the Romans in disarming the inhabit- 
ants of the conquered provinces, produced a wonderful change 
of character in the Britons $ which the artful conduct of Agri- 
cola contributed greatly to accelerate. After building castles 
and forts in proper places through the districts which had sub- 
mitted, he used every possible method to habituate the natives, 
to the arts of peace, by exhorting them in private, and aiding 
them in public, to build temples, courts of justice, and commo- 
dious dwelling-houses. The children of the chief men, he 
caused to be instructed in the liberal arts, and is said to have 
preferred the genius of the Britons to the learning of the Gauls. 
Thus those who lately disdained the Roman language, grew 
fond of its beauties*, Tacit. Agric. %\, The Roman habit 
began to be respected, and the toga became fashionable. By 
degrees they acquired a taste for those refinements which stimu- 
late to vice, (delinimenta vitiorum,) porticoes, baths, and elegant 
entertainments ; and what constituted part of their slavery 
was, through inexperience, termed by them humanity or po- 
liteness, Tacit, ib. Thus the Britons, after being subjected to 
the Roman yoke, although greatly increased in numbers, and 
improved in point of domestic enjoyment, sunk in a short time 
from being one pf {he bravest of nations into feebleness and 



of spears were armed with bows and arrows. They had no defensive armour but smali 
light shields or targets, {breves cetra,) made of osiers or boards covered over with 
leather, ib. l5f Tacit. Agric. 36. 

The troops of the ancient Britons were not divided into distinct corps, consisting 
each of a certain number of men, and commanded by officers of different ranks, like 
the Roman legions, or our modern regiments; hut the warriors of each clan or gens 
formed a separate band, commanded by its own chieftain, (dux gentjs,) Tacit. Ann. 
xii, 34. The several clans of one state were commanded by the sovereign (princeps 
vel rex) of that state. When several states formed a confederacy, they chose by com- 
mon consent a generalissmo of the combined army. Such were Cassivellaunus, or 
Cassibellanus, against Caesar, Cas. b. G. v. 9. s. II. Caractazus against Ostorius, 
Tacit. Ann. xu\ 33. Boadicea against Suetonius, lb. xiv. 31. and Galgacus against 
Agricola, Id. Agric. 19. Before battle the general used to harangue his troops ; after 
which they commonly expressed their alacrity by songs, yells, and loud shouts, Ib. 33. 
Then they rushed forward to the attack with great fury. Tacit. Agric . 16. singing the 
war song, as the Germans, Id. de mor. G. a. But the impetuous courage of the Bri- 
tons could not withstand the superior arms and discipline of the Romans. They were 
all therefore after a long and obstinate contest, obliged to yield, one state after another, 
except the Caledonians, who likewise, notwithstanding their ferocity, must finally have 
been subdued, had not the death of Severus fortunately preserved to them their inde- 
pendence. 

* Hence Juvenal says, Nunc totus Grajas, nostrasque habet crbis Atbentrs, (i. e. litera- 
ture, Cic. Or at. 1.4.; Flacc. 26.) Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos ; De 
cenducendo loquitur jam rhetor e Tbule, XV, 113. 



effeminacy ; 



498 Divisions of England, 

effeminacy ; so that when the Romans left them, they were in 
a manner quite defenceless, and thus became an easy prey t« 
the first invadersi 



Modern Divisions of England. 

ENGL AN!) is divided into the kingdom of England, and the 
principality of Wales. England comprehends six circuits, 
besides Middlesex and Cheshire, which belong to no circuit 5 
the former being the seat of the supreme courts of justice, and 
the latter what is called a county-palatine, privileged with having 
its own judges. 

Chief Tdivns. 
Chelmsford, Colchester, Harwich. 
Hertford, St. Alban's, Royston. • 
Maidstone, Canterbury, Chatham, Rochester, 
Greenwich, "Woolwich, Dover, Deal, 
, Hythe, Deptford, Romney, Sandwich. 
Southwark, Kingston, Guildford, Croydon f 

Epsom, Richmond. 
Chichester, Lewes, Rye, Hastings, East- 
grimstead, Winchelsea, Brighthelmstone. 

Buckingham, Aylesbury, Marlow. 

Bedford, Woburn, Dunstable. 
Huntingdon, St. Ives, Kimbolton. 
Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket. 
Ipswich, Bury, Leostoff. 
Norwich, Lynn, Yarmouth. 

Oxford, Whitney, Dorchester. 

Reading, Windsor, Newbury. 
Gloucester, Tewksbury, Cirencester 
Worcester, Evesham, Droitwich. 
Monmouth, Chepstow. 
Hereford, Lemster. 
Shrewsbury, Ludlow, Wenlock. 
Stafford, Litchfield, Newcastle under Line, 
Warwick, Coventry, Birmingham. 
Leicester, Loughborough, Harborough, 

Bosworth. 
Derby, Chesterfield. 
Nottingham, Southwell, Newark. 
Lincoln, Stamford, Boston, Grantham. 
Oakham, Uppingham. 
Northampton, Peterborough, Daventry. 

Circuits* 

II 



Circuits, 



j . Home Cir- 
cuit. 



2. Norfolk Cir- 



<3- 

I 5- 
16. 



3. Oxford Cir- * 

5> 
6, 

% 
18. 



4. Midland 
Circuit. 



5- 

6, 

u 



Counties. 
Essex, 
Hertford, 

Kent, 

Surry, 
Sussex, 

Bucks, or Buck- 
inghamshire, 
Bedford, 
Huntingdon, 
Cambridge, 
Suffolk, 
Norfolk, 
Oxon, or Ox- 
fordshire, 
Berkshire, 
Gloucester, 
Worcester, 
Monmouth, 
Hereford, 
Shropshire, 
Stafford, 
Warwick, 

Leicester, 

Derby, 

Nottingham, 

Lincoln, 

Rutland, 

Northampton, 



\ 



Divisions of England. 



Circuits. | 



j. Western 
Circuit. 



6. Northern 
Circuit. 



2. 



Counties. 

Hampshire, or 
Hants, 

Wiltshire, 

Dorset, 

Somerset, 

Devon, 
Cornwall, 



Extra Circuit ! I. 
Counties. 



X. York, 

a. Durham, 

3. Northumberlan 



Lancaster, 

Westmoreland, 

Cumberland, 

Middlesex, 

Cheshire, 



Chief Towns. 
f Winchester, Southampton, Portsmouth, 
< Stockbridge, Gosport, Newport, and 
C Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, 
j Salisbury, Marlborough, Wilton. 

Dorchester, Shaftsbury, Pool. 

Bristol, Bath, Taunton, Bridgewater. 
C Exeter, Plymouth, Dartmouth, Tavistock, 

1 Topsham, Star-point, Torbay. 

C Launceston, Falmouth, Lizard, Land's- 

2 End. 

York, Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, Hull, 
} Richmond, Scarborough, Whitby, Bo- 
5 roughbridge, Sheffield, Doncaster, Sher- 
C born, Northallerton, Burlington. 
J Durham, Stockton, Sunderland, Stanhope, 
t Newcastle, Berwick, Tinmouth, Shields, 
£ Hexham, Morpeth, Alnwick. 
C Lancaster, Manchester, Preston, Liverpool, 
£ Warrington. 
J Appleby, Kendale, Longsdale. 
V Carlisle, Penrith, Cockermouth, White- 
\ haven. 

rLoNDoN, N. lat. 51. 30. Westminster, 
J Uxbridge, Brentford, Barnet, Highgate, 
y Hampstead, Kensington, Hackney, Hamp- 
C ten-Court. 

5 Chester, Nantwich, Macclesfield, Malpas 9 
\ Stockport, Parkgate. 



Wales comprehends four circuits. 



Circuits. j 



1. North-east 
Circuit. 

2. North-west 
Circuit. 

3. South-east 
Circuit. 

4- South-west 
Circuit. 



S 



Counties. 
Flint, 
Denbigh, 
Montgomery, 
Anglesea, 
Carnarvon, 
Merioneth, 
Radnor, 
Brecknock, 
Glamorgan, 
Pembroke, 
Cardigan, 
Carmarthen, 



Chief Towns* 
Flint, St. Asaph, Holywell. 
Denbigh, Wrexham, Rothyn. 
Montgomery, Lanvylin. 
Beaumaris, Newburgh, Holyhead. 
Carnarvon, Bangor, Conway. 
Harley, Bala, Delgelheu. 
Radnor, Prestean. 
Brecknock, Bealt, Hay. 
Cardiff, Landaff, Swansey. 
Pembroke, St. David's, Milfordhaven. 
Cardigan, Aberistwyth. 
Carmarthen, Kidwelly. 



The chief mountains in England are the hills of Westmore- 
land, the Malvern hills in Worcester, the Peek in Derby, Snow- 
don and Plenlimmon in Wales. 

The chief ports for the King's ships are, Portsmouth, Ply- 
mouth, Deptford, and Chatham. 

The chief trading towns are, London, Bristol, Liverpool, 
and Hull; Birmingham is" famous for hard-ware manufac- 
tures, buttons, buckles, &c. ; Sheffield, for cutlery ; Manches- 



ter, for cottons, 



checks, dimities, &c. j 
Kk a 



Norwich, for drug- 
gets 



500 



Britain. 



gets and camblets ; Colchester, for its bays and serges, &c. 5 
Cornwall and Devonshire supply tin and lead, &c. 

There are five harbours on the coast of Sussex and Kent, 
namely, Hastings, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich, 
which are called Cinque-ports. These had anciently very consi- 
derable privileges, on account of their fitting out ships for the 
defence of the coast against any invader. They are still under 
the government of the Constable of Dover Castle. The five 
cinque-ports, with their three dependents, Rye, Winchelsea, 
and Seaford, send sixteen members to the British parliament 5 
who arestiled Barons of the Cinque-ports. 

The inhabitants of England and Wales are generally com- 
puted at nine millions. 

The established religion is the reformed. The Church of 
England is governed by bishops, whose benefices were converted 
by the Norman conqueror into temporal baronies ; in right of 
which every bishop, except the bishop of Sodor and Man, has a 
seat in the House of Peers. The King is the head of the 
church ; under him there are two archbishops, and twenty-four 
bishops. The archbishops are those of Canterbury and York. 
The former is the first peer of the realm, and takes precedence 
before all Dukes and officers of state, except the members of 
the royal family. Besides his own diocese, he has under him 
the bishops of London, Winchester, Ely, Lincoln, Rochester, 
Litchfield and Coventry, Hereford, Worcester, Bath and Wells, 
Salisbury, Exeter, Chichester, Norwich, Oxford, Gloucester, 
Peterborough, Bristol ; and in Wales, St. David's, LandafF, St. 
Asaph, and Bangor. 

The archbishop of York takes places of all Dukes not of the 
blood royal, and of all officers of state, the Lord Chancellor 
excepted. He has in his province, besides his own diocese, the 
bishopricks of Durham, Carlisle, Chester, and Sodor and Man. 

The ecclesiastical government of England is lodged in the 
convocation, or assembly of the clergy. But as some clergymen 
in the reign of Queen Anne, and the beginning of the reign of 
George II. endeavoured to raise its power too high, the king 
exerted his prerogative of calling the members together, and 
dissolving them at pleasure ; and since that time they have never 
met to do business. 

The civil government of England resides in the King, Lords, 
and Commons, who, together, form the parliament, or sove- 
reign council of the nation. The House of Commons consists 
of five hundred and thirteen English representatives, of forty-five 
Scots, and of a hundred Irish, in all six hundred and fifty-eight. 

History 



History of England, 



501 



History of ENGLAND, 

THE first certain information we have concerning Britain is 
from Julius Casar, who invaded it, b. C. 55. But although 
he undertook two expeditions against it, and fought several 
battles with the inhabitants under Cassibellaunus, yet he did not 
extend his conquests far. After his departure, the Britons were 
not molested by the Romans for near a hundred years, till 
Claudius again invaded it in person, A. D. 43. — But he did not 
remain long in the island, leaving the conduct of the war to his 
generals, one of whom was Vespasian, 

Caractacus, king of the Silures, being defeated in battle by 
Ostorius, and taken prisoner, was sent in chains to Rome, 
where, by his noble and intrepid behaviour, he procured the 
favour of Claudius, A. D. 52. ■ 

The Britons being excited to revolt by Boadicea, queen of the 
Iceni, cut off great numbers of the Romans \ but she being de- 
feated by Suetonius in a great battle, where eighty thousand Bri- 
tons are said to have been slain, unable to survive the disaster, 
put an end to her days by poison, A. D. 61. Many nations of 
Britain however still remained unsubdued. But AGRICOLA, 
who was appointed to the government of this province by Ves- 
pasian, A. D. 78, having by his courage and conduct subdued 
all opposition in the southern part of the island, and having re- 
conciled the vanquished to the Roman government by the lenity 
and justice of his administration, in his seventh and last cam- 
paign pushed his conquests as far north as the Grampian hills. 
Here he was met by an army of Caledonians under Galgacus, 
whom, after a desperate resistance, he entirely defeated. This 
battle is supposed to have been fought at a place called Fortin- 
gall, about sixteen miles from Dunkeld. 

Agricola, to secure his conquests against the inroads of the 
Caledonians, built a chain of forts between the frith of Forth 
and the Clyde, as he is supposed formerly to have done between 
the Solway frith and the Tyne. 

ADRIAN, in his progress of visiting the provinces of the 
Roman empire, while in Britain, contracting the frontier, built 
a rampart or wall of earth, for above sixty miles, from the Sol- 
way frith to the Tyne, hence called Adrian's wall, A.D. 121. 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius, Urbicus having recovered 
the country north of Adrian's wall, built a similar rampart, lined 

Kk 3 with 



502 



History of England, 



with forts, from the Forth to the Clyde, called the wall of Antfi~ 
ninus, A. D. 138, sometimes termed Graham's dike> from the 
person who is supposed first to have passed it. 

In the reign of Severus, A. D. 207, the inroads of the Cale- 
donians became so formidable, that the governor of Britain, un- 
able to repel them, wrote to the Emperor for assistance, who, 
although old and infirm, undertook this expedition in person. 
Having, with incredible fatigue and great loss of men, repressed 
the Caledonians, and brought them to sue for peace, he em- 
ployed his troops for two years in building a wall of solid stone, 
twelve feet high, and eight thick, extending above sixty-eight 
miles, along which was a ditch and military way, nearly parallel 
to Adrian's wall. # 

The Emperor's chief place of residence in Britain was Ebo- 
racum, York, where he died, A. D. Ill, leaving the empire to 
his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, who attended him in his ex- 
pedition, and whose undutiful behaviour had shortened his days, 
For upwards of seventy years after this we know little of the 
affairs of Britain. In the reign of Dioclesian and Maximianus, 
the coasts of Britain began to be infested with a new enemy, the 
Saxons and Franks from Germany, 284. Carausius> who was 
sent against them by the emperors, having checked their incur- 
sions, and availing himself of circumstances, threw off his alle^ 
giance, and assumed the command of Britain, together with the 
adjoining coast of Gaul, which, by means of his fleet, which 
was joined by many of the Franks and Saxons, he held for seve- 
ral years, He was treacherously murdered by Alectus, one of 
his chief officers, who succeeded him in the command for three 
years. But he was defeated and slain by Constantius, who with 
Galerius succeeded to the empire upon the resignation of Dio^ 
clesian, 305. Constantius died at York, 25th July 306, leaving 
his son Constantine, afterwards called the Great ; ,as his successor, 

Britain for many years after this enjoyed great tranquillity. 
But in the reign of Valentinian, A. D. 364, the Franks and 
Saxons renewed their depredations on the southern coasts, and 
the Picts and Scots their inroads 011 the north. These were 
effectually repressed by Tfaodosius, who was sent to this com- 
mand, 

* This stupendous work shews that the Romans did not entertain a contempt for Ca- 
ledonia, as Mr. Hume remarks, Hist, of England^ vol. i. p. 10. %<vo. edit. — Severus in 
penetrating this country is said to have lost no less than 50,000 men, Dio. lxxvi. 13. 
With such ferocity did the Caledonians fight in defence of freedom, that, as Tacitus 
relates, after the defeat of Galgacus by Agricola, several of them slew their wives and 
children, to preserve them from becoming slaves to the Romans, (fairs cotutabat savissa 
yuojdam in conjuges ac liber os^ tanquam misererenturi) Tacit. Agric. 3& 



Histo?y of England, 



503 



In the reign of Honorius, the distresses of the empire rendered 
it necessary to withdraw the troops from Britain, a. 414, for 
the defence of Italy. The Scots and Picts now spread terror 
and desolation every where. The defenceless Britons sent to 
Rome to implore assistance. A legion was once and again sent 
to them, who drove back the invaders to their mountains, and 
assisted the Britons in repairing the wall of Severus ; after 
which they bid a final adieu to the island. The Scots and 
Picts having broken down the wall of Severus, renewed their 
attacks with redoubled fury. The helpless Britons again had 
recourse to Rome, in the following mournful epistle, still on 
record : To u^Etius, thrice consul, the groans of the Britons. The 
barbarians drive us to the sea, the sea throws us back on the barba- 
rians : so that we have only left the hard choice of perishing by the 
sword or by the waves. — But .^Etius could arford them no relief, 
being fully occupied in opposing the arms of Attila. Thus 
being reduced to despair, by the advice of Vortigern, one of 
their princes, they made application to the Saxons, a nation 
who inhabited the north of Germany, and were then masters 
of what is now called the English Channel. 

The SAXONS under HENGIST and HORSA, of the rase 
of Odin, arrived in Britain, A. D. 449, and without difficulty 
repelled the Scots and Picts. But pleased with the fertility of 
the country, and the mildness of the climate, they soon began 
to meditate a settlement for themselves 5 and being joined by 
successive reinforcements of their countrymen, they turned 
their arms upon the Britons, whom, after a long and bloody 
struggle, they destroyed, enslaved, or expelled. — They were 
chiefly opposed by king ARTHUR, who is said to have per- 
formed prodigies of valour, Such of the Britons as were saved, 
either took shelter in Wales, where they maintained their in- 
dependence to the days of Edward I. j or retired into Armorica 
in France, from them called Brittany. 

The Saxons, joined by the ANGLES, divided their conquests 
into seven kingdoms, according to the number of their leaders ; 
whence the name of the Saxon Heptarchy. The chief of these 
leaders were, Hengist, who founded the kingdom of Kent, 
A.D. 457 Ella, of the south Saxons in Sussex and Surry, 
A. D. 491 ; and CERDIC, of the west Saxons, or Wessex, in 
Cornwall, Devon, &c. A. D. 51 2, from whom our present 
royal family is descended. 

The Saxons are said to have been first converted to Chris- 
tianity by Austin, a monk sent by Pope Gregory the Great for 
that purpose, a. 596. He is accounted the first archbishop o£ 

Kk 4 Canterbury, 



504 



tiistory of England, 



Canterbury, and died a. 605. The Saxons became so super- 
stitious, that upwards of thirty kings and queens are said to have 
resigned their crowns, to enjoy religious solitude. * 

Ina, king of the west Saxons, on a visit to Rome, made the 
Pope a present of a tax> since called Peter-Pence, or Rome-Scot, 
to which the whole kingdom was afterwards subjected, 725. 

"the different kingdoms of the Heptarchy were united into 
one by EGBERT, who had been educated at the court of 
Charles the Great, whither he had fled for safety, and was called 
to the throne by the nobility in the 8oo.-^From this time the 
kingdom was called England. It now began to be infested by 
the Danes, who continued their depredations for several ages, 
during the reigns of Egbert's successors \ Ethelwolf his son, 
twenty years ; Ethelbald, three years ; Ethelbert> six years 5 
Ethelred, six years ; all three sons of Ethelwolf 1 

ALFRED, justly sirnamed the Great, was the fourth son of 
Ethelwolf, and succeeded to the crown 872, in the 22d year 
of his age. He was one of the greatest princes, both in peace 
and war, mentioned in history. By the native force of his own 
genius he made a progress in knowledge, astonishing for the 
time in which he lived, when, as himself informs us, there 
were very few laymen who could read English, and scarcely an 
ecclesiastic who ^understood Latin. He had received the first 
rudiments of his education at Rome. He fought many battles 
against the Danes with various success, no less than seven in the 
same year. At one time he was so much reduced that he was 
obliged to dismiss his attendants, and in the habit of a peasant 
to conceal himself in the house of a neatrherd. The news of a 
prosperous event, however, drew him from this retreat. 

Some of his men had defeated a party of the Danes. Alfred 
put himself at their head. In order to procure intelligence, he 
had the address to penetrate into the camp of the enemy under 
the disguise of a harper. The English roused by the name of 
their king, whom they had long thought dead, flocked in great 
numbers to his standard. Alfred delayed not to lead them 
against the Danes, whom he attacked by surprise, and obtained 
a complete victory over them. Such as survived, he forced to 
leave the kingdom, or submit to his government. 

Alfred next applied himself to make the best regulations for 
the government of his kingdom. He formed a body of laws, 

* Strabo observes, that men are always led to superstition by the influence of women, 
vir, p, 267. He ought to have rather said, hy ignorance and false religion. 



which 



History of Engiahd. &0$ 

which served as the basis of all subsequent improvements in 
English jurisprudence. He built ships to secure the coasts 
against future invasions. He erected schools for the education 
of youth, invited learned men into his dominions, and founded 
the university of Oxford about the year 895. — This truly great 
king died 901. 

EDWARD the Elder, his son, succeeded him. The Danes 
again renewed their ravages, which, with a few intervals, they 
continued during the succeeding reigns of Athelstan, 1 5 years j 
Edmund, 5 years \ Edrid, 10 years ; Edivy, 4 years ; Edgar, 1 7 
years. Edgar is said to have demanded from the Welsh 300 
wolves' heads yearly as a tribute ; by which means that animal 
was entirely extirpated in Britain. Edward the Martyr, crowned 
by Dunstan, the famous monk and archbishop of Canterbury, 
was murdered by the influence of his stepmother Elfrida, in the 
4th year of his reign, to make room for her son Ethelred, 978. 
This king, to get rid of the Danes, who, after an interval of 60 
"years, had renewed their incursions, agreed to pay them an 
annual tax, called Dane-gelt,' But several bodies of them remain- 
ing in the country, and behaving with great insolence, whence 
they got the name of Lord Danes, measures were concerted for 
a general massacre of them. To revenge which, Swem, their 
king, landed in England with a great army, and after repeated 
attempts, became master of the whole country, 1012. Ethelred 
fled with his family to Richard Duke of Normandy, whose 
sister Emma he had married for his second wife. Upon the 
death of Swein, which happened soon after, CANUTE his 
son was proclaimed by the Danes as successor ; but the English 
recalled Ethelred, who died at London 10 16. In this reign was 
first enacted the celibacy of the clergy. Edmund Ironside, his 
son, succeeded ; v/ho being defeated by the Danes, and soon 
after murdered by the treachery of one Cedric, left the un- 
disturbed possession of the kingdom to Canute the Great, who $ 
to prevent the interposition of the Duke of Normandy in favour 
of his nephews, married Emma, their mother. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Harold, who reigned four 4 years. 

Hardicanute, the son of Canute by Emma, was next king t 
for 2 years. 

EDWARD, named the Confessor, the son of Ethelred by 
Emma, was called to the throne from the court of Normandy, 
1048. He remitted the tax Dane-gelt, and is said to have been 
the first king who took upon him to cure the king's evil by the 
touch, He collected the Saxon laws and customs into a body, 
which were thence called by his name. 

EDWARD 



506 



History of England, 



EDWARD dying without children, Harold, the son of 
Goodwin Earl of Kent, had so much influence as to secure the 
crown to himself, in prejudice of Edgar Atheling, grandson to 
Edmund Ironside, the lawful heir. But William Duke of Nor- 
mandy, claiming a right to the crown from the destination of 
Edward in his last will, brought into England a great army, 
composed not only of his own vassals, but also of adventurers 
from the neighbouring countries. A great battle was fought at 
Hastings in Sussex, October 14. 1066, in which Harold being 
slain fighting bravely at the head of his troops, left William 
master of the kingdom. The Norman conquest put an end to 
the dominion of the Anglo-Saxons, after it had lasted 417 years. 

WILLIAM I. called the Conqueror, was natural spn to 
Robert the sixth Duke of Normandy, by Arlotte, a skinner's 
daughter. He at first treated the English with gentleness ; but 
some of them making attempts in favour of Edgar Atheling, he 
employed this pretext for crushing the nobility, and dividing 
their estates among his followers. Atheling had fled to Mal- 
colm king of Scotland, who married his sister Margaret ; but 
afterwards making his submission to William he was received into 
favour. William obliged the English to put out their candles 
and fires every evening at the sound of a bell, called the Curfeu. 
He ordered a general survey of all the lands in the kingdom to 
be made, and recorded in a book, called Doomsday book, the 
original of which is now kept in the exchequer. He died in 
1087, leaving Normandy to his eldest son Robert, whose am- 
bition had disturbed his old age ; and England to his second son, 

WILLIAM II. called Rufus, from the colour of his hair, a 
brave prince, but tyrannical, and no friend to the clergy. He 
was accidentally killed by one Tyrrel while hunting, 1 1 00. This 
year there happened an inundation of the sea, which overflowed 
the lands of Goodwin Earl of Kent, now called the Goodwin Sands. 

HENRY I. sirnamed Beauclerc, or the fine scholar, on ac- 
count of his learning, the youngest son of William the Con- 
queror, obtained the crown in the absence of his brother Robert, 
who was then returning from the Holy Land. He married 
Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm king of Scotland by Marga- 
ret j restored to the English the liberty of using fire and candle 
by night, and confirmed the laws of Edward ; all which things 
were very acceptable to the people. Robert, upon his return, 
endeavoured to recover the crown by force of arms. But a 
peace was made up by the mediation of Anselm archbishop of 
Canterbury. A few years after ? upon an application from 
some discontented Norman barons for assistance, Henry took 

occasion 



History of England. 



507 



©ccasion to make war on his brother, and having defeated him 
in battle, brought him as a prisoner to England, where he un- 
generously confined him at Cardiff castle in Wales during the 
rest of his life, for twenty-six years. William, the king's only 
son, was drowned in his return from Normandy, with several 
others of the royal family, and many of the first nobility in 
England, which disaster overwhelmed Henry with inexpressible 
grief. He made the English nobility swear fealty to Matilda or 
Maude, his only daughter, first married to Henry IV. Emperor 
of Germany, and afterwards to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of 
Anjou, by whom she had several children. But this appoint- 
ment did not take effect. Henry died of a surfeit, 1 135, after 
a reign of thirty-four years. 

STEPHEN, Earl- of Blois, nephew to the late king, disre- 
garding former obligations, seized upon the crown. Matilda 
landed with an army to support her claim. After several bloody 
battles, and surprising escapes on both sides, Stephen continued 
in possession of the crown till his death, 1154. 

HENRY II. the eldest son of Maude, succeeded. He was 
one of the most powerful princes in his time, not more by the 
extent of his dominions, than by his own personal abilities. Be- 
sides England, he possessed some of the finest provinces in 
France j to all which he added a considerable part of Ireland by 
conquest. During most part of his reign, he was embroiled in 
disputes with the clergy, chiefly by the violence and obstinacy 
of Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. Henry having expressed, x 
in a passion, his desire of being rid of that prelate, four knights, 
who overheard it, went and slew Becket before the altar of his 
own church. Although this murder was committed without 
Henry's instructions, the public odium ran so high against him, 
that, to appease it, he was obliged to do penance before Becket's 
tomb, where he received eighty lashes from the monks of Can- 
terbury. The old age of this monarch was embittered by the 
undutiful behaviour of his children ; and he is said to have died 
cursing them, 1 189. 

RICHARD I. called Cceur de Lion from his courage, hav- 
ing engaged in the Crusades, with Philip king of France, on 
his way to Palestine, took Messina in Sicily, and reduced the 
island of Cyprus. In the Holy Land he performed prodigies 
of valour against Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt. In his return 
home, he was arrested by the duke of Austria, and sent to 
Henry VI. Emperor of Germany, who basely retained him as 
a prisoner, and exacted an immense sum for his ransom. 
jRichard was slain by a wound he received from an arrow, while 

besieging 



History of England. 



besieging a castle in Normandy, 1199. re % n was a con- 

tinued scene of oppression and misfortunes. 

JOHN, sirnamed Lackland, the brother of Richard, suc- 
ceeded ; a mean, cruel, perfidious, and tyrannical prince. He 
murdered Arthur, his nephew, who had the hereditary right to 
the crown. To secure himself against an invasion from France, 
he resigned his kingdom into the hands of the Pope. His ba- 
rons taking up arms against him, he signed a charter of rights 
and immunities, called Magna Charta, the original copy of 
which is still extant, and is esteemed the foundation of English 
liberty. John, however, soon after violated it ; upon which 
the Barons invited Lewis, the Dauphin of France, to their 
assistance, who became master of a great part of the kingdom. 
John died of grief, 12 16. 

HENRY III. John's eldest son, about nine years of age, was 
crowned at Gloucester. The Earl of Pembroke was appointed 
his guardian, by whose prudence and courage the French were 
obliged to evacuate the kingdom. The king of France, how- 
ever, continued in possession of Normandy. Henry proved a 
feeble inconstant prince. Having married Eleanor, the daughter 
of the Count of Provence, he lavished the wealth of the nation 
on foreigners and favourites. Montfort, Earl of Leicester, a per- 
son of great abilities, but of boundless ambition, taking advan- 
tage of the public discontents, excited the barons against the 
king. A battle was at last fought between them near Lewes, 
in which Henry, his brother Richard, king of the Romans, his 
eldest son Edward, with many others, were taken prisoners. 
Leicester now directed every thing according to his pleasure. 
A national assembly, now called a parliament, was held, to 
which two knights from every county, and deputies from each 
borough, were summoned, which was the original of the house 
•of Commons, 1265. Prince Edward making his escape, and 
collecting an army, by the assistance of the Earl of Gloucester, 
attacked Leicester, who was defeated and slain. Edward hav- 
ing re-established his father's authority, set out on the last cru- 
sade, with St. Lewis, king of France ; but while he was car- 
rying on the war in Palestine with the greatest valour, he was 
recalled by his father, who found himself unable to support the 
regal authority without him. Henry died 1272. 

EDWARD I. sirnamed Longshanks, was a wise and brave 
prince, but rigid and severe. He first made war on the Welsh, 
and having defeated and slain their king Le well in in battle, an- 
nexed that principality to the crown of England, 1284. His 
son Edward, born this year, was first styled Prince of W ales, 

which 



History of England, 



509 



which afterwards became the title of the eldest sons of the 
kings of England. < 

Alexander, king of Scotland, having died without male 
issue, and his grand-daughter, commonly called the Maid of 
Norway, having died soon after him, several competitors ap- 
peared for the crown. The chief of these were Robert Bruce 
and John Baliol. Edward being chosen arbiter between them, 
formed a design of subjecting that country to the crown of Eng- 
land. With this view, he determined in favour of Baliol, whom 
he afterwards treated rather as a vassal than a king. This pro- 
voked Baliol to revolt, and to form an alliance with the king of 
France, which continued for many ages after. Edward only 
wanted this pretext. He led an army into Scotland, and de- 
feated Baliol ; who timidly submitting himself to Edward, and 
resigning to him his crown, was conducted a prisoner to Eng- 
land. He then forced the Scots to acknowledge their sub- 
jection ; and barbarously destroyed or carried off all the monu- 
ments of their history ; particularly a famous stone on which 
their kings used to be crowned, and which is still to be seen in 
Westminster Abbey. — Edward next engaged in a war with 
France. The Scots taking advantage of his absence, made aa 
effort to recover their liberty. They were animated to this, 
chiefly by WILLIAM WALLACE, a person of the most heroic 
valour, who defeated the English in repeated engagements. His 
success raised the jealousy of his countrymen. In a battle with 
Edward, near Falkirk, Gumming, the most powerful nobleman 
in Scotland, deserted him, which determined the fate of the 
day. At last, by the treachery of a friend, called Monteith, 
Wallace was betrayed into the hands of Edward, who, most 
ungenerously, put him to death, at London, as a traitor. All 
Scotland now seemed to be reduced ; but Robert Bruce, son to 
Robert the competitor for the crown, making his escape from 
the English court, again roused his countrymen to assert their 
independence. Being opposed by Cumming, he slew him with 
his own hand. Upon hearing this, Edward, transported with 
rage, made preparations for a fifth expedition against Scotland, 
determined, to use his own expression, to destroy it from sea 
to sea; but he was prevented by death, 1307. 

EDWARD II. sirnamed Carnarvon, was a weak imprudent 
prince, and a slave to favourites ; first to Gaveston a foreigner, 
and after he was cut off by the Barons, to Hugh Spencer, a 
young nobleman, who met with the same fate. Edward for 
some time discontinued the war against the Scots. But in the 
year 13 14, having led a numerous army into Scotland, he 
received a memorable defeat at Bannockburn, near Stirling 5 
10 - after 



History of England. 



after which King Robert Bruce carried the war into England,- 
Isabella, daughter to the French king, Edward's queen, enter- 
ing into a criminal connection with Roger Mortimer, and by 
his assistance having formed a party in England, made war upon 
her husband. She took him prisoner, and shut him up in Berk- 
ley castle, where he was cruelly murdered, 1328. 

EDWARD III. was at first kept under the controul of Mor- 
timer and his mother; but he soon set himself at freedom. 
Mortimer was publicly executed for his crimes, and Isabella 
confined for life. Edward laying claim to the crown of France, 
in right of his mother, quartered the arms of that country with 
those of England, with this motto, Dieu et mon droit > God and 
my right. At Cressy, he defeated a superior army of the 
French under their king Philip, chiefly by the valour of his son 
EDWARD, called the Black Prince, from the colour of his 
armour, only sixteen years of age, 1346. He took Calais after 
a year's siege. During his absence, the Scots, ravaging the 
borders of England, were defeated by his Queen Phiuppa, 
and their King David taken prisoner. Edward, upon his return, 
instituted the Order of the Garter, with this device, Honi so'tt 
qui mal y pense, Evil to him who evil thinks, 1350. The war 
with France being renewed, the French, although more than 
double the number of the English, receiyed a dreadful overthrow 
at Poictiers, where John their King, and his son, were made 
prisoners by the Black Prince, who added to the glory of the 
victory, by his generous behaviour after it, 1356. * 

Edward was not so fortunate towards the close of his reign, 
The Black Prince, after he had restored Peter the Cruel to the 
throne of Castile, was seized with a consumption, which cut 
him off, 1372. England was exhausted by so many fruitless 
expeditions. The provinces in France revolted. The King 
himself was enslaved by a mistress, Alice Piers ; which lost him 
the confidence of his subjects. He died 1377. 

In this reign the woollen manufactory was first established in 

England. John WicMiffe first began to preach against the 

abuses of Popery. His followers were called Wicklijfites or 
Lollards. 

RICHARD II. son to the Black Prince, succeeded, when 
only eleven years old. During his minority, the French in- 
fested the coasts, burnt Portsmouth and several other places 5. 

* The evening after the battle, he stood by the king of France while at supper, and 
shewed him every mark of respect. When they made their entry into London, the 
Prince of Wales rode on a little black nag, by the King of France's side, who was 
mounted on a stately white courser, adorned with costly trappings. Rapin. 



and 



History of England* 



Bli 



and the Scots ravaged the borders. The rigorous exaction of a 
poll-tax raised an insurrection, which began in Essex, and was 
headed by one Ball, a priest, and Walter, a tyler, hence called 
Wa^ Tyler. The in urgents marched to London, to the 
number of 100,000, where they committed the most horrible 
excesses. They massacred the primate, the chancellor, and a 
great number of the most distinguished personages. The young 
King had the courage to go out and hold a conference with them. 
Walworth, the mayor of London, who accompanied him, was 
so offended with the insolence of Tyler, that, not reflecting on 
the danger he incurred, he stunned him with a blow of his 
mace ; and Phiipot an alderman, riding up, thrust his sword 
through his body. The King and his attendants must inevitably 
have perished, if Richard, although only sixteen years of age, 
had not, with amazing presence of mind, allayed the fury of 
the mob, by offering himself as their leader, and promising to 
grant what they desired. Their principal demands were, that 
all slaves should be set free, and that all commonages should be 
opened to the poor as well as the rich. But this promise was 
not kept to them after they dispersed, many of them being exe- 
cuted without mercy, which greatly alienated the affections of 
the people from the King ; and his imprudence and tyrannical 
behaviour procured him the enmity of the nobles. — He un- 
justly banished his cousin Henry Duke of Hereford, on occasion 
of a quarrel with the Duke of Norfolk ; and on the death of 
his father, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son to 
Edward III. confiscated his estate ; on which account, while 
Richard was employed in quelling an insurrection in Ireland, 
Henry, now Duke of Lancaster, landed in Yorkshire, where 
he was soon joined by Percy Earl of Northumberland, and up- 
wards of 60,000 men. — Richard was divested of the crown, 
and some time after perished by a violent death in Pomfret 
castle, Jan. 1400. 

Thus began the contest betwixt the houses of York and 
Lancaster, which some years after deluged the kingdom with 
blood. 

HENRY IV. had several conspiracies formed against him, 
which he suppressed with great ability, but tarnished his success 
by putting to death many of the nobles. The Welsh being 
excited to revolt by Owen Glendour, were subdued. The 
Scots likewise commencing hostilities, were defeated ; and the 
heir apparent to the crown of Scotland, afterwards James I. 
being taken by the English, in his way to France, was detained 
as a prisoner by Henry. 



512, History of England* 

In this reign, the rights of the Commons in parliament, and 
the form of their election, were first ascertained. William 
Sawtree, and a few others, the scholars of Wickliffe, were 
burnt for heresy. The use of great guns was introduced into 
England, although some say that they were used at the battle 
of Cressy, — Henry died anno 1413. 

HENRY V. while Prince -of Wales, had been guilty of 
several excesses. He had affronted a judge on the bench, Sir 
William Gascoigne> who ordered him to prison. But upon his 
accession to the throne, he dismissed all his former compa- 
nions. The persecution against the Wickliffi tes was continued \ 
and to strike the greater terror, Oldcastle Lord Cobham, among 
others, was given up to the clergy, who put him to death with 
the greatest tortures. — Henry, taking advantage of the insanity 
of Charles King of France, and the troubles in which that 
country was involved by the factions of the Duke of Burgundy, 
and the Duke of Orleans, demanded the restitution of Nor- 
mandy, and of the other provinces formerly possessed by the 
English j which being refused, he landed an army of near fifty 
thousand men at Havre-de- Grace, Aug. 21. 1415, and took 
Harfleur after an obstinate defence. But his troops being 
greatly diminished by diseases and fatigue, he had crossed the 
Somme, and was returning to Calais, when he was overtaken 
by the French army, at least four times his number, near the 
castle of Agincourt. Henry, however, by the valour of the 
English, and the impetuosity of the enemy, gained a complete 
victory, Oct. 25. 

Afterwards, uniting himself with the Duke of Burgundy, 
^nd marrying Catherine, the French King's daughter by Isabella 
of Bavaria, he was declared regent of France during the life- 
time of Charles, and heir to the crown after his death; which 
appointment was ratified by the Parliament of Paris. The 
Dauphin was excluded on account of the murder of the 
Duke of Burgundy, who was killed at an interview by some 
pf his attendants, to revenge the assassination of the Duke of 
Orleans. The Dauphin's affairs were saved from ruin by the 
seasonable assistance of seven thousand Scots, under the com- 
mand of John Stuart Earl of Buchan, who having defeated and 
slain Henry's brother, the Duke of Clarence, at Beauge in Nor- 
mandy, was made Constable of France. Henry himself, while 
prosecuting his conquests, was cut off by a pleuritic disorder, 
in the thirty-fourth year of his age, 1422. Charles VI. of 
France died soon after him, and was succeeded by the Dauphin 
Charles Vll. 

HENRY 



History of England. 



513 



HENRY VI. succeeded his father when only nine months 
old, and some years after was crowned King of France at 
Paris. The Duke of Bedford, his uncle, was appointed pro- 
tector of England, and the Duke of Gloucester, his brother, to 
govern in his absence. Bedford carried on the war in France 
for some time with great success, and subdued the greatest part 
of that kingdom. At last being obliged to raise the siege of 
Orleans, when he was on the point of taking it, by Joan a" Arc, 
or the Maid of Orleans, affairs on a sudden took an unfavour- 
able turn. The French, animated by this wonderful woman, 
whom they believed to be inspired, were every where victo- 
rious. Agreeably to her prediction, she crowned the French 
King at Rheims. But afterwards having fallen into the hands 
of the English, she was by them cruelly burnt at Rouen as a 
sorceress. Bedford, who had always conducted himself with 
the greatest valour and prudence, dying, anno 1436, the Eng- 
lish were in a short time dispossessed of all their conquests, ex- 
cept Calais, notwithstanding the brave efforts of Talbot Earl of 
Shrewsbury to support them. 

Henry, having reached the age of manhood, discovered the 
strongest marks of weakness and incapacity : at times he was 
subject to fits of madness. He married Margaret of Anjou, a 
woman of great spirit and abilities, but ambitious and revenge- 
ful. By intermeddling in the administration of government, 
she incurred the hatred of the nobility. The Duke of York 
now began to assert his right to the crown. He was descended 
From Lionel third son to Edward III. so that he had a prior 
claim to that of Henry. The ensign of York was a white rose, 
that of Lancaster a red. The two parties came to an engage- 
ment at St. Alban's, where York was victorious, and the King 
taken prisoner, 1455. An accommodation was now agreed 
upon ; but the war soon broke out afresh. The King's army 
was again defeated near Southampton by the Earl of TFarwick, 
the most powerful nobleman in England, called the King-maker, 
and Henry once more made prisoner. But the Queen having 
collected an army in the north, gained a complete victory over 
her enemies at Wakefield. The Duke of York was slain in 
battle ; and his son, the Earl of Rutland, murdered by Clifford 
in cold blood. The Duke's head was fixed upon the walls of 
York, 1460. The Queen gained a second victory over War- 
wick at St. Alban's, in consequence of which her husband was 
again set at liberty ; but Edward the young Duke of York, 
supported by Warwick, was preparing to revenge his father's 
death with redoubled severity. 

L I EDWARD 



514 History of England. 

EDWARD IV. was proclaimed King at London, 4th March 
1 46 1. He gained a complete victory over the Queen's forces 
at Towton in Yorkshire, after a bloody battle, in which near 
forty thousand on both sides are said to have fallen. Margaret 
fled with her husband and son to Scotland for protection; 
Edward now took down the head of his father from the walls 
of York, and put up the heads of the conquered generals in its 
stead. Margaret made another effort to retrieve her affairs, 
but without success. Her husband once more became a cap- 
tive, and she, with difficulty, made her escape, with her son to 
Flanders. Edward falling in love with Elizabeth Woodville, 
widow to Sir John Grey, married her, while Warwick was 
negociating a match with Bona of Savoy, sister to the Queen 
of France 5 on which account Warwick thinking himself 
affronted, and being otherwise ill used by Edward, deserted 
his cause ; and attacking him by surprise, made him a prisoner. 
But Edward making his escape, and raising forces, obliged 
Warwick to fly to France. Thsre becoming reconciled to 
Margaret, he returned at the head of an army, obliged Edward 
to fly to Holland, and re-instated Henry on, the throne. But 
Edward being supplied by the Duke of Burgundy with money 
and a few troops, returned to England, and being joined by 
his partisans, fought the battle of Barnet, in which Warwick 
was defeated and slain, 1471. He soon after defeated Mar- 
garet at Tewkesbury ; where she herself was made prisoner, 
together with her son Prince Edward, a youth of about nine- 
teen, who making a spirited answer to a question put to him 
by the King, was struck on the mouth by that barbarous mo- 
narch with his gauntlet. Whereupon Richard Duke of Glou- 
cester, and the Duke of Clarence, the King's brothers, basely 
dispatched him, unarmed, with their daggers. Richard is said 
also to have murdered King Henry VI. a few days after in pri- 
son. Margaret was ransomed by Lewis XI. King of France, 
and survived her misfortunes only a few years. Edward exer- 
cised horrible cruelties on his enemies \ at the same time de- 
voting himself to riot and debauchery. He died, anno 1483, 
in the forty-second year of his age. 

During these disturbances, printing was first introduced at 
London, anno 147 1, by Caxton, a merchant. 

EDWARD V. was about thirteen years of age when his fa- 
ther died. He was put under the charge of the Earl of Rivers, 
brother to the Queen. But the Duke of Gloucester being 
declared Protector of the kingdom by the privy council, and 
having beheaded the Earl of Rivers and Lord Hastings, got the 

10 King 



History of England, 



515 



King and his brother the Duke of York into his power ; and 
by the assistance of the Duke of Buckingham, usurped the 
crown. The two princes were assassinated in the Tower, a few 
months after their father's death. The parliament, as usual, 
ratified the right of the most powerful. 

RICHARD III. called Crouch-back, did not long enjoy the 
reward of his crimes. Buckingham, disgusted at his neglect, 
determined to set up Henry Earl of Richmond, descended from 
the house of Lancaster, as his rival. But his intentions being 
discovered too soon, he was taken and beheaded. Richmond 
however still prosecuted his claim. Having received some troops 
from Charles VIII. of France, he landed on the coast of Wales 
with only 2000 men ; but was soon joined by a considerable 
number of the English. A battle was fought at Bosivorth near 
Leicester, in which, by the desertion of Lord Stanley with 
7000 men, Richard was defeated and slain, 22d August 1485. 
By his death the race of the Plantagenet kings became extinct, 
after having been in possession of the crown 330 years. Thus 
also ended the contest betwixt the houses of York and Lancaster, 
which had lasted for thirty years, and in which above i 00,000 
men are said to have lost their lives. 

HENRY VII. was grandson to Owen Tudor, who married 
Catherine the widow of Henry V. He was descended from the 
house of Lancaster by his mother. But his title to the crown 
was not without exception. He married Margaret daughter to 
Edward IV. and thus united the right of the house of York to 
his own. Henry Was a wise prince, but jealous of his autho- 
rity. He humbled the power of the barons, and made many 
useful laws for the encouragement of commerce, and for pro- 
moting the happiness of his people. His tranquillity was for 
several years disturbed by two impostors set up by his enemies* 
Lambert Simnel, who personated the Earl of Warwick, son to 
the Duke of Clarence, whom Henry had confined in the Tower; 
and Perkin Warbech, who pretended to be the Duke of York, 
brother to Edward V. They both fell into Henry's power. 
Simnel continued to enjoy a mean employment in the King's 
service during his life j and Warbeck attempting to make his 
escape from the Tower with the innocent Earl of Warwick, 
they were both put to death. 

Arthur, the King's eldest son, espoused Catharine of Arra- 
gon, sister to Charles V. who brought him a great dowry ; and 
he dying in a short time, she was, by a dispensation from the 
Pope, given to Henry his brother, Margaret, the King's eldest 
daughter, was married to James IV. of Scotland. The chief 

L 1 2 weakness 



316 



History of England' 



weakness of Henry was his too great love of money, which led 
him to do many arbitrary things. Epsom and Dudley were the 
instruments of his exactions. When he died, anno 150c), he 
left in his treasury i,8oo,oool. an immense sum for those times. 
His parsimony is thought to have prevented his becoming mas- 
ter of the West Indies, as Columbus offered his services to him 
before he applied to the court of Spain. Henry however made 
amends, by encouraging Sebastian Cabot, a native of Bristol, who 
discovered the main land of North America, 1498. 

HENRY VIII. aged 1 8, began his reign with promising ap- 
pearances, but proved in the end a capricious and cruel tyrant. 
He dissipated the treasures amassed by his father with a foolish 
profusion. Epsom and Dudley were executed to gratify the 
people. During the greatest part of his reign, Henry was di- 
rected by Cardinal Wolsey, who gained his favour by the 
meanest compliances, but behaved to others with the most 
arrogant haughtiness. Ambitious of becoming Pope, he pre- 
vailed on the King to take part in the wars on the continent, 
as suited his own aspiring views, or gratified his resentment, 
without any regard to the interests of his country. While 
Henry was absent on an expedition against France, in which 
he gained a victory in what was called the battle of the Spurs, 
from the rapidity of the enemy's flight, the Scots making an 
inroad on the borders, were defeated by the Earl of Surry at 
Elodden, and their King, James IV. slain with the flower of 
the Scotch nobility, 9th September 15 13. 

The Reformation having been begun in Germany by Martin 
Luther 1518, Henry wrote a book against him, on which ac- 
count he received from Pope Leo X. the title of Defender of 
the Faith, 1 5 2 1 . 

Henry falling in love with Anne Bullen, one of the maids of 
honour to the Queen, began to express scruples about the law- 
fulness of his marriage, and therefore applied to Pope Clement 
VII. for a divorce. The delays he met with in this process 
for six years occasioned the fall of Wolsey, who being stripped 
of his immense power and possessions, died of grief, 1530. At 
last the divorce being finally refused him, from fear of the Em- 
peror Charles V. Catharine's brother, Henry resolved to sepa- 
rate himself altogether from the church of Rome. His mar- 
riage with Catharine was dissolved, and that with Anne Bullen 
confirmed by Cranmer, a person of great worth and learning, 
who was made Archbishop of Canterbury for his services in 
this affair, 1533. Hereupon Henry, being excommunicated by 
fjfee Pope, by the authority of parliament abolished the Papal 
15 power 



History of England. 



511 



power in England, and suppressed all the monasteries, to the 
number of 645, together with the colleges and religious houses; 
by which means great revenues were procured, but at the same 
time many persons were reduced to poverty. The King being de- 
clared head of the church, drew up a certain form of belief in 
six articles called the Bloody Statute, filled with various incon- 
sistencies, which all were required to embrace ; and such as 
refused, whether Papists or Lutherans, were committed to the 
flames. Many of both descriptions suffered. 

Anne Bullen having lost the King's affections, was upon a 
slight pretence condemned and executed, May 19. 1536'. 
Her daughter Elizabeth was declared incapable of inheriting the 
crown, as Mary the daughter of Catharine had been before. 
The very next day after the excution, Henry married Jane Sey- 
mour, who died the year following, after having been delivered 
of a son called Edward. His next wife was Anne of Cleves, 
whom, on account of dislike, he soon dismissed ; and then 
married Catharine Howard, niece to the Duke of Norfolk, who 
being convicted of criminal conduct before marriage, was be- 
headed, with several of her relations. His last wife was Ca- 
therine Parr, a widow, who narrowly escaped being brought to 
the stake, for her religious opinions. Henry's cruelty increased 
with his years. Few days passed without some dreadful execu- 
tion. The brave Earl of Surry was put to death without a 
crime being proved against him ; and his father the Duke of 
Norfolk was to have suffered next day, but was saved by 
Henry's own death, who died of corpulence, and an ulcer in his 
leg, 28th January, 1547. 

In this reign the Bible was first printed in English ; Wales 
was united with England ; Ireland was created a kingdom ; and 
Henry took the title of King of Ireland. 

EDWARD VI. was nine years old when his father died. 
His uncle Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, created Duke of 
Somerset, was made Protector ; who, by the assistance of Cran- 
mer, completed the reformation in religion; not however with- 
out several insurrections. Having marched into Scotland, to 
compel the Scots to give their young Queen Mary in marriage to 
Edward, he defeated them with great slaughter in the battle of 
Pinkey, and with little loss on his own side. He was prevented 
from improving his victory, by factions raised against him by 
his enemies at home. At the head of these was his own bro- 
ther, the Lord Admiral, who was tried for his crimes, and be- 
headed chiefly at the instigation of Dudley, Earl of Warwick, 
afterwards Duke of Northumberland, by whose machinations, 

L 1 3 sorne^ 



518 



History of England. 



some time after, the Protector himself was first divested of his 
power, and then beheaded 155 1. Northumberland being 
thus placed at the head of affairs, having married his son to 
Lady Jane Grey, (niece to Henry VIII. by the Duchess of Suf- 
folk, his youngest sister, first married to Lewis XII. of France,) 
a young lady aged sixteen, of surprising accomplishments, pre- 
vailed on Edward to make a will, settling the succession on her, 
in preference to his own sisters Mary and Elizabeth. Edward 
died of a consumption, 6th of July 1553, in the seventh year 
of his reign. He is said to have discovered amiable dispositions, 
and to have made surprising progress in learning for his age. 
Northumberland caused Lady Jane Grey to be proclaimed 
Queen much against her own inclination. But the people rose 
in different parts, in favour of the rightful heir, and Northum- 
berland was deserted by his own soldiers. r 

MARY was declared Queen with the general concurrence of 
the people. Northumberland and the Duke of Suffolk were 
beheaded, and, what moved particular compassion, Lady Jane 
Grey, and her husband Lord Guildford Dudley. 

Mary had promised to her adherents to leave religion as she 
found it. But she soon violated her promise. Popery was ^ 
restored, and the laws against heretics renewed. Such as did 
not comply with this change were committed to the flames. 
Hooper bishop of Gloucester, Ridley bishop of London, Lati- 
mer bishop of "Worcester, Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury, 
Rogers, Saunders, and Taylor, eminent clergymen, with many 
others, suffered with astonishing fortitude. Gardiner bishop 
of Winchester, and Bonner bishop of London, were the chief 
promoters of these sanguinary measures. Cardinal Pole, the 
Pope's legate, and nearly related to the Queen, was against 
them. 

IVjary espoused Philip, King of Spain, as furiou3 a bigot as 
herself, who engaged her in a war with France,, in which 
Calais was taken by the Duke of Guise. Grief at this loss, 
and other mortifications, shortened the Queen's life. She died 
of a dropsy, 17th November, 1558, in the forty-third year 
of her age. Weakness and bigotry were the causes of her 
cruelty. 

ELIZABETH was twenty-five years old when she succeeded 
her sister. She was possessed of surprising abilities and great- 
ness of mind, but naturally arbitrary and severe ; not amiable 
as a woman, but illustrious as a queen. She was particularly 
remarkable for disguising her own sentiments. During the 
former reign she had been confined on account of her religion, 



History of "England. 



519 



smd was in danger of suffering for it. While in prison, she im- 
proved herself, by studying the languages and sciences. When 
raised to the throne, she restored the Protestant religion, and 
established that form of worship which is still retained in the 
Church of England. Philip of Spain, her sister's husband, 
asked her in marriage, but was rejected. Various other matches 
were afterwards proposed to her, none of which she ever chose 
to accept. Elizabeth was chiefly distinguished by her political 
sagacity and discernment, which enabled her to surmount the 
many difficulties with which, upon her accession to the throne, 
she was surrounded. She assisted the Protestants in Germany 
and France, aided the Dutch in their revolt against Philip; and 
by fomenting the troubles in Scotland, obtained the ascendency 
in the direction of affairs in that country. In short, during the 
whole of her glorious reign, she may be said to have maintained 
the balance of Europe. She was fortunate in the choice of her 
ministers, Cecil and Walsingham, but not so in her favourites 5 
Dudley, created Earl of Leicester, and Devereux Earl of Essex. 
Although not handsome, she was vain of her person, and fond 
of flattery. Her memory is chiefly tarnished by her cruel and 
unjust treatment of Mary Queen of Scots ; who having fled to 
her for protection, was confined to prison for eighteen years, 
and then beheaded for being concerned in Babington's conspi- 
racy, which was formed chiefly to procure her freedom, 1587. 

Philip having long determined to invade England with his 
whole force, in 1588 sent against it a powerful armament, 
called the Invincible Armada, which being defeated by the English 
fleet under Lord Howard and Sir Francis Drake, was afterwards 
overtaken by a storm, so that few of the Spanish ships reco- 
vered their ports. 

Some years after, Howard and Essex being sent on an expe- 
dition against Spain, took and plundered the city of Cadiz, 
burning the ships in the harbour, 1596. 

The Irish having rebelled under the Earl of Tyrone, were 
subdued by Lord Montjoy, 1603. 

Elizabeth died 24th March 1603, of a deep melancholy, oc- 
casioned, it is said, by remorse for the death of Essex, who had 
been exectued for treason. With her ended the house of Tudor. 
In this reign the East India Company was first established ; 

Sir Francis Drake and Cavendish sailed round the globe ; and Sir 

W alter Raleigh, at his own expence, settled a colony in Virginia. 
At this time flourished the poets Shakespeare and Spenser; and 

also Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, the father of modern or 

experimental philosophy. 

L 1 4 JAMES 



520 



History of England. 



JAMES I. and VI. of Scotland, descended from Margaret, 
daughter to Henry VII. succeeded. He assumed the title of 
King of Great Britain. He attempted to unite the two king- 
doms together, but without success, owing to the jealousy of 
the English. A plot was formed by some Papists to blow up 
the King and Parliament, called the Gunpowder plot, but it was 
happily discovered, Nov. 5. 1605. 

James maintained peace with his neighbours during the 
whole of his reign. The kingdom continued to increase in 
trade and opulence. A spirit of freedom began to be diffused 
among all ranks, especially among those who did not conform 
to the Church of England, called Dissenters, or Puritans. James 
entertained high notions of his prerogative or regal authority, 
and often harangued his parliament on this topic : but they 
were not disposed tamely to yield to his pretensions. Hence 
arose continual jarrings between them. James's affectation of 
learning rendered him the object of ridicule ; and his partiality 
to favourites, whom he chose for the most frivolous accomplish- 
ments, exposed him to contempt. His first favourite was 
Robert Carr, created Earl of Somerset ; and after him George 
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. 

Being disappointed in his scheme of matching his son Charles 
to the Infanta of Spain, he agreed to his marrying Henrietta of 
France, whom Charles had privately seen, in his romantic ex- 
pedition to Spain with the Duke of Buckingham. 

Elizabeth, the king's eldest daughter, was married to the 
Elector Palatine, who being elected King of Bohemia, was, 
by the house of Austria, not only expelled from thence, but 
also from his hereditary dominions. SOPHIA, their daughter, 
married the Duke of Hanover from whom our present royal 
family is descended. James was much blamed for not affording 
more effectual assistance to his son-in-law. He paid particular 
attention to the improvement of Ireland, and hence by some is 
styled the Irish Legislator. James died 27th March 1625, aged 
fifty-nine years. 

CHARLES I. succeeded to the crown in favourable circum- 
stances. But being impressed by his father with a high sense 
of his hereditary or indefeasible right, as it was called, and 
wanting to rule in an arbitrary manner, he lost the affections 
of his subjects. The parliament refusing to grant him supplies, 
he extorted money from the people by force, under the name 
of loans or benevolences, monopolies, tonnage and poundage, or 
a tax upon merchandize, ship-money, &c. Such as refused 
were imprisoned, or otherwise punished. John Hampden, a 

private 



History of England. 



521 



private gentleman, unwilling to submit to a tax not authorized 
by parliament, being rated for ship-money only at twenty shil- 
lings, brought his cause before the court of exchequer, where 
it was tried with great solemnity ; but he was cast. Bucking- 
ham, who had advised these measures, was assassinated at 
Portsmouth by one Felton, an Irish officer, from a private 
grudge, as he was about to embark on an expedition for the 
relief of Rochelle, a. 1628. 

After this, Charles was chiefly swayed by the advice of Laud, 
.Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas Went worth t Earl of 
Strafford. His attempting to introduce the English liturgy 
into Scotland excited that nation to rebel, 1637. The Scots 
forming an association, called the Solemn League and Covenant^ 
raised an army for their defence under General Leslie. Charles 
marched against them \ but finding his troops not disposed to 
fight, concluded a treaty with the Scots, and returned to Eng- 
land, Aug. 1. 1638. 

This treaty was not long observed. The Scots, stimulated 
by the malecontents in England, again took up arms. Charles 
therefore prepared for war. * In order to raise money, several 
arbitrary taxes were exacted with great severity; but these 
proving insufficient, Charles was prevailed on to call a parlia- 
ment, eleven years after he had discontinued it ; but the Com- 
mons not complying with his requests, he suddenly dissolved it» 
His necessities however increasing, by the Scots invading Eng- 
land, and seizing on Newcastle and other places, he was again 
obliged to assemble the parliament. It met Nov. 1. 1640, and 
from its long continuance was called the Long Parliament. The 
Commons began with petitioning for a redress of grievances, 
which was granted them. They then proceeded to impeach 
Strafford, and some time after Laud, who were both condemned 
and beheaded. The bishops were deprived of their seats in the 
House of Peers. The Star Chamber, and High Commission 
court* were abolished. The king going to Scotland, August 
1 64 1, was attended by a committee of the Commons, who 
might be spies on his conduct. 

The Papists in Ireland, thinking this a favourable opportu- 
nity to revolt, rose in different parts of the country, and mas- 
sacred a great number of the Protestants. 

* These two courts determined in a discretionary or arbitrary manner ; the first in 
civil affairs, and the second in ecclesiastical. The Star Chamber so called from the 
ceiling being adorned with figures of Stars, had subsisted from time immemorial by the 
common law of the land, and was confirmed, in certain cases, by act of parliament, 
a. 1487. See Rapin } fol. edit. vol. ii. 662. n. 3. The court of High Commission was 
erected by Elizabeth, in consequence of an act of parliament, passed at the beginning 
of her reign, 

The 



522 History of England. 

The King returned from Scotland 5th November, where he 
had made every reasonable concession. Having discovered a 
treasonable correspondence between some leading members of 
parliament and the Scots, he gave orders to impeach Lord Kem- 
bolton, and five commoners, Pym $ Hampden, Holies, Haslerig, 
and Strode ; and next day came to the House of Commons to 
seize them himself, but they had escaped a few minutes before 
his entry. "Whereupon a proclamation was issued for appre- 
hending them. The train-bands of the city were raised for 
their protection ; and the mob became so dangerous, that the 
King and Royal family were obliged to remove from London. 
The King, now sensible of his rashness, sent a message to the 
Commons, that he desisted from his proceedings against the 
accused members, and promised for the future not to infringe 
their privileges. But all offers of satisfaction were rejected. Soon 
after the parliament made a requisition, that the Tower should 
be put into their hands, and that Hull, Portsmouth, and the 
fleet, should be intrusted to persons of their chusing. Even 
this, although with great reluctance, was complied with. But 
when they next demanded that a militia should be raised, and 
that the parliament should have the nomination of the officers, 
the king positively refused it. This put an end to all further 
treaty, and both sides had recourse to arms. The people were 
divided into two factions. The favourers of the King were 
called Cavaliers, those of the Parliament, Round Heads. The 
war was carried on for six years with great animosity, and with 
various success. The generals on the side of the parliament 
were, first, the Earl of Essex, the Earl of Manchester, and Sir 
W. Waller ; after them, Lord Fairfax, his son Sir Thomas Fair- 
fax, and Oliver Cromwell, the son of a private gentleman at 
Huntingdon, originally intended for the law, who had some years 
before attempted to leave the kingdom upon a principle of reli- 
gion, but was prevented by the king's officers : Under the King; 
his nephews Prince Rupert and Maurice, sons to the Elector 
Palatine, the Earl of Lindsey, Sir Marmaduke Langdale, the 
Marquis of Newcastle, and the Marquis of Montrose in Scot- 
land. The King first erected his standard at Nottingham 
and the two armies met at Edgehill in Warwickshire, 23d Oc- 
tober, 1642. Both sides claimed the victory. In the first 
campaign the King was upon the whole successful. The two 
most eminent men on each side fell, LORD FAULKLAND 
and JOHN HAMPDEN. 

During the winter, the King summoned a parliament at 
Oxford, to counteract that at Westminster. He imprudently 
wasted in negotiation that time which he ought to have em- 
ployed 



History of England. 



523 



ployed In action. The courage of the parliament seemed to 
increase with its losses. They were chiefly animated by a spirit 
of religion. The Scots were invited into England to their 
assistance 5 and to make their union the more complete, the 
English parliament took the solemn league and covenant ; Epis- 
copacy was abolished, and the Presbyterian form established. 
About this time arose a new sect, called Independents, who dis- 
claimed all dependence on the civil power with respect to reli- 
gious matters. 

The first great disaster the King met with was at Marston- 
moor, near York, under Prince Rupert, where ten thousand of 
his men were slain, July 3. 1644. And at Naseby, in North- 
amptonshire, he himself in person was completely defeated, his 
camp-equipage and papers taken, by the abilities of Cromwell, 
June 14. 1645. This determined the fate of the war. The 
King finding it impracticable to sustain a siege at Oxford, 
formed the fatal resolution of leaving that place in disguise, and 
giving himself up to the Scots, then besieging Newark ; who, 
upon payment of 400,000!. of arrears, delivered him up to 
commissioners appointed by parliament, 30th January 1646, 
and returned into their own country. The army which now, 
by the arts of Cromwell, consisted chiefly of Independents, got 
possession of the King's person by force ; and having excluded 
from parliament such members as did not favour their views, 
by the authority of those who remained, called the Rump Par- 
liament, formally tried and condemned the King to death. He 
was beheaded at Whitehall, 30th January 1648. 

The surviving children of Charles were, Charles, and James 
Duke of York ; Mary espoused to the Prince of Orange, and 
mother to William, afterwards King of England ; and Henrietta 
Maria, married to the Duke of Orleans, whose daughter was 
married to the King of Sardinia. * 

COMMONWEALTH. After the death of Charles, the 
Commons voted the office of King, and the House of Peers, to 
be useless, and therefore abolished them. The Duke of Ha- 
milton and Lord Capel, who had levied an army for the relief 
of the King, and had been defeated near Preston, and taken 
prisoners by Cromwell, were executed. Cromwell was sent as 
Lord Lieutenant into Ireland, where the Marquis of Ormond, 
having concluded a treaty with the Papists under O'Neal^ had 
proclaimed Charles II. Cromwell soon over-ran the greatest 

* Also the Princess Elizabeth, who soon died of grief, as was supposed for the fate 
of her father ; and the Duke of Gloucester, who died a, 1660, after the restoration of 
his brother Charles II. 



part 



524 



History of England. 



part of that country, putting to the sword every garrison that 
made resistance. On this account he slew at Drogheda to the 
number of three thousand. Charles II. being proclaimed by 
the Scots, June 1650, the parliament recalled Cromwell from 
Ireland, where Ireton his son-in-law, and Ludlow, were left 
to complete the conquest of that country. Cromwell defeated 
the Scots at Dunbar with great slaughter, 3d September 1650. 
Charles having advanced into England with what forces he 
could collect, Cromwell leaving General Monk to finish the re- 
duction of Scotland, came up with him at Worcester, and gained 
the most complete victory he ever did, 3d September 1651. 
Almost the whole royal army was either cut to pieces or taken 
prisoners. The young King, after the most astonishing escapes, 
and after enduring the greatest hardships for forty-one days, 
at last got safe to France. Cromwell returned in triumph to 
London. And thus the whole British dominions were brought 
under subjection to the parliament, which now was composed 
only of sixty or seventy obscure and illiterate men. 

The parliament were offended with the Dutch for the recep- 
tion they gave the exiled loyalists ; one of whom had assassinated 
their envoy Dorislaus, for having been among the judges who 
condemned the late King. War was therefore declared against 
that republic j and it was maintained on both sides with un- 
common vigour. Seven bloody engagements were fought by 
sea in little more than the compass of a year ; in the last of 
which, the English, under Blake and Monk, gained a signal 
victory. Van Tromp, the famous admiral of the Dutch, was 
slain. Cromwell, perceiving that the parliament wanted to 
abridge his authority, went to the house ; and having turned 
out the members by force, ordered the doors to be locked, and 
put the key in his pocket, 20th April 1653. 

CROMWELL, at the age of fifty-five, was created Lord 
Protector by his council of officers, and henceforth ruled with 
absolute authority. He chose a parliament from the meanest 
of the people, which from the name of one of its members, 
Praise God Barebones, was called Barebones parliament. But 
they soon resigned their power into the Protector's hands, 
who appointed another in their place. Scotland was united 
to England as a conquered province, and Monk sent to go- 
vern it. 

Cromwell gave peace to the Dutch on equitable terms. 
War being declared against Spain, Blake carried the terror of 
the English name over the whole Mediterranean. Admirals 
Pen and Venables were sent against Hispaniola but failing in 
that enterprise, they took Jamaica. On their return they were 

imprisoned 



History of England. 



525 



imprisoned for misconduct. Cromwell wished to be made king ; 
but apprehending the danger of it, declined the crown when 
offered to him by his parliament. Many conspiracies were 
formed against his life, which, with wonderful sagacity, he de- 
tected and suppressed. But still he found himself unhappy; 
and he passed the end of his days in anguish and terror. He 
died 3d September 1 65 8, the anniversary day of some of his 
greatest successes. Richard his son was appointed to succeed 
him ; but wanting his father's abilities, he was soon obliged by 
the officers to resign his power, and afterwards lived in retire- 
ment to a good old age. The officers restored the Rump par- 
liament ; but finding it unmanageable, they again dissolved it, 
and chose General Lambert as their leader. In the mean time 
MONK, in Scotland, with the concurrence of Fairfax and 
others in England, having expressed a disapprobation of the con- 
duct of the officers, the nation seemed to be threatened with a 
return of former convulsions. But by the artful management 
of Monk, who led his forces to London, a free parliament was 
called, which restored the King, istMay 1660. 

CHARLES II. returned to London 29th May, being his 
birth day, aged thirty. He behaved at first with great mode- 
ration, and was chiefly directed by the counsel of Hyde Earl of 
Clarendon, the Chancellor, whose daughter the Duke of York 
had married ; but his indolence and love of pleasure afterwards 
led him to intrust the management of affairs to unworthy mi- 
nisters. These were called the Cabal, from the initials of 
their names, Clifford, Ashly, afterwards Lord Shaftesbury, Buck- 
ingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. Little attention was paid 
to the loyalists, who had lost their all in the King's cause. An 
act of indemnity was published, in which the regicides, as they 
were called, or those who had condemned the late King, were 
excepted. Ten of them were executed. Episcopacy was re- 
stored ; and those who did not conform, were deprived of their 
livings, to the number of 2000, 24th August 1662. The King 
married the Infanta of Portugal, chiefly on account of her great 
fortune. He had no children by her. A war was undertaken 
against the Dutch, which after much bloodshed on both sides, 
was concluded by the peace of Breda, The chief admirals on 
the side of the English were, the Duke of York, Prince Rupert, 
Montague, and Monk now created Duke of Albermarle ; of the 
Dutch, DeRuyter and Tromp. About this time, a plague raged 
through the nation. At London it was succeeded by a fire, 
which reduced a great part of that city to ashes, 2d September 
1666. 

Although 



526 



History of England. 



Although the parliament were more liberal in granting 
money to Charles than to any of his predecessors, yet his prodi- 
gality and dissipation always involved him in difficulties. This 
made him submit to receive a pension from the Court of France, 
who drew him in, without any just cause, to engage in a fresh 
war against the Dutch, which had nigh proved fatal to that re- 
public 1672. This raised great murmurs through the nation, 
and destroyed all confidence between the King and his parlia- 
ment. An attempt was made to exclude the Duke of York, as 
being a Papist, from the succession. To forward this scheme, 
one Titus Oates, a worthless man, gave, as it is supposed, a 
forged account of a conspiracy formed by the Jesuits to murder 
the King, and introduce Popery, afterwards called the Popish 
plot. In consequence of which, Lord Stafford, and several others, 
were executed, professing their innocence to the last. Another 
plot was soon after hatched, to counteract the former, called 
the Meal-tub plot. The torrent against Popery ran so high, 
that the Duke of York was obliged to retire beyond seas 1679. 
This ferment was thought to be excited by the arts of Lord 
Shaftesbury, who had been dismissed from his office at court, 
and of the Duke of Monmouth, natural son to the King. At last 
Charles, offended with the violence of the Commons, dissolved 
the Parliament, which for that time was held at Oxford, with 
a fixed resolution never to call another, 28th March 1681. The 
Duke of York was recalled, and sent as His Majesty's high com- 
missioner to hold a parliament in Scotland. From this time 
Charles ruled in the most arbitrary manner, fining and impri- 
soning such as he thought most violent in their opposition. The 
doctrine of passive obedience and non-resistance was every where 
publickly maintained. Various schemes in defence of freedom 
were formed. A conspiracy was detected, in which some of 
the most illustrious persons in the kingdom were concerned^ 
called the Rye-house plot, from a house on the road to New- 
market, which belonged to one of the conspirators, where some 
of them proposed to assassinate the King. Among others Lord 
Russel and Algernon Sidney, both illustrious for their virtues, 
were condemned and executed on very defective evidence, 1684. 
The King died 6th February 1685. 

JAMES II. had been bred a Papist by his mother from his 
infancy, and was strongly bigotted to his principles. He pro- 
mised, however, in parliament, to maintain the established re- 
ligion. The Duke of Monmouth, having landed in the west of 
England, was proclaimed King by his followers ; but being 
defeated at Sedgemore y near Bridgewater, he was afterwards 

taken 



\ 



History of England, 



B27 



taken and beheaded. The Earl of Argyle, his friend, shared 
the same fate in Scotland. The King's troops, under Colonel 
Kirke, exercised great cruelties against the rebels ; and Judge 
Jeffreys •, who was sent to try the delinquents, still greater. 
After this the King used every method in his power to intro- 
duce Popery. For which purpose, the most arbitrary measures 
were pursued. James was directed chiefly by the advice of one 
Peters, a Jesuit and a furious bigot. Seven of the bishops 
having refused to read, after divine service, a declaration for 
liberty of conscience, and for suspending the penal laws against 
non-conformists, were sent to the Tower. Being brought to 
their trial in Westminster-hall, they were acquitted by their 
jury, which occasioned incredible joy, 30th June 1688. In 
this situation of affairs, people turned their eyes on William 
Prince of Orange, who had married Mary, the King's eldest 
daughter. He landed at Torbay, 5 th November 1688,' with 
about 13,000 men j but such was the terror of Jeffrey's exe- 
cutions in those parts, that at first very few joined him. 
Having remained for several days, (at Exeter,) he at last began 
to despair of success, when he was joined by several persons 
of distinction, and the whole country soon after flocked to his 
standard. Among the rest, the Princess Anne, the King's 
favourite daughter, and her husband, Prince George of Den- 
mark, went over to him. The king deserted by all, sent his 
Queen and young son to France, whither he himself soon after 
followed, by the advice of his priests and French emissaries. 

James having thus deserted the throne, the Prince and 
Princess of Orange were declared by Parliament joint sove~ 
reigns, 13th February 1689. This is called the REVO- 
LUTION. 

WILLIAM III. and MARY were likewise acknowledged in 
Scotland, where Episcopacy was abolished, and Presbytery re- 
stored. The greatest part of Ireland, consisting of Roman 
Catholics, adhered to King James. A small party of Protestants 
animated by Walker, their minister, defended Londonderry 
against his forces, with wonderful bravery, for above three 
months, and obliged them to raise the siege, after the loss of 
9000 men. James having received some troops from France, 
landed at Kinsale in Ireland, a 2d May 1689, and was received 
at Dublin with great joy. The cruelties exercised on the Pro- 
testants hurt his cause. He was defeated by William, at the 
battle of the Boyne, 1st July 1690; whereupon he again embarked 
for France. His friends were a second time defeated by Gene- 
ral Ginkle, in a bloody battle at Aughrim, 13 th July 1691* 
By the reduction of Limerick, about three months after, the 

conquest 



528 



Histbry of England, 



conquest of Ireland was completed. A general amnesty and 
liberty of conscience was granted to the Irish. The hopes of 
James of recovering his crown were entirely annihilated by the 
defeat of the French fleet under Tourville, by Admiral Russel, 
19th July 1692. The French Admiral's ship, the Rising Sun, 
and several others, were burnt within sight of King James, and 
of the army, which was assembled to make a descent upon 
England. This unfortunate prince died at St. Germain's in 
France, 6th September 1701, aged sixty-eight. King Wil- 
liam died not long after, by a fall from his horse, aged fifty- 
two, 8th March 1 702. His Queen, Mary, had died of the 
small-pox, 28th December, 1694, without children. Her 
sister Anne succeeded. 

The great object of William's ambition, during the whole 
of his life, was to humble the power of Lewis XIV. of France. 
Just before his death, he had formed an alliance for that pur- 
pose. For most part of his reign he was engaged in disputes 
with his parliament. He enjoyed more absolute authority in 
Holland than in England ; so that it was not without reason he 
was called King of Holland and Stadtholder of England. 

ANNE carried on the war against France with the most 
splendid success, by means of her general the famous DUKE 
of MARLBOROUGH, who defeated the enemy in various 
engagements, took many of their strongest towns, and brought 
Lewis XIV. to the brink of ruin. In conjunction with Prince 
Eugene, general to the Emperor of Germany, he gained a com- 
plete victory over the French and Bavarians, under Marshals 
Tallard and Marsin, and the Elector of Bavaria, at Hochtet or 
Blenheim, on the Danube, 13th August 1704. About 20,000 
of the enemy were slain j Tallard and above 13,000 were taken 
prisoners. 

The same year, 24th July, Gibraltar was taken by the Eng- 
lish fleet under Sir George Rook. 

In the year 1706, 12th May, Marlborough defeated the 
French and Bavarians under Marshal Villeroi and the Duke of 
Bavaria, at Ramillies in Flanders, nearly with as great loss as at 
Blenheim. This year the union between England and Scotland 
was effected, 22d July. 

Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French under 
the Duke of Vendosme, at Oudenarde, nth July 1708, which 
was followed by the siege and reduction of Lisle, one of the 
strongest places in Europe 5 and at Malplaquet, or Blareignies, 
near Mons, under Marshals Villiers and Boufflers, 1 ith Septem- 
ber 1709, with vast slaughter on both sides, chiefly on that of 
th£ English and their allies. 

After 



\ 



History of England. 52$ 

After so many defeats the King of France began to be afraid 
for his capital. 

The Duchess of Marlborough having lost the favour of the 
Queen, by the art of one Mrs. Masham, who had been in- 
troduced at court by the Duchess ; and the chief direction of 
public affairs being entrusted to Robert Harky, created Earl of 
Oxford, and to St. John Lord Bolingbroke, the command of the 
army was taken from Marlborough, and given to the Duke of 
Ormondy ist January 171 2. A peace was concluded by the 
treaty of Utrecht, 4th February 17 13. The Queen died, ist 
August 1 7 14, aged fifty. With her ended the line of the 
Stewarts, after having swayed the sceptre of England an hun- 
dred and eleven years, from the accession of James I. 1603 5 
and that of Scotland, three hundred and forty-three years, from 
the accession of Robert II. 137 1. 

GEORGE I. Duke of Brunswick and Elector of Hanover, 
succeeded in right of his mother SOPHIA, daughter to the 
Elector Palatine, on whom the crown had been settled by 
several acts of parliament, as being the next Protestant heir. 
But she had died 8th June, the former year, aged eighty-four. 
George L died nth June 1727, aged sixty-eight. 

GEORGE II. his son died 25 th October 1760, aged seventy- 
seven ; and was succeeded by his grandson GEORGE III. 



SCOTLAND. 



SCOTLAND lies between 54 and 59 north latitude, and is 
about 300 miles in length, and from 50 to 150 in breadth. 
It is separated from England by the river Tweed, the Teviot 
hills, and the river Esk. It is divided into two parts, north and 
south, by the firth of Forth. It is divided into Highlands and 
Lowlands. 



Divisions of Scotland. 



Shires. I Sheriffdoms y and other Subdivisions. 1 Chief Towns. 

Cathness, Wick and Thurso. 

Sutherland, | Sutherland and Strathnaver. j Dornoch, Tongue. 

f" Easter and Wester Ross, Isle of . » 

Ross, 3 Lewis, Lochbroom, Redcastle, C Ta,n ' t; D,n S wai1 ' 

C Ferrintosh, Ferindonald, &c j r °' e ' 
Cromartie, J A small shire, J Cromartie. 

M m 



For- 



S hires. 



Scotland, 



Divisions of Scotland continued. 



j Sheriffdoms, and other Subdivisions, j Chief Toxuits, 

CAird, Stntb^lass, Sky, Harries,") , „ A 

\ Eadenoch/LocLbar'andGlen-C 111 ^" 3 ' Fort A ^ 
/ . i tus. 

C morison, J 

i Western part of Murray, j Nairn. 

Murray and Strathspey, j Elgin and Forres. 

Banff, Strathdovern, Boyn*, 2*iy,| Banff and 

$Marr, Buchan, Garioch, Strath- COld and New Aberdeen, 
3 bogie, ) Peterhead, Frasers- 

C C burgh, &c. 

1 Mearns, j Bervy, Stonehive. 

CDundee, Arbroath, 
Forfar, Angus, j Montrose, Brechin, 

C Forfar. 

Perth, Athol, Gowry, Breadal 

bane, Monteith,Strathern,Glen- ± Perth, Dunkeld 
shield. &c. 



Shires. 

Inverness, 

Nairn, 
Elgin, 

Banff, 

Aberdeen, 
Kincardine, 
Forfar, 

Perth, 

Kinross, 
Fife, 

Clackmannan, 
Stirling, 

Linlithgow, 
Edinburgh, 

Haddington, I East Lothian, 

Merse or Berwick, | Merse, Lauderdale, 

Teviotdale, Lidsdale, Eusdale, 

Etterick Forest, 
Tweeddale, 



Part of Fife, a small shire, 

Fife, 

A very small shire, 
Stirling, 

West Lothian, 
■| Mid Lothian, 



Roxburgh, 

Selkirk, 
Peebles, 

Lanark, 



Dumfries, 
Kirkcudbright, 
Wigton, 
Air, 

Renfrew, 
Dumbarton, 

Argyle, 

Orkney, 
Bute, 



^ Clydesdale, 

^ Nithsdale, Eskdale, Annan dale, 

Galloway, East part, 
^ Galloway, West part, 
^ Carrick, Kyle, Cunningham, 

^Renfrew, 
j Lenox, 

^Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, Kin-^ 



Kinross. 

St. Andrew's, Cupar. 
Alloa, Clackmannan. 
Stirling, Falkirk. 
^ " Linlithgow, Borrowstoun- 
ness. 

j Edinburgh, N. lat. 56. 
I W. long. 3., Leith, 
I Haddington, Dunbar. . 
j Dunse, Lauder. 
C Jedburgh, Hawick, Kel- 
I so. 

I Selkirk, Galashiels. 
I Peebles. 

j Glasgow, Hamilton, La- 
I nark. 

C Dumfries, Annan, Mof- 
l fat. 

j Kirkcudbright, Newton- 
^ Stewart. 

3 Wigton, Stranraer, Port- 

1 Patrick, 

C Air, Irvine, Kilmar- 

2 nock. 

r Renfrew, Paisley, 
< Greenock, Port-Glas- 

L g° w - 

j Dumbarton. 



TArgyle, Cowal, Knapdale, Km- 
j tire, Lorn, with part of the 
*l Western isles, Isla, Jura, Mull, 
£ Uist, Terif, Col, Lismore, 

\ I W. long. 3., Skallo- 



Inverary, Campbell- 
C town. 

("Kirkwall, N. lat. 59. 45. 



Orkney and Shetland, 
j Bute and Ar-ran, 



the Meridian of hon- 
C don. 
j Rothsay, 

In 



Scotland. 



531 



In all thirty-three shires, which chuse thirty representatives 
to sit in the parliament of Great Britain; Bute and Caithness 
chusing alternately, as do Nairn and Cromarty, and Clackman- 
nan and Kinross. 

The Royal Boroughs which chuse representatives are, 



Edinburgh, - - - I 

Kirkwall, Wick, Dornorch, Dingwall, and Tain, - - - i 

Fortrose, Inverness, Nairn, and Forres, - - - i 

Elgin, Cullen, Banff, Inverary, and Kintore, - I 

Aberdeen, Bervie, Montrose, Arbroath, and Brechin, - x 

Forfar, Perth, Dundee, Cupar, and St. Andrew's, - I 

Crail, Kilrenny, Easter Anstruther, Wester Anstruther, and Pittenweem, I 

Dysart, Kirkaldy, Kinghorn, and Burntisland, - I 

Inverkeithing, Dunfermline, Queensferry, Culross, and Stirling, - I 

Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen, and Dumbarton, - - • I 

Haddington, Dunbar, North-Berwick, Lauder, and Jedburgh, i 

Selkirk, Peebles, Linlithgow, and Lanark, - - I 

Dumfries, Sanquhar, Annan, Lochmaben, and Kirkcudbright, - I 

Wigton, New Galloway, Stranraer, and Whithorn, - I 

Air, Irvine, Rothsay, Campbelltown, and Inverary, - I 



In all, 15 

The Rivers which run into the German ocean are, the 
Tweedy at Berwick ; the Forth, joined by the Teith ; the Tay, 
joined by the Earn; the South Esk and North Esk, near Mon- 
trose *, the Dee and the Don at Aberdeen ; ' the Deveron at 
Banff ; the Spey ; the Lossie below Elgin ; the Findhorn, near 
Forres ; the Ness at Inverness. 

On the west, the Leven which runs by Dumbarton ; the 
Clyde by Glasgow ; the Nith by Dumfries ; and the Annan. 

The principal Lakes or lochs are, Loch-Ness, Loch-Tay, 
Loch-Earn, Loch-Leven, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Owe, &c. Arms 
of the sea are also called lochs ; as Loch-Long ; Loch-Fyne at 
Inverary, &c. 

The chief Mountains are, the Grampian ; Lammermoor, in 
Berwickshire ; the Pentland hills, in Lothian, which join those 
of Tweeddale and Moffat ; the Cheviot or Teviot hills, on the 
borders of England the Ochil hills, in Fife ; the Ord, in 
Caithness ; the mountains of Hoy, in Orkney. 

There are several single mountains known by the name of 
Ben or Law as Ben Nevish near Fort- William in Inverness- 
shire •, Ben-Lomond, North-Berwick Law, &c. 

The Islands of Scotland are, the Western isles, the Orkneys, 
and Shetland. 

The chief of the Western isles are, BUTE, ten miles long, 
and three or four broad, in which is the castle and royal burgh 
M m 2 oi 



532 



Scotland. 



of Rothsay, which gave the title of Duke to the eldest sons 
of the kings of Scotland, as it now does to the prince of Wales 5 
and ARRAN, both in the firth of Clyde. 

Isla, Jura, and Scarba, opposite to the Cantire in Argyle- 

shire. 

MULL, twenty-four miles long, and in some places as broad; 
separated from Morven and Ardnamurchan by a narrow strait 
called the Sound of Mull. West of Mull are STAFFA, famous 
for its subterraneous hall and stupendous pillars ; IONA, I, or 
I COLUMB KILL, anciently the seat of western learning, 
and the burying-place of several kings of Scotland, Ireland, 
and Norway, the vestiges of which still remain ; north of this 
Tyrree or Teriff, Col, Rum, &c. 

SKY, 40 miles long, 30 broad ; west of which LEWIS and 
Harries, 100 miles long, 14 broad; North Uist and South 
Uist. West of this, at a considerable distance, is the small 
island St. Kilda or Hert. 

The ORKNEY islands about 30 in number, are separated 
from Caithness by the Pentland firth, which is dangerous to 
mariners from the rapidity of its tides. The largest island is 
Pomona, 24 miles long, and about 9 broad ; in which are Kirk- 
wall and Stromness, and on the side of a small loch called 
Stennes, the remains of a Druid temple. 

The SHETLAND islands are about 46 in number. The 
largest is Mainland, 60 miles long and 20 broad ; in which 
are Larwick and Skalloway. Near this the Dutch, in the sum- 
mer season, employ a great many boats in fishing. 

The Capes of Scotland are distinguished by the names of 
Head, Ness, or Mull • as Dungsby-head, Dunnet-head, Mull of 
Cantire, Mull of Galloway, Buchan-ness, &c. 



IRELAND. 

IRELAND is situate between 51 and 56 n. Iat. and 5 and 
io° w. long, from Fairhead north, to Missenhead south, 
or to Cape Clear, near 300 miles long, and about 150 broad. 
It was little known to the Romans, who called it Hibernia, 
Ivernia, Juverna and feme; which last resembles its Celtic 
name Erin or Iar in, which denotes a western country. The 
ancient inhabitants are represented by Strabo to have been very 
savage, Strab, iv. p. 201. Tacitus says, that the soil, the 
climate, the manners, and genius of the inhabitants of Ireland, 
differed little from those of Britain, Agric. 24. 



Ireland, 



533 



It is divided into four provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, 
and Connaught. 

1. Ulster contains nine counties, Domiegal, Londonderry , 
Tyrone, Antrim, Down, Armagh, Monaghan, Fermanagh, Cavan. 

2. Leinster, twelve counties, Louth, East Meath, West 
Meath, Longford, Kings County, Queen's County, Kildare, 
Dublin, Wicklow, Caterlagh, Wexford, Kilkenny. 

3. Munster, six counties, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, 
Tipperary, Clare. 

4. Connaught, five counties, Galway, Roscommon, Mayo, 
Sligo, Leitrim. 

The chief towns are, Dublin, n. lat. 53. 20. w. long. <5. 28. ; 
Cork, Waterford. In most of the counties, the principal 
places are of the same name. Besides which, there are in 
Antrim, Belfast, Carrickfergus, Lisburn, Donaghadee, opposite 
to Port Patrick, about eighteen miles distant ; in Louth, 
Drogheda, Dundalk ; in East Meath, Trim, Navan ; in West 
Meath, Mullingar, Athlone; in Down, Newry, Dromore, Hills- 
borough, &c. 

The chief rivers are, the SHANNON, which runs above 
one hundred and fifty miles, forming many beautiful lakes in 
its progress ; its navigation is stopt by a ridge of rocks south 
of Killalo in Clare ; the Boyne, which runs into the Irish sea at 
Drogheda ; the Lijfy, which runs through Dublin into a beau- 
tiful bay below that city ; the Barrow, joined by the Suir and 
Noer near Waterford ; Blackwater, which runs into Youghall 
bay ; Lee, at Cork ; and Ban don, at Kinsale. 

Ireland abound in lakes or loughs, the chief of which are, 
Lough Neagh, at the north end of which stands Antrim ; Lough 
Earne, in the county of Fermanagh, about 30 miles long; 
joined by a narrow strait on which stands the town of Inskil- 
ling ; Lough Derg, formed by the Shannon, north of Killalo ; 
the lake of Killarnie, in the county of Kerry, remarkable for 
its romantic scenes, &c. They give this name also to gulfs 
or inlets of the sea ; as, in the north, Lough Swilly, Lough 
Foyle, near which is the famous Giant's Causeway ; Lough 
Fergus, Lough Strangford, Sec. 

Ireland in general is a level country, abounding in rich pas- 
ture for cattle. It is said to breed no poisonous creature. Its 
chief mountains are those of Morne, in Down, and of Carling- 
ford, north of Dundalk ; the mountains of Wicklow, not far 
from Dublin ; those of Tipperary, Kerry, and Tyrone. 

The inhabitants of Ireland are computed about five millions, 
three-fourths of whom at least are supposed to be Roman Ca- 
tholics, although the established religion be the Church of Eng- 

M m 3 land. 



534 



Ireland. 



land. Most of the families of rank are descended from the 
English ; and in the north of Ireland, many from the Scots$ 
most of whom are Presbyterians 

There are in Ireland four archbishopricks, Armagh, Dublin^ 
Tuam, and Cashel. 

The bishopricks are eighteen, Meath, Kildare, Cork, 
Derry, "Waterford, Killalo, Down, Clogher, Limerick, Ossory, 
Kilmore, Elphin, Kilala, Cloyne, Leighlin, Clonfert, Raphoe, 
Dromore. 

There is but one university, called Trinity College, at Dublin. 

The constitution of the Irish government, till lately, was 
similar to that of England. A chief governor commonly called 
the Lord Lieutenant, used to be sent over from England by the 
king, whom he represented. The parliament, as in England, 
consisted of a house of Lords and Commons. The number of 
the Commons was three hundred. 

There used to be a liberty of appeal from the Irish courts of 
judicature, as in Scotland to the British House of Peers ; but 
this mark of subjection was removed by the abolition of what 
was called Poining's law, together with various restrictions im- 
posed on their trade, in the year £782. — — Ireland is now 
united with England in the same manner as Scotland. * 



FRANCE. 

FRANCE is bounded on the north by the English Channel 
and the Netherlands ; on the east by Germany, Switzer- 
land, and Italy; on the South by the Mediterranean and the 
Pyrenean mountains ; and on the west by the bay of Biscay ; 
between 42 and 5 r north lat. and between 5 west and 8° east 
long, about 600 miles in length and 500 in breadth. 

GALLIA ANTIQUA. Gallia was named by the Ro- 
mans Gallia Transalpina, or Ulterior, which also comprehended 
Flanders, Holland, Switzerland, and part of Qermany. It was 
called by the Greeks Galatia, and the people batata, &c. It 
was named Comata, from the inhabitants wearing their hair 
long, which the Romans wore short; and the southern part of 
it, Braccata, from the use of hracca, breeches* which was no 
part of the Roman dress. 

* It. sends to the Imperial Parliament, as it is now called, 3a representatives of the 
Irish Peerage ; and 100 representatives of the Commons, 64 from the Counties, and 
36 from the cities and towns. 

Gallia 



♦ 

France. 535 

Gallia Transalpina was bounded by the ocean, the Pyrenees, 
the Mediterranean, the Alps, and the Rhine. 

The chief rivers of Gaul are, Rhodanus, the Rhone, a 
very rapid river, joined by the Arar, Saone, a remarkably slow- 
river, at Lyons, and between Aries and Avignon by the Drw- 
entia, Durance, very rapid and stony. SH. iii. 468. 

Garumna, the Garonne, joined by the Duranius, Dordogne, 
which runs into the Bay of Biscay by a broad mouth, and has 
now a communication with the Mediterranean by the canal of 
Languedoc, the work of Lewis XIV. carried, at an immense 
expence, for more than an hundred miles, over hills and vallies, 
and at one place through a mountain. 

Liger, the Loire, joined by the Elaver, Allier ; Sequana, 
the Seine, joined by the Matrona, Marne ; Samera, called 
afterwards Samena, the Somme ; Scaldis, the Scheldt. 

Rhenus, the Rhine, joined on the side of Gaul by the 
Mosella, Moselle ; and the Mosa, Maese or Meuse ; on the 
side of Germany, by the Nicer, Neckar j Manns, Maine $ and 
Luppia, Lippe. 

The Rhine near its mouth divides into three streams, the 
Waal, the Lecky and the Issel. The two first unite with the 
Maese. The last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army 
of Drusus from the Rhine to the Sal/a or Issala, Issel, for 
several miles, and was called Flevus, or -um, which name is 
also applied to the lake formed at the mouth of it, supposed to 
be the Zuyder Sea. The ancient mouth of the Rhine, which 
ran past Lugdunum, Leyden, is said to have been choaked up 
with sand. When the Leek was formed, is uncertain. 

The chief mountains are, Cebenna, the Cevennes in Langue- 
doc \ Vogesus, the Vauge or Vosge, between Lorrain and 
Alsace ; Jura, between Switzerland and Burgundy ; and the 
Alpesy Alps, which were divided into Alpes Maritime ; Cottigy 
one of the highest ridges, now mount Cenis ; Gracte, so called 
from the passage of Hercules; Pennine, Rhatica, Noricx, Pan- 
nonica, and Julia, extending in the form of a crescent for two 
hundred and fifty miles, from Monaco on the Mediterranean, 
to the Sinus Flanaticusy Carnero, a bay of Liburnia, in the 
Hadriatic. The Alps are the highest ground in Europe ; and 
from them rivers rise which run into the Euxine and German 
seas, the gulfs of Lyons and of Venice. 

Gallia was inhabited by three great nations, the Celt*, the 
Aquitani, and Belga, differing -in their customs and language. 
The Cslia were by far the most considerable, extending from 
the Seine and Marne to the Garonne. This name anciently 
included the whole of Gaul, and was likewise applied to several 

M m 4 other 



$38 France, > 

other countries, to which they sent colonies, to Spain, Britain, 
Germany, &c. They were called Galli by the Romans, and 
Galata by the Greeks. About a hundred years before the 
Christian sera, the Romans, under pretence of succouring the 
people of Marseilles, and the iEduans, their allies, carried their 
arms into Gaul, and became masters of a territory on the south 
of the Rhone, to which they gave the name of Provincia. The 
entire conquest of Gaul was reserved to the invincible arms of 
Julius Caesar. 

Augustus divided Gaul into four parts, Provincia or Gallia 
Narbonensis, Aquitaniay Celtica or Lugdunensisy and Belgica. He 
extended Aquitania to the Liger or Loire. 

I. PROVINCIA ROM ANA, or Gallia Narbonensis, ex- 
tended from the Pyrenees and the Cevennes to the Alps, along 
the sea, and from thence up the Rhone to the Lacus Lemanus, 
the lake of Geneva. 

The chief states and towns were, Allobroges, and Nan- 
tuates :—f'G$neva ; Vienna^ Vienne, on the Rhone ; Cularo or 
Gratianopolis, Grenoble : Seduni — Sedunum, Sion : Veragri, 

— Octodurum 'y or -us 9 Martigni in the Valais : Vocontii, 
Caturigesy Centrones, Tricoriiy and Segalauni — /^z/dvzn'tf, Valence: 
Cavares — Arausky Orange ; Avenio, Avignon. 

Salyes, or -yii, or -viz, Aqua Sextia, Aix, founded by 

Sextius Calvinus, who conquered the Salyes ; Massilia, Mar- 
seilles, founded by a colony from Phocaea, a city of Ionia in 
Asia * ; the people, Massilienses, long retained the polite 
manners of the Greeks, Strab. iv. p. 1 8 1 . East of this, on the 
sea coast, Teh MartiuSy Toulon-, Forum Julii, Frejus; Anti- 
polis, Antibes. On the Rhone, Arelate or Aries. 

"W>st of the Rhone, Volc^ Arecomici and Helvii — Ne- 
maususy Nismes, where are a Roman amphitheatre and aquas- 
duct almost entire: VoLaa; Tectosages : — Narbo Martius, 
Narbonne, the capital of the province ; Agatha Tolosates 

— Tolosay Thoulouse, on the Garonne : Sardones — Rusctno, 
Roussilon. 

a. AQUITANIA, from the Pyrenees to the Loire. 

Chief States : South of the Garumna, Tarbelli, Bituriges, 
Vibisciy Vasatesy EleusateSy Ausciiy Convene > Burdegala, 
Bourdeaux, on the Garonne \ Aqua Tarbella, Acqs, on the 
AturuSy Adour j Climberris or -umy Aux, or Augh. 

North of the Garumna, Santones — Iculisna y Angouleme ; 
Mediolanunty Saintes, on the river Carantonusy or Canentelus, 

* But Lucan improperly makes it to have been founded by a colony from Phocis 
in Greece, iii. 340, v. 53. 

the 



"France. 



531 



the Charente ; near the mouth of which is the island TJUarus, 
Oleron, and north of it the isle of Ree, opposite to Partus San- 
tonum, Rochelle: Pictones — Limonum, Poictiers : Bituriges 
Cubi — Avaricum, Bourges : Arverni — Georgovia, situate on 
a mount ; Augustonemetum, Clermont : Lemo vices,, Petrocorii, 
Cadurci, Nitiobriges, Ruteni, Gabali, and Vellavi — Augustori- 
turn, Limoges ; Vesona, Peregueux ; Uxdlodunum. 

3. GALLIA CELTICA, or Lugdunensis, according to the 
arrangement of Augustus, extended from the Liger to the 
Sequana and Matrona. 

Chief states and towns : Segusiani — Lugdunum, Lyons', 
at the conflux of the Rhone and Arar, founded by Munatius 
Plancus after the death of Julius Csesar : jEdui - — Bibracte or 
Augustodunum, Autun, Noviodunum or Nevirnum, Nevers : 
Mandubii — Alesia or Alexia, Alise, the taking of which by 
Csesaf finished the reduction of Gaul : Senones — Agendi- 
cum, Sens; Autissiodorum, Auxerre: Tricasses — Augustomana, 

Troyes : Meldi latinum, Meaux : Parish Lutetia, 

Paris: Carnutes Autficum, Chartres; Genabum, Orleans. 

Durocasses, or Druida, Dreux, a seat of the Druids : Turo- 
NES — Casarodunum, Tours. Andes, or -di — Andegavus, or 
Juliomagus, Angiers, at the confluence of the Meduana? Maine, 
Ladus, Little Loir, and Sarta, Sarte, which run into the Liger: 
Aulerci, Cenomanni, Diablmdi, and Eburovzces — Mediolanum, 
Evreux : Lexovii, at the mouth of the Seine, and Biducasses, 
whose town was of the same name : Unelli — Alauna, Cher- 
burg, near the Cape, now called La Hogue; Abrincat^:, or -tut 
— Abrincatarum oppidum, called also Ingena, now Avaranches. 

Rhedones — Condate, Rhennes : Nannetes — Gondivienum, 
Nants: Veneti — Vindana, Vannes : Curiosolitje and Osis- 
mii — Portus Brivates, Brest, near the Promontorium Gobaum, 
Cape St. Mahe ; near which is the island Uxantes, Ushant, and 
Sena, Sain. East from this, Oletum, St. Malo. 

The country along the sea-coast, from the mouth of the 
Liger to the mouth of the Sequana, was called Armorica, as 
it were ad mare, in Celtic, ar mar, near the sea, now Bretany, 
and Normandy. 

In the bay between the country of the Osismii and the Unelli, 
are the islands of Sarnia, or Sarmia, Guernsey, and Casarea, 
Jersey, both now belonging to Britain. 

West of the mouth of the Liger is the island Vindilis, Bel- 
leisle, and some others. 

4. GALLICA BELGICA contained a great number of 
powerful states. 

Helvetiii 



538 



France. 



Helvetii, who inhabited the country now called Swifzer* 
land, divided into four cantons, Tigurenus, Tugenus, Ambro- 
ulcus y and Urbigenus, extending from the Lacus Lemanus, or 
LausaniuS) the Lake of Geneva, to the Lacus Brigantinus y Ve- 
netuSy or Consta?jtiensis, the Lake of Constance — Aventlcum y 
Avances ; Tigurum, Zurich ; Tugium, Zug ^ Urba, Orbe. 
Contiguous to the Helvetii were the Rauraci, Tu/ingi y and 
Latobrigi. 

Seouani, now Franche Comte — Visontis, Besancon, on the 
river Dubis y Doux. Contiguous to the Sequani were the Lin- 
gones and Leuci — Nasium, Nancy. 

The Helvetii and Sequani are ranked in Celtic Gaul by 
Csesar. 

The country along the Rhine, below Helvetia, being occupied 
by different tribes from Germany, got the name of Germania ; 
and was divided into Germania Superior and Inferior. 

Germania Superior contained the following states and 

towns; Tribocci Argentoratum, Strasburg : Nemetes — 

Noviomagus, Spire : Vangiones — Borbetomagus, Worms, and 
Magontiacum, Mentz : Treviri, — Cotifluentia y Coblentz, at 
the conflux of the Moselle and the Rhine; Augusta Trevirorum, 
Trier, at the conflux of the Saravus, Saar, and the Moselle. 
Through the confines of the Treviri ran the large forest Ardu- 
enna y Ardenne, from the banks of the Rhine, to the country 
of the Nervii on the Scheldt ; about 250 miles long, and in 
some places about 100 miles broad: Mediomatrici — DivG- 
durum y Metz. 

Germania Inferior Ubii and Gugemii, or Sicambri — 

Colonia Agripplna y Cologne ; Bonna, Bonn ; Ju/iacum, Juliers : 
Eburones, Condrusiy Sunici, Tungri — Atuatuca y Tongers ; Fons 
Tungrorum, Spa. 

The space contained between the Vahalis y Waal, and the 
Rhenus Proprius, now Holland, was inhabited by the Batavi ; 
north of whom were the Caninefates and Frisii. Various other 
German tribes were settled between the Maese and the 
Scheldt; the Menapii y Aduatici, Nervii — Camaracum y Cambray; 
Turnacum, Tournay : Toxandri, who are thought by some to 
have inhabited the islands of Zealand. 

The other states of Belgica were, the Morini — Partus 
Iccius, or Itiusy from which Caesar set sail for Britain, the 
situation of which is uncertain : Atrebates — Nemetacum, 
Arras; Ambiani — Samarobriva, Amiens, on the Samera, 
Somme : Caletes — Juliobona y thought by some to be Dieppe, 
Carrocotinum, Havre de Grace; Velocasses — Rotomagus-> 

Rouen* 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls, 



5S9 



Rouen, on the Seine: BELLOVACi^—Bratuspantium, Beauvais: 
Veromandui — Augusta Veromanduorum, St. Quintin : Sues- 
Siones — Noviodunumy or Augusta Suessionum } Soisons. Sil- 
vanectes — Augustomagus, Senlis : Rhemi — Durocotorum, 
Rheims. The Bellovaci^ Ambiani, and Atrebates are supposed 
to have constituted the Belgium of Csesar. Some limit that 
name to the Bellovaci alone. 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. 



Gaul, like Britain, when first invaded by the Romans, was 
divided into a number of small independent states, (civitates,) 
differing from one another in their language, institutions, and 
laws, Casar. b. G. i. I. Most of these states were under an 
aristocratic form of government*. Several states however were 
governed by kings f ; not hereditary and absolute, but elective, 
and of very limited authority J, v. 23. s. 27. Some states had 
such an aversion to regal government, that death was the 
punishment of any individual aiming at sovereignty j as the 
Helvetii, who burnt alive those convicted of this crime ; from 
which sentence Orgetorix, who had persuaded that nation to 
leave their own country in quest of a better, saved himself by 
means of his friends and dependants, i. 3. So the Arverni, for 
the same cause, put to death Celtillus, the father of Vercinge- 
torix, vii. 4. 

Kings and magistrates were elected, laws made, important 
causes tried, and wars declared, in the great council of each 
nation, which met at stated times, and also on extraordinary 
occasions, ib. v. 47. s, 54. ; Tacit, mor. G. 1 1. When war was 

* The nobles chose a chief, anciently every year ; and in like manner a general for 
war was elected by the multitude, Strab. iv. 197. Thus the chief magistrate of the 
iEdui, called by themselves Vergobretus, was chosen annually, Casar. b. G. i. 14. 
vii. 30. s. 32. who during his office was not permitted to go beyond the boundaries of 
the state, ib. vii. 31. s. 33. Another person was therefore chosen to command the 
army, lb. 35. s. 37. 

f As the Sequani by Calamantaledes, ib. i. 3. the Suessiones, first by Divitiacus, 
and next by Galba, ii. 4. the Aquitani by the grandfather of one Piso, iv. 9. s« 12. 
the Eburones by Ambiorix and Cativulcus, v. 20. & 22. s. 24. 26. the Senones by 
Moritasgus and his ancestors, v. 45. s. 52. the Nitiobriges by OllovicO) vii. 20. 
S.31.&C. 

% Thus Ambiorix excused himself for having made an attack on the camp of 
Sabinus and Corta, the lieutenants of Caesar, Neque id, quod fecerit de oppugnatione 
castrorum, aut judicio aut voluntate sua fecisse, sed coactu civitatis : Sua QUE ESSE 
EJUSMODI IMPERIA, UT NON MINUS HABERET JURIS IN 8E MULTITUDO, QUAM 
IPSE IN MULTITUDINEM, Ih. 

the 



540 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. 

the subject of deliberation, all who had reached the age of 
puberty were obliged {communi lege) to assemble armed; and to 
enforce punctual attendance; he who came last was put to 
death, in sight of the multitude, with the greatest torture, 
Casar, ib. 

The common people of Gaul were held in no estimation, and 
reckoned almost in the place of slaves. They could attempt 
nothing by themselves, and were admitted to no assembly. 
Most of them, oppressed by debt, by excessive tributes, or by 
the injury of the more powerful, gave themselves up into bond- 
age to the nobles, who exercised over them the same rights as 
a master over his slaves, C<esar> b. G. vi. 1 2. s. 13. 

The respectable parts of the Gallic nation* was divided into 
two classes, the DRUIDS, and EOUITES or nobles, cavaliers, 
so called because they fought on horseback, ib, Strabo adds a 
third class, the Bards or Poets, iv. 198. So Diodorusf, v. 31. 

The nations of the Gauls were very superstitious, [admodum 
dedita religionibus> ib. Religionis baud quaquam negligens> Liv. v. 
46.) and their sacred rites were much the same with those of 
the Britons J, seep, 493. 

The 

* Eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, gemra sunt duo. Ib. 

f The Druids took care of religious matters, and performed public Mid private 
sacrifices; they had the charge of the education of youth ; judged and decided almost 
all public and private controversies ; and tried and punished heinous crimes. Such 
was the reputation of the Druids for justice, that by their interposition, they some- 
times even reconciled hostile armies. They taught the immortality of the soul; but 
that the world should some time or other be destroyed by fire and water, Ib. 197. 
The Druids in Gaul enjoyed the same power, the same honour and privileges, as in 
Britain, seep. 492. 

The Equites or Nobles, when it was requisite, were all employed in war ; and in 
proportion to their rank and fortune, were attended with a number of retainers 
(ambacti) and dependents (olientes). Ib. Pausanias says, that each eques or horseman 
was attended in battle by two domestics (otatrca) or slaves (^aAa/), whose office he 
describes, x. 19. But Diodorus says some of these were also of a free condition, v. 29. 
Some noblemen of the highest rank were attended by a band of men (sometimes five 
hundred) called SOLDURII, who devoted themselves to every hazard in defence of 
their patron ; and if any thing happened to him, they either submitted to the same 
fate or slew themselves ; nor was there an instance of any one in the memory of man, 
says Caesar, who upon the death of him to whom he had vowed friendship, refused to 
submit to the same fate, iii. 22. s. 23. 

$ The god whom the Gauls chiefly worshipped was Mercury, supposed to have been 
called by the natives Wodin, as some think, Theuth or Teutates, who was believed to 
be the inventor of all arts, to preside over public ways, over gain and merchandise. 
Next after Mercury, they worshiped Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva; con- 
cerning whose attributes, they entertained nearly the same opinion with other nations, 
i. e. with the Greeks and Romans. To Mars they used to consecrate the spoils taken 
in war. Ib. 15. s. 16. 

The Gauls said they were all descended from Father Dh, or Pluto, and therefore 
computed time from the number of nights, not of days. 

It 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls, 



541 



The funerals of the Gauls were splendid and expensive, ac- 
cording to their rank and fortune, {pro cultu). Every thing 
which was thought to have been agreeable to the deceased, was 
thrown into the funeral pile, even animals : and a little before 
the time of Caesar, such slaves and dependents as were known 
to have been most beloved, used to be burnt together with 
them *, ib. 

In the best regulated states of Gaul, it was ordained by law, 
that if any one received intelligence, by report or otherwise, 
which concerned the public safety, he should acquaint the ma- 
gistrate, without communicating it to any other person. The 
magistrates published or concealed what things they thought 
proper. It was not allowed to speak about state affairs, but in 
a public assembly, ib. 19. 

The nation of the Gauls is represented by Strabo as fierce 
and warlike, and prompt to engage, but simple, and void of 
artifice ; employing no means to ensure success but force and 
courage. Hence they were liable to be over-reached by strata- 
gems, iv. 195. They were very arrogant when victorious, and 
equally dejected upon a defeat f , ib. 197. Caesar represents 
them as fond of revolutions, and easy to be excited to war, 
b. G. iii. 10. but apt to be depressed by misfortunes J, ib. 19. 

The Gauls are described by Livy, as of a large size of body, 
with long and ruddy hair, (rutilate coma,) xxxviii. 16. {aurea 
casarieSyVirg. JEn. viii. 659.) the colour of which they improved 
by a certain kind of wash, Diodor, v. 28. and turned it back 

It was a custom peculiar to the Gauls, not to permit their sons to come intc* 
their presence in public, till they reached the age of manhood, and were fit to 
bear arms, Ib. 17. In contracting marriages, the men added an equal sum to 
what they received from their wives by way of portion; and the longest liver 
enjoyed the whole, with the interest or produce of it, (sum fructibus superiorum 
temporum,) Ib. 18. The men had the power of life and death over their wives, as 
over their children. When any person of rank died, his relations met, and if any 
suspicion was entertained concerning the cause of his death, his wife was examined by 
the rack as a slave, and if convicted of guilt, was put to death by burning, and every 
kind of torture. Ib. 

* They used also to throw into the funeral pile, letters addressed to departed rela- 
tions, that the deceased might deliver them, Diodor. v. 28. 

■}■ They used to carry the heads of those whom they slew in battle, suspended from 
the necks of their horses, or fixed on lances, a custom which, Strabo says, was com- 
mon to all the northern nations; and to set them up on the gates of their cities. 
Ib. 198. L'vv. v. 26. The skulls of the most distinguished leaders of the enemy, they 
adorned with gold, and used as cups. Liv. xxiii. 24. 

$ Ca;sar says, the Gauls were inspired with a contempt of death, by the belief of 
the immortality of the soul, and its transmigration into other bodies after death, a 
doctrine taught them by the Druids, vi. 13. whence Non parentis funeral Gallia iellus, 
Horat. od. iv. 14. 49. So Diodorus, v. 28. iElian says the Celta were a people the 
most fearless of danger of any in the world, .xii. 23. which Perizonius understands of 
the Germans, 

over 



£42 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. 



over the crown of the head to the neck ; so that, as Diodorus 
says, they looked like Pans and Satyrs, ib. whence this whole 
country got the name of GALLIA COMATA, Mel. iii. 2. 
Plin. iv. 17. 31.; Tacit. Annal. xi. 23.: Lucan. i 443. The 
Gauls and the European nations in general, wore no covering 
on their heads. This was peculiar to the Parthians and eastern 
nations, to which Martial alludes, x 72. The Gauls were in 
general of a fair complexion, Uactea cdla> Virg. ib. 660.) whence 
some derive the name of Galli or Galata^ from yuXct, lac * 
which name Pausanias informs us was only applied to them in 
latter times in place of Celta 9 i. 3. Diodorus says they were 
so called from Galates, the son of Hercules, one of their kings, 
v. 24. 

The Gauls were a very irascible people, and of ungovernable 
fury when provoked, Liv. v. 37, Their first onset was impe- 
tuous, but when opposed with steadiness, became languid. * 

The Gauls wore gold chains (torques) around their necks, and 
on their arms, Liv. vii. 10. Strab. iv. 197. ^Elian says they 
also wore crowns in battle, xii. 23. — There was no silver found 
in Gaul, but rich mines of gold, Diodor. v. 27.; Strab. v. 190. 

The nation of the Gauls was fond of dress (<pikoxo<TfAov)' 9 their 
magistrates wore embroidered cloths, and of different colours, 
Strab. iv. 197. So also private persons f, Diodor. v. 27. Ss* 
30. ; Virg. JEn. viii. 659. ; Marcellin. xv. 13. 

The 

* Corpora its et animi magna magis quam frma, Liv. v. 44. prima eorum pralia plus- 
quam virorum, postrema minus quam fzni?'narvm,x. 28. Jam usu hoc cognitum est ; si 
primum impetum, quam fervido ingenio et cacd ird cffundunt, sustinueris; Jiuunt sudorett 
lassitudine membra, labant arma : mollia corpora, molles, ubi ira consedit, animos, jo/, 
pulvis, sitis, ut ferrum non admoveas, prosiernunt, xxxviii. 1 7. So Polybius, ii. 35. 
and Florus, ii. 4. Accustomed to a moist and cold climate, Liu. v. 48. their bodies 
were unable to bear labour and heat, x. 28. They went always to the public assem- 
blies armed, xxi. 20. In battle they were naked above the waist, {super umbilicum,) 
xxu. 46. xxxviii. 29. But Diodorus seems to restrict this to the Ambacti, or the 
attendants of the nobles, v, 29. 

f It was a custom in the public assemblies, that if any one disturbed a person while 
speaking, by noise, an officer going up to him, bade him be silent ; and if he refused, 
the officer with his sword cut off as much of the garment as rendered the rest useless, 
Strab. iv. 197. 

A distinguishing part of the Gallic dress was a covering for their thighs, called 
BRACCiE vel Braca, breeches or trousers, Diodor. v. 30. Suet. Cas. 80. ; 
Tacit. bist. W. 20. wide and loose, (laxa, Lucan. i. 430.) sometimes striped, 
(virgata, Propert. iv. 2. 43.) and of different colours, reaching below the knees, 
Strab. iv. whence the south part of Gaul was called Gallia Braccata, Plin. iii. 4. ; 
Mel. ii. 5.; but this part of dress was also common to other nations; as the 
Sauromata or Scythians, and Geta;, Ovid. Trist. iii. 10. 19. v. 7. 49. & 10. 34. the 
Armenians, Juvenal, ii. 169. the Vangiones, a people of Germany, Lucan. i. 430, 
&c. Mela, speaking of the Scythians having their whole bodies covered, says, totum 
Braccati corpus t ii. I , ; but this word is particularly appropriated to the Gauls, 

14 Ci€t 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls, 54$ 



The Gauls lived for the most part on milk and flesh, espe- 
cially pork and bacon. They had a great number of swine, 
which ran wild in the fields, and were remarkable for their 
size, strength, and swiftness. A person who approached them 
without being used to it, was in the same danger as from a 
wolf. The wool of the Gallic sheep was generally rough, but 
in such abundance, that a kind of coarse cloth was made of it, 
sufficient not only to serve the country of Gaul, but also to 
supply most parts of Italy *, ib. 197. ; Juvenal, ix. 30. 

The ancient Gauls had no wine of their own produce, but 
made a kind of drink from barley, called Zythus ; also from a 
mixture of honey and water f, Diodor. v. 26. The Gauls 
when they ate usually sat on the ground, with the skins of 
wolves or dogs spread below, ib. 28. sometimes on \ couches, 
Strab. iv. 197. The houses of the Gauls were built of boards 
and hurdles, of a round form, ib. and covered with straw, 
Casar, v. 42. 

The arms of the Gauls were, a long sword hanging by a 
belt on the right thigh, which wounded only with the edge, 
Polyb. ii. 30. (sine mucrone, Liv. xxii. 46.) \ a spear or lance, 
with an iron point a foot and a half long ; a large shield, adorn- 
ed by each with his proper device a brazen helmet ; some had 
an iron breast-plate. They used a kind of trumpet, that gave a 
dreadful sound; which, when about to engage, they augmented 
by the war-song, by howlings, and beating on their shields, 
Diodor. v. 30. ; Liv. xxxviii. 17. 

Gaul being often overstocked with inhabitants, numerous 

C\c. Font. II.; thus, braceati militis arcus, i. e. Galli, Propert. iii. 4. 17. Braccata 

ttgnationis dedecus, the disgrace of your Gallic relations, Ctc. Pis. 23. The upper 

part of the body was covered with a kind of waist-coat with sleeves, (<r%nr<rof 
%upob'or© J , vestis Jissilis manicata, usque ad pudenda tff nates demisso,) and over it a 
loose mantle (Sagum), Strab. iv. 196. commonly striped, Diodor. v. 30. <virgatis 
lucent sagulis, Virg. iEn. viii. 660.) They wore a kind of slippers which covered only 
the sole of the foot, called GALLICS, Cic. Phil. ii. 30.; Gell. xiii. ai. 

* A garment of this cloth was called Bardocucullus, Martial, i. 54. 5. xiv. 
1*8. 

•J- They purchased wine chiefly from Italy, and were exceedingly fond of it, ib. 
Hence they are said to have been invited into that country by the delicious taste of 
the Italian wines, Liv. v. 33. Vines were planted in the southern parts of Gaul 
when it was subjected to the Romans ; but not in other parts till after the time of 
Cajsar. 

\ They were served by young people of both sexes below the age of puberty. Near 
by were hearths, on which were pots and spits, for boiling and roasting the flesh. The 
nicest portions were set before the bravest men, as among the ancient Greeks, Homer, 
passim. In the midst of the entertainment they used, when any quarrel happened, to 
challenge one another to single combat, which commonly terminated fatally to some of 
the parties, Diodor, v. 30. 

bands 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. 



bands were sent out at different times to procure for themselves 
new settlements, who commonly determined by augury, into 
what part they should direct their course *, Liv. v. 34.5 Justin. 
xxiv. 4. 

Although the states of Gaul were independent of one an- 
other, yet some one state generally obtained the pre-eminence ; 
thus the Bitunges, in the time of Camillus, Liv. v. 34. and the 
JEduiy in the time of Cjesar. f 

Before Csesar, the Romans were possessed of only a very 
small part of Gaul, chiefly what is now called Provence, Cic. 
Prov. Cons. 13. 

* Whole tribes used to go in a mass with their wives and children, leaving only 
the aged and infirm, ib. Iff Strab. iv. 196. These possessed themselves of the north 
of Italy, called Gallia Cisalpina, ib. of part of Germany, Tacit, m. G. 28. Casar. b. G. 
vi. 22. s. 23. and of Britain, Tacit. Agric 11. One body of them penetrated even 
into Asia, and mingling with the Greeks, called the country they seized on Gallo- 
gracia or Galatia, Liv. xxxviii. 16. & 17.; Justin, xxv. 2.; Strab. xii. 566. & 567.; 
JDiodor. v. 32. 

Another body of Gauls, under Brennus, took and burnt Rome itself, Liv. v. 42. 
&c. ; Justin, xxiv. 3. ; and the Romans ever after, although they often defeated the 
Gauls, with great slaughter, Liv. vi. 4%. vii. 9. — 27. viii. 20. x'. 27. — 29. epit. xx. ; 
Polyb. ii. 14. — 36.; Strab. iv. 185. yet were more afraid of them than of any other 
people, Polyb. ii. 23. & 35. so that Cicero observes, that unless nature had secured 
Italy by the barrier of the Alps, Rome would never have become the mistress of the 
world, Be pro-v. Cons. 14. ; and they gave the name of TUMULTUS to a war with 
that nation, as being more dangerous than against any other people, and of the same 
nature with a war in Italy, Id. Phil. viii. 1. For to use the words of Sallust, Jug, 
1 1 4. Rom a ni sic hsbuere ; Alia omnia 'uirtuti sua prona esse; cum Gall'is pro 
salute, non pro gloria certare. At one time the Romans are said to have raised 
against the Gauls 700,000 foot and 70,000 horse, Polyb. ii. 24. Pliny says, 80,000 
cavalry, iii. 20. s. 24. Strabo observes that the Gauls were sooner conquered by the 
Romans than the Spaniards, because the Gauls attacked in numerous bodies or in a 
mass (aS-goot xott xara, vrXySos) and therefore were destroyed in great numbers; but 
she Spaniards, fighting in detached parties and in different parts, like robbers, protracted 
the war to a great length, iv. 196. 

f When Caesar came into Gaul, the country was divided into two factions ; 
and this spirit of party prevailed not only among the different tribes, but also 
among districts and villages, and even in private families. The JEdui were at 
the head of one faction, and the Sequatii, of the other; who being inferior to 
the JEduiy sought aid from Ariovistus, king of the Germans, by which means 
they in their turn became superior, Casar. b. G. vi. 12. Caesar having subdued 
the Helvetii and expelled the Germans, restored the pre-eminence (principatus) 
to the JEdui , Ib. Artfully employing their assistance, and that of the Rhemi t 
whom he had likewise gained, he vanquished the other states, one after another ; 
first the Belga> who were the bravest of the Gauls, particularly that tribe of 
them called the Bellovaci, Ib. ii. 4. &c; Strab. iv. 196. then the Vcncti, a na- 
tion powerful by sea, iii. 12. &c. the IWortni, iv. 33. the Treviri, v. 2. the 
Nervii, vi. 2. &c. At last a combination of different states being formed, first 
by AmbioriX) king of the Eburdnes, v. 20. &c. and afterwards of almost all Gaul 
under Vercingetorix, a nobleman of the Arverni, vii. 4. Caesar, by crushing these, 
finally subdued the whole country. Thus the Gauls, by their want of union, fell 
under the Roman yoke, 

The 



Marnier s and Customs of the Ancient Gauls, 



545 



The Romans early formed an alliance with the people of 
Marseilles, Polyb. iii. 95. and under pretext of assisting them, 
made war on the neighbouring states, Liv. xxi. 20. & 26. 
The first nation which the Romans subdued beyond the Alps 
was the Salyes against whom, and the Ligurians, they carried ' : 
on a war for eighty years, to procure from them a safe passage 
by land into Spain ; and at last obtained a space twelve stadia 
broad to make a public way through their country, Strab. iyj 
203. whence Cicero calls the part of Gaul possessed by the Ro- 
mans before the conquests of Csesar, SEM1TA, de prov. Cons. 
13. The Salyes or Salluvii were vanquished by C. Sextius, 
A.U. 629, who planted a colony at Aix, which, from its 
baths, and his own name, he called Aqvm Sexti^e 
Epit. lxi. •, Veil. i. 15. About four years after, a colony was 
planted at Narbonne, called Narbo Martius, from Q. Mar- 
cius Rex the consul, who settled it, Veil. ib. s Cic. Font. 1. 
whence that part of Gaul, which first belonged to the Romans, 
called by Caesar PROVINCIA or Provincia Nostra, i. 1.7. 10. 
&c. after the time of Augustus got the name of GALLIA 
NARBONENSIS, Tacit. Annal. xi. 24. or Narbonensis Pro- 
vincia, Plin. iii. 4. 

After the overthrow of the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius, 
the Gauls remained unmolested till they were attacked by Cae- 
sar. After the conquest of Gaul, Caesar and the succeeding 
Emperors derived from that country large supplies for their 
armies. The Gauls, struck with the dreadful losses they had 
sustained, continued for a considerable time submissive to the 
Roman government. But being provoked by the rigid exac- 
tions of the praefects set over them, they attempted to recover 
their former liberty under different leaders.* 

The Gauls, although miserably oppressed by the Roman go- 
vernors, in common with the other provinces of the empire, 
made great progress in the arts of civilization. The study of 
eloquence was so much cultivated in Gaul, Juvenal, vii. 128* 
that it furnished orators to instruct the British lawyers in the 
art Of pleading, [Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos -f-,) 

Juvenal. 

* First undef Julius Floras and Julius Sacrovir, after the death of Germanicus, 
Tacit, Annal. iii. 40. But they were soon reduced by the Germanic legions to their, 
former subjection, ib. 46. ; then under VINDEX, who revolted against Nero, but 
perished in the- attempt, Dio. Ixiii. 2%. — 24.; Tacit, hist. \. 51.; afterwards under 
Various commanders, but without success. The Druids, who were found to have 
encouraged these insurrections, were suppressed by Claudius, Suet. 25. They conti- 
nued, however for along time after, to have influence among their countrymetT, Tacit, 
hist. iv. 54. 

f Caligula, when he exhibited games of various kinds, (mhcellos ludos^ Suet. 20. 
vel. tnhcellanea^ sc. ccrfamitia, Juvenal, xi. 20.) instituted a contest for pve-emi^ 
nence in Greek and Latin eloquence ; in which those vanquished were obliged to 
Confer rewards on the victors, and to compose orations in their praise. Such as 

N n had 



JuvenaL xv. i lls Under Claudius the chiefs of the Gauls* 
particularly of the JEdui> were chosen into the Roman senate. 
They had formerly obtained the right of citizenship, Tacit. 
Annal. xi. 23. — 26. which was granted by Galba to all the 
Gauls, Plutarch, in Galba; Tacit. Hist. i. 8. The Gauls, 
with their liberty, lost that valour for which their ancestors 
were so renowned, Tacit. Agric. 11. When the Roman em- 
pire was invaded by the barbarous nations, Gaul was attacked 
first by the Goths and Visigoths, Procop. 1 . then by the Bur- 
gundians, Agath. 1 . prope princ. and finally conquered by the 
FRANKS, a fierce people from Germany, Procop. 1 . composed 
of various tribes, among the rest the SALII, Zozim. iii. from 
whom the law by which females were excluded from succeed- 
ing to the crown of France was called the Salic Law. 



Modern Divisions of France 

Provinces. Chief Towns. 

Picardy, Amiens. 
Isle of France, Paris. 

Champaigne, Troyes. 

Normandy, Rouen. 

Bretany, Rennes. 

Orleanois, Orleans. 

Lionois, Lions. 

Guienne, Bourdeaux. 



Provinces. Chief Towns > 
Gascony, Bayonne. 
Languedoc, Thoulouse. 
Provence, Aix. 
Dauphin e, Grenoble. 
Burgundy, Dijon. 
Franche Compte, Besanc^on. 
Lorrain, Nancy. 
Alsace, Strasburg. 
These divisions obtained until the late revolution ; when, by 
a solemn decree of the nation, they were abolished, and France 
was formed into eighty-three departments : these were further 
subdivided into districts, cantons, and municipalities. This 
division still continues. 

By the definitive treaty of peace, signed at Paris, Nov. 20, 
1 8 15, the frontiers of France were reduced to the boundaries 
she occupied in the year 1 790, subject to certain modifications 
therein mentioned. For the greater security of the neighbouring 
states, eighteen fortresses were to be occupied by the Allies, 
with a force not exceeding 150,000 men, for the period of five 
years, determinable at the end of three years, if on mature exa- 

had performed the worst were forced to blot out what they had written with a 
sponge or with their tongue ; unless they chose rather to be scourged with rods, or 
plunged in the nearest stream, i. e. the Rhone or Arar, Suet. Cat. 20. This con- 
test was celebrated before the altar dedicated to Augustus, Liv. epit. 137. Suet. 
CI. 2. Juvenal. I. 44. in the temple decreed to him by the joint consent of all the 
states of Gaul, whose names, sixty in number, were inscribed on the altar, Strab. iv. 
192. An annual festival was celebrated there in the time of Augustus, which Dio 
says was still kept in his time, liv. 3a. This solemnity Caligula seems to have ob- 
served, Dio. lix. 22. and to have only added the literary contest, to which Juvenal 
alludes, i.44. 

mination, 



France. 



547 



urination, the Allied Sovereigns and the King of France should 
concur in opinion that the motives, which led to such occupa- 
tion, have ceased to exist. 

The chief harbours for the French navy are, Brest, and Tou- 
lon. The other principal sea-ports and harbours are, in Pi- 
cardy, Calais, and Boulogne ; in* Normandy, Dieppe, Havre 
de Grace, Harfleur, Rouen, Honfleur, Caen, Bayeux, Cher- 
burg, Coutance, Granville, and Averanches. In Bretany, St. 
Malo, Brieux, Treguer, Morlaix, Audierne, Port POrient, Port 
Louis, or Blavet, Vannes, and Nantz in Orleannois, Rochelle 
and Rochefort ; in Guienne, Bourdeaux ; and in Gascony, 
Bayonne; in Languedoc, Narbonne, and Bessieres; in Provence, 
Marseilles and Antibes. 

From these Ports the French carry on an extensive trade 
with all the quarters of the globe. The spirit of Commerce 
was first excited by Henry IV. justly styled the Great, under 
whom the manufacture of silk was introduced. It was after- 
wards greatly encouraged and improved by the famous Colbert, 
a gentleman of Scotch extraction, minister to Louis XIV. 

The chief capes are, Antifleur, Barfleur, and La Hogue, in 
the English channel ; Penmark and Quiberon, on the coast of 
Bretany ; and Portes, on the coast of Provence. 

The number of inhabitants in France are computed at twenty- 
five millions ; those in Paris about nine hundred thousand. 
The King is styled, His Most Christian Majesty, and by the 
Pope, The Eldest Son of the Church. The King's eldest son is 
called Dauphin, and is declared to be of age when fourteen 
years old. Females are excluded from the crown, by what 
is called the Salic Law. 

Before the Revolution, the chief palaces of the King of 
France, were, the Louvre, in Paris; and in the country, 
Versailles, twelve miles from Paris ; Marli, Fontainbleau, St. 
Germain, &c. but at present the Thuileries forms his chief 
residence. 

The established religion in France, till the late Revolution, 
was the Roman Catholic. Protestants were not tolerated. In 
the year 1685, under Lewis XIV. they were obliged to change 
their religion, or leave the country, which is called revoking the 
edict of Nantz ; because in that town Henry IV. promulgated 
his famous edict, securing to the Protestants the liberty of pro- 
fessing their religion, A. D. 1598. During the government of 
Napoleon Buonaparte, though the Roman Catholic was the 
religion of the State, all sects enjoyed unlimited toleration : and 
by the constitutional charter, accepted by Louis XVIII. on his 
return to France, the freedom of worship and conscience is 
guaranteed. The Roman Catholic is still the dominant religion. 

N n 2 There 



France. 



There were in France 17 archbishopricks, 104 bishopricks, 
750 great convents of monks, and 200 nunneries. The monks 
and nuns in the whole kingdom were reckoned above 200,000 ; 
and the revenues of the clergy and religious houses amounted to 
upwards of six millions sterling. But this ecclesiastical division 
being annulled by the National Assembly in 1801, the number 
of archbishops was reduced to ten, and that of the bishops to 
fifty. The ecclesiastical domains having previously been de- 
creed to be national property, had been for the most part sold ; 
and the parochial clergy received fixed stipends, tithes being 
abolished. Since the re-establishment of royalty, the influence 
©f the priesthood has revived. 

The universities were those of Paris, Orleans, Rheims, 
Poictiers, Bourdeaux, Angers, Nantz, Caen, Bourges, Mont- 
pelier, Cahors, Valence, Aix, Lion, Grenoble, Strasburg, 
Pont, Mouson, and Thoulouse ; besides several academies for 
the sciences, for painting, sculpture, and architecture. During 
tne revolutionary governments, numerous public institutions 
and literary societies were established in the principal cities and 
towns of France. 

The French monarchy was first founded by Clovis, A. D. 
481. His descendants were called from his grandfather Me- 
rovseus, the Merovingian race ; and having continued 270 
years, ended in Childeric III. A. D. 751, when Pepin, the 
son of Charles Martel, mayor of the palace, and father of 
CHARLES the Great, was proclaimed king. His descendants 
were called the Carlovingian race, and ended in Lewis the Sloth- 
ful, A. D. 987. After his death, HUGH CAPET, the son 
of Hugh called the Great, and grandson of Eudes, Count of 
Paris, who, together with Bishop Gossin, bravely defended 
that city for two years against the Normans, from 885 to 887, 
usurped the crown ; and his descendants, till the late dreadful 
catastrophe* continued to enjoy it under the name of the Cape- 
tine race, or the CAPETS.* 



SWITZERLAND. 

BOUNDED on the south by Italy y. on the west by France ; 
on the north by Alsace and Swabia in Germany j and on 
the east by the lake of Constance, Tyrol, and Trent ; between 

* First in a direct line to the death of Charles the Fair, a. 1328 : then undeb 
two collateral branches ; I. the family of Valois, beginning with Philip the Fortc- 
matEi and ending with Henry III. 2d Aug. 1589. 2. The House of Bourbon, 
beginning with Hem'y IV. justly called The Great. 

45 and 



Switzerland. 



549 



45 and 48 north lat. dand n°east long.; about 260 miles 
long, and 100 broad. 

Switzerland is divided into twenty-two cantons, Bern, Basil, 
Schaffhausen, Zurich, Appenzel, Claris, Friburg, Lucern, 
Solothurn, or Soleure, Zug, Switz, Uri, Underwald, Pays 
de Vaud, St. Gall, Argovia, the Grisons, (anciently Rhati, 
Brenni, and Genauni,) Tessin, Thurgovia, the Valais, the 
territory of Geneva*, and the for/her principality of Neufchatel. 

The 

* GENEVA is situated on a lake of that name, one of the nobfest in Europe : 
The Rhone rushing out of it, flows through the middle of the city; which is in- 
circled with fertile fields, highly cultivated : the prospect, one of the finest in the 
world, is bounded by the long ridge of mountains, called mount Jura, on the one 
side, the Alps, the Glaciers of Savoy, and the snowy head of mount Blanc, on the 
other. The inhabitants are free and happy. An attempt was made by the Duke 
of Savoy, a. 1602, to seize upon the town, in the middle of a dark night, in time of 
peace. Several hundreds of his soldiers had got into the town by scaling-ladders, ?nd 
the rest were following, when they were at length discovered by a woman, who gave 
the alarm. The Genevois, starting from their sleep, seized the readiest arms they 
could find, killed numbers of the assailants in the streets, and drove the rest out of the 
city. Hence the gates are always shut at sun-set, and are not opened without an or- 
der from the Syndics or Magistrates, which is not to be obtained but on seme great 
emergency. 

The anniversary of this event is kept with great solemnity, and called le jour deV Es- 
calade. 

About a day's journey from Geneva, in the King of Sardinia's dominions, are what 
are called the Glaciers. 

The GLACIERS are prodigious collections of snow and ice, formed in the intervals 
or hollows between the mountains that bound the side of the valley of Chamouni, near 
which mount Blanc stands; five in number; their surface is from a thousand to two 
thousand feet high above the valley, some of them more. Their breadth is differeril, 
according to the interval between the mountains in which they are formed. In these 
vallies of ice are swellings like waves, some of them forty or fifty feet high, and rents 
from two to six feet wide, of an amazing depth. 

The valley of Chamouni is about six leagues, or eighteen miles in length, and an 
English mile in breadth. The Glaciers, which descend from mount Blanc, are on 
one side, and on the other, mount Bremen, seven thousand three hundred feet higher 
than the valley. Behind Malavert, which gives name to one of the Glaciers, there 
is a chain of mountains all covered with snow, which terminates in four distinct rocks, 
of a great height, having the appearance of narrow pyramids or spires, hence called 
the Needles. From the top of Malavert, mount Blanc appears nearly as high as from 
the valley. The Rhone, when it issues from the lake of Geneva, is said to be one 
thousand two hundred feet above the level of the Mediterranean. 

On the highest and most protuberant parts of those rocks and mountains are formed 
great masses of snow and ice, which sometimes giving way, under the name of Ava- 
lanches, and hurrying along with them large portions of the loosened roek or mountain, 
roll with a thundering noise to the valley, and involve in certain destruction all the 
trees, houses, cattle, and men, which lie in their way ; as Virgil describes the effects 
of the fall of a great stone, Virg. Mn. xii. 684. 

At some distance from Chamouni, after passing various defiles, rugged rocks, and 
steep mountains, is a beautiful valley called the Pays de Vallais\ of an oval form, 
gbout seven leagues in length, and- one in breadth, surrounded on all sides by moun- 
tains of a stupendous height, the lower parts of which are covered with a very ric h 
pasture. The valley itself is highly fertile and finely cultivated ; the Rhone flows in 
beautiful mazes from the one end to the other; on the upper extremity is situate SION, 
the capital of the Vallais, and Martigny on the lower. 

The Valaisans were formerly in alliance with the Swiss cantons, but now form part 
of the Helvetic Confederation, Their religion is Popery, and their form of govern- 
ment democratic. 

Nn3 The 



550 



Switzerland. 



The three last cantons were united to the 19 of which Switzer- 
land had previously consisted, by the general treaty signed in 
congress at Vienna, June 9, 18 15. Of these cantons the 
population is, in some, wholly Protestant, in others altogether 
Popish, and in some partly Protestant and partly Popish. 

The Swiss cantons are so many independent states, united 
together for their mutual defence. The government in some 
of the cantons is aristocratical, and in others democratioal. 

The Swiss have several districts and towns subject to them, 
which they conquered. The chief of these towns is Baden, 
about ten miles north-west from Zurich, where the deputies of 
the cantons and their allies meet annually. 

The reformation in religion was begun at Zurich in Swit- 
zerland, by ZUING or ZUINGLIUS, much about the same 
time as by Luther in Germany. It was afterwards completed 
by JOHN CALVIN, a native of Noyen in Picardy, professor 
of divinity at Geneva, who died 1564. 

This country was long subject to the house of Austria ; 
but being cruelly oppressed by its governors, three cantons, 
Switz, Uri, and Underwalden, revolted, A. D. iqo8. They 
are said to have been prompted to it by the heroic behaviour of 
one WILLIAM TELL *, They were afterwards joined by the 

other 

The people are troubled with swellings in the glands of the throat and neck, 
called Goitre^,' (struma,) which ate common to other inhabitants of the Alps, 
(whence Juvenal, Quis tum'tdum guftur miratur in Alpibus ? xiii. 16a.) but not uni- 
versal; supposed to proceed from the noxious qualities of the water which they drink, 
(aquarum qua potantur vitio,) Plin. xi. $->. s 68. 

Near Geneva is Femey, a village, where Voltaire passed the last years of his life. 

At about thirty miles from Geneva, near the other end of the lake, is situate LAU- 
SANNE, the capital of the canton called Pays de Vaud. 

BERN is a regular well built town, with some air of magnificence. The houses 
are of a fine white free stone. A small branch of the river Aar has been made to run 
in the middle of the principal street. Criminals are employed to keep the streets 
clean; the more atrocious delinquents, chained to carts or waggons, drive away 
the rubbish. Frsm a walk along the bank of the Aar is a most magnificent prospect. 

The government of Bern is aristocratical, the religion Protestant, the common 
people easy and happy. 

BASIL, the largest town in Switzerland, is washed by the Rhine, Dr. Moore sTour. 

* GRISLER, or Gisler, the Austrian Governor of Uri, caused a pole to be 
erected in the market-place of Altcrf, on which he put a cap, and commanded 
every one that passed to pay it obedience. WILLIAM TELL alone failed to 
comply, and was observed always to pass it with an indignant air ; on which 
account he was apprehended, and commanded by Grisler, on pain of being hanged, 
to shoot an apple with an arrow from the head of his son. While the apple was ad- 
justing on the boy's head he is reported to have said,Z*tf me and my family perish, pro- 
vided my country be free. He shot the apple without touching his son. A second 
arrow being observed in his quiver, when he was asked the reason of it, he said, it was 
to have been lodged in the tyrant's heart, if he had killed his son. For this offence 
Grisler determined to imprison him for life, and to see him secured in the dungeon 
himself. He therefore caused him to be fettered, and put in a boat, that he might 
be transported to a castle on the lake of Lucerne. The governor went in the boat, and 
io being 



Setherlands-. 



other cantons and the allies at different periods. They were 
declared a free and independent confederacy by the treaty of 

Westphalia, A. D. 1648. Owing to the conquests of the 

French, several important alterations took place in the govern- 
ment of Switzerland ; but since the late accession of Louis 
XVIIL the former system has been in a great measure restored, 
and various territorial, commercial, and political arrangements 
have been made by virtue of the treaty of Vienna above cited, 
for the security of the Helvetic Confederacy, whose integrity 
and perpetual neutrality were solemnly guaranteed by all the 
Allied Sovereigns. 

NETHERLANDS, or LOW COUNTRIES. 

THE Netherlands, or Low Countries, are so called from 
their situation with respect to Germany : they are divided 
into seventeen provinces : bounded by the German sea on the 
north, Germany on the east, France on the south, and the 
British Channel on the west j between 49 and 54 north lat. 
2 and 7 east long, about 300 miles long and 200 broad. 

In the time of Charles V. they were united to the empire of 
Germany, under the title of the Circle of Burgundy. After 
his death, these provinces descended to his son Philip II. who 
attempting to deprive them of their liberties, and to introduce 
the court of inquisition by the most shocking cruelty, they re- 
volted under the conduct of William Prince of Orange, and 
others, 1567. But factions afterwards arising among them, 
only seven of the provinces succeeded in establishing their inde- 
pendence, according to the famous union of Utrecht, which 
they entered into A. D. 1579, whence they are called Bel- 
gium Faderatum, or the Seven United Provinces, The other 
ten provinces were reduced to subjection, chiefly by the valour 
and abilities of Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma ; and were 
called the Spanish Netherlands, Upon the death of Charles II. 

being overtaken by a storm, was in danger of perishing ; whereupon one of his servants, 
the boatman, unable to manage the vessel, requested that Tell, known to be the most 
expert boatman in the country, should be unbound and set to the helm. Grisler as- 
sented ; and Tell, taking the command, steered the vessel to a rock, leaped ashore 
with agility and made his escape through the mountains to StaufFecher ; where he lay 
concealed till the day for effecting the freedom of Switzerland arrived, when he joined 
his companions, ist Jan. 1308. Tell, afterwards lying in wait for Grisler, as he pas- 
sed by a wood, killed him with an arrow. 'The Swiss, called also Sivitzers, pro- 
tected by their inaccessible mountains, maintained the contest against their oppressors 
with invincible fortitude for more than 300 years, often defeating numerous armies 
sent to subdue them, till at last they established their independence. The Swiss were 
long esteemed the best foot-soldiers in Europe, and for that reason were frequently 
employed as mercenaries "by foreign princes, particularly by the kings of France. 

N n 4 King 



652 United Provinces* 

King of Spain, 1700, they fell to the house of Austria, and 
have since been called the Austrian Netherlands. By the treaty 
of Congress, executed at Vienna, June 9. 1815, the Austrian 
Netherlands have been annexed to the Seven United Provinces, 
and erected into the kingdom of the Netherlands. Part of them 
being conquered by France, are hence named the French Ne- 
therlands. The United Provinces maintained a bloody war 
against the power of Spain for near fifty years, first under Wil- 
liam Prince of Orange, sirnamed the Silent ; and, he being 
assassinated at Delft by one Gerard, 1584, then under his son 
Prince Maurice. They were strongly supported by Queen 
Elizabeth, and likewise by Henry IV. of France, through whose 
influence their independence was acknowledged by Philip III. 
of Spain, A.D. 1609. 



The UNITED PROVINCES, or HOLLAND. 

THE united provinces are, Zealand, Holland, Utrecht, 
Guelderland, Over-Yssel, Friesland, and Groningen. 

1. Zealand consists of several islands, formed by one of the 
two branches of the Scheld, the chief of which is Walcheren, 
— Towns, Middleburg, Campvere, and Flushing. 

2. Holland, South :— Amsterdam, north lat. 52 23' 
east long. 5 4' at the top of the Zuyder Sea ; Dort, famous for 
a synod held there, A. D. 161 8 ; and Rotterdam, on the Maese, 
birth place of Erasmus ; Delft ; Hague, where the States- 
General) or deputies of the provinces, assemble ; Leyden, famous 
for its University ; Haerlem, near a remarkable lake called 
Haerlem-meer - ? Torgow, Ryswick, Williamstadt, Naerden. 

In North Holland ate, Saardam, famous for ship-building, 
where Peter the Great of Muscovy learned that art, by work- 
ing with his own hands ; Edam, Hoorn, Alcmaer, Sec. 

There are several islands belonging to this province at the 
mouth of the Maese : Voorn, in which are, Briel, and Helvoet- 
sluys ; Goree, &c: At the entrance of the Zuyder Sea, the 
island Texel, separated from North Holland by a narrow chan- 
nel, through which most ships bound for Amsterdam pass ; 
Ulie, and Shelling, &c. 

3. Utrecht — Utrecht, famous for its University, on the 
old channel of the Rhine ; Montfort. 

4. Guelderland, and ZuTPHEN-r-Nimeguen ; Harder- 
wick Loo, a palace of the prince of Orange ; Arnheim ; 
Zutphen. Gelder, the capital, is subject to the king of Prus- 
sia ; and Ruremond, to Austria. 

5. Over-yssel — Devcnter, Coverden, Campen. 

6. Friesland — 



Dutch and French Netherlands. S£g 



6. Friesland — Lewarden, Dockum, Francker, &c. the 
island Ameland. 

7. Groningen — Groningen, Winchaten, Dam, &c. 

This country contains a greater number of inhabitants for its 
extent than any in Europe, or perhaps in the world. They are 
called the Dutch, or Hollanders, from the name of the principal 
province, and are computed at above two millions. To defend 
themselves against inundations of the sea, and land f3oods s 
which have sometimes done incredible mischief, they have con- 
structed, at an immense expeace, prodigious dikes or banks of 
earth, in several places seventeen ells thick. 

Besides the large rivers, there are in Holland numberless 
canals, along which people commonly travel from town to 
town in covered boats, called Treckscuits, which are dragged 
by horses. 

The Seven United Provinces are a confederacy of so many 
separate independent republics, united together for their com- 
mon defence. The internal government of each is called the 
States of that province ; and delegates from them constitute the 
States-General at the Hague, At the head of this council, pre- 
vious to the late revolution, was the Stadtholder, which office 
was hereditary in the person of William V. Prince of Orange 
and Nassau, and who was also commander in chief and admiral 
of the Seven United Provinces*. The States-General . were 
addressed by the title of High Mightinesses. 

The established religion is the Presbyterian or Calvinism ; 
but all religious are tolerated. 

DUTCH and FRENCH NETHERLANDS. 

1. T>RABANT, — Boisleduc, Breda, Bergen-op-zoom ? 

JO Maestricht, Grave, Lillo, Steenbergen : Brussels, 
north lat. 50*50', east long. 4 6', Louvain, Ramillies, Vilvor- 
den, Tirlemont. 

2. Antwerp, subject to the King of the Netherlands, sur- 
rounded by Brabant.. — Antwerp was once one of the richest trad- 
ing cities in the world ; but in the struggle for liberty, it was 
plundered for three days, by the soldiers of the Duke of Alva, 
A. D. 1576. And the Dutch afterwards, in order to ruin its 
commerce at once, sunk vessels loaded with stone in the mouth 
of the Scheldt, which runs past it : thus shutting up for ever 
the entrance of that river to ships of burden. But it has lately 
been opened by the French. 

* William V., Prince of Orange zuid Nassau, was called to his paternal throne in 
1814, and is now entitled William I., King of the Netherlands, and Grand Duke of 
Luxemburg. 

3. Malines, 



554 



Dutch and French Netherlands. 



3. Malines, or Mechlin, likewise surrounded by Brabant, 
and subject to the King of the Netherlands. — The capital, 
Mechlin, is famous for the manufacture of lace. 

4. Limburg, — Limburg, subject to the King of the Nether- 
lands ; as also the other towns, Dalem, Valkenburg, and Wych. 

5. Luxemburg, — Luxemburg and Bastagne, subject to 
the King of the Netherlands ; the other parts to France, Thion- 
ville, Montmedy, and Danvilliers. 

<5. Namur, subject to the King of the Netherlands — Namur, 
Charleroy. 

7. Hainault — Moris, Aeth, Enguien, subject to the King 
of the Netherlands ; Valenciennes, Bouchain, Conde, Lan- 
drecy, Charlemont, and Givet, to France. 

8. Camrresis, subject to France — Cambray and Vecceur, 

9. Artois, French — Arras, St. Omer, Aire, St. Venant, 
Bethune, and Terouen. 

10. Flanders— Sluis, Axel, Hulst, Sas van Ghent, Ghent, 
Bruges, Ostend, Newport, Oudenard, Dendermont, Courtray, 
Dixmude, Ypres, Tournay, Furnes, and Menin, subject to the 
King of the Netherlands ; Lisle, Dunkirk, Douay, Mardyke, 
St. Amand, Gravellines, and Mount-Cassel, subject to France. 

The inhabitants of Flanders are called Flemings. The 
Flemish language is a dialect of the German, but different from 
the Dutch. The cities of Flanders are greatly reduced in their 
opulence and number of inhabitants from what they were in 
former times. They still, however, carry on several manufac- 
tures, in which they are yet unrivalled ; fine lawns, lace, and 
cambric, so called from Cambray, the chief place of its 
manufacture. 

The Austrian Regent or Viceroy resided at Brussels. Each 
of the provinces had a separate governor under him, and courts 
of justice for the trial of civil causes. 

The established religion, except in that part which belongs 
to the Dutch, is Popery. There is one archbishoprick, seven 
bishopricks, and three universities, namely, Louvain, Douay, 
and St. Omen* 

* By special articles annexed to a treaty, executed at Vienna, May 3 m, 1 815, 
between the King of the Netherlands and the Allied Sovereigns, the union of the 
Belgic Provinces with the United Provinces is declared to be so intimate and complete 
that the countries shall form but one and the same State, governed by the constitution 
previously established in Holland, which shall be modified by common consent accord- 
ing to existing circumstances. But no innovations are to "be made in the articles of 
this constitution, which assure equal protection to every sect, and guarantee the ad- 
mission of all citizens, whatever their religious belief may be, to public employments 
and offices. All civil, political, and commercial advantages are impartially to be en- 
joyed by the inhabitants of Belgium and the United Provinces. 



GERMANY. 



Germany. 



55B 



GERMANY. 

GERMANY is bounded on the north, by the German sea, 
Denmark, and the Baltic; on the east, by Poland, 
Bohemia, and Hungary ; on the south, by the Alps and 
Switzerland; and on the west, by France and the Nether- 
lands; between 45 and 55 north lat. and 5 and 19 east long, 
about 600 miles in length, and 500 in breadth. 

GERMANIA ANTIQUA. — Germania Antiqua, or Ancient 
Germany, called also Transrhenana, Barbara^ and Magna, ex- 
tended from the Rhine to the Vistula ; and from the Baltic to 
the Danube ; so that its ancient boundaries were very different 
from the modern. 

The chief states along the Rhine were the Frisit, Bructeri> 
Usipiiy or Usipetes, Tencteri, Catti, Ubii, Sicambri> Sedusii> 
Marcomanniy whose territory was afterwards occupied by the 
Alemanniy whence Germany was called ALEMANNIA, and 
now Alemagne in French. Farther east, the Harudes y Narisciy 
Hermunduri. From the river Amisiay or -usy Ems, to the 
Albisy Elbe, dwelt the Chauci and Cherusci; north of whom, 
the Angli and Fosi 9 or Saxones f adjoining to the Chersonesus 
Cimbricay now Holstein and Jutland, anciently occupied by the 
Cimbri and Teutones. 

East from this, along the Baltic, Longobardiy Vendiliy or 
Vandaliiy BurgundioneSy Gothonesy &c. But the situation of these 
tribes is very uncertain, as the Romans never made any con- 
siderable progress past the Elbe. Hence Strabo supposes the 
Baltic to be a part of the ocean, and that by sailing east from 
the German sea one might reach the Caspian sea, which he 
supposed was also joined to the ocean, vii. p. 294. xi. p. 507. 

The interior part of Germany was possessed by the SUEVI, 
who were divided into a number of tribes. From them the 
ViadruSy or Oder, was called Suevus ; and the Sinus Codanus y 
or the Baltic, Mare Suevicum. 

That part of modern Germany which lies south of the 
Danube was included in Noricum and Vindelicia. The ancient 
Germans, according to Tacitus, had no cities. The name 
German, as it were Ger or Gar many signifies in Ce-ltic a war- 
like man. 

The most ancient name of this country was Teutsch~land y 
from the Teutonesy or from their god Tuisco or Tenth. The 
vulgar people in Germany still call themselves Teutschers. 



Manners 



S&6 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 

The manners of the ancient Germans have been described 
by several authors, particularly by Tacitus, in his admirable 
treatise on that subject ; which is justly esteemed one of the 
most precious remains of Roman learning, not only as being 
curious and instructive in itself, but also because it points out 
the origin of various institutions and customs, some of them 
still existing in the countries which that people subdued, espe- 
cially in Britain. 

The Germans, as Tacitus imagines, were an indigenous race, 
that is, according to the vague notions of the ancients concern- 
ing the origin of nations, sprung from the earth, or originally 
produced in the country, without any intermixture of adventi- 
tious inhabitants.* 

All the Germans had a great resemblance to one another in 
their external appearance and habit of body \ stern blue eyes, 
ruddy hair, large bodies, vigorous for sudden efforts, but im- 
patient of labour and fatigue ; incapable of bearing thirst and 
heat, but inured by the climate and soil to cold and hunger. 
Tacit, ib. 4. Their chief wealth consisted in cattle, but of 
a small size. The country, although considerably varied, was 
in general covered with woods, or deformed by marshes. It 
was fertile in grain, but unfavourable for fruit-trees. The 
Germans, in the time of Tacitus, had not explored the earth 
for gold or silver ; but those who lived near the confines of the 
Roman empire employed these metals for the purposes of 
commerce, and set a value on the Roman coins ; more how- 
ever, which is curious, on the silver than gold, as being more 
convenient in purchasing low-priced commodities. In the in- 
terior parts they retained the simple and ancient custom of 
exchanging one thing for another, ib. 5. 

* They are however generally supposed to have emigrated from the north-west of 
Asia, long before the art of navigation was discovered. The bards, in their old songs, 
the only memorials and records the Germans had, ascribed the origin of the nation to 
the god TUISCO or TuisU, who was born of the earth, and his son MANNUS. 
From their descendants the various tribes are said to have derived their names, 
TeutoneS) Ingavoaes, Herminones, Istxvones, Marsi, Gambrii'ii, Suevi, iffc. GER- 
MANIA was but a late appellation. Those who crossed the Rhine, and having ex- 
pelled the Gauls, possessed the countries on the north of that river under the name 
of TyNGRl, Tacit, de mor. G. 2. Condrusii, £burones, Caresi, &C. Ccesar, B. G. 
were all called Germans, which name at first was expressive merely of their charac- 
ter, i. e. ivarriors ; but afterwards was applied as a proper name to the whole na- 
tion, ib. 

Hercules was said to have visited those parts; hence the Germans in their war- 
songs celebrated him above all other heroes. Strabo says the Germans were so called 
from their resemblance to the G;iuls in their form, customs, and manner of Jiving ; 
(q. Germani, i.e. fratres, y\>n<rui) differing from them only in the superiority of 
their size, their ferocity, and yellow colour, vii init. But Caesar says, the Germans 
differed greatly froftn the Gauls, [niultum ab hat eonsuetudine, sc. Galltrum, dif grunt,) 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. S57 



The scarcity of iron appeared from their weapons. They 
rarely used swords or large lances ; but spears, or, as they called 
th^m, frame*, frams, tipt with a short and narrow piece of iron, 
so sharp and commodious, that they used them either in close 
or distant combat, ib. 6. But they were unmanageable among 
trees, AnnaL ii. 14. The cavalry had nothing but a shield and 
Tiframea. The infantry had also missile weapons, each a certain 
number, which they threw to an immense distance. They were 
either naked, or dressed in a light mantle, (sagulo leves). A 
German paid no attention to dress, but decorated his shield 
with the choicest colours ; whence what we call coats of arms, 
or armorial bearings, are supposed to have had their origin. 
Coats of mail were uncommon ; and few had either a casque, 
(cassis, of metal) or a helmet, {galea, of leather). Their horses 
were neither remarkable for their shape nor swiftness 5 nor were 
they trained to the various evolutions of the Roman cavalry. * 

Kings were chosen on account of their nobility ; generals for 
their valour. The power of kings was neither unlimited nor 
arbitrary ; and generals commanded rather by example than au- 
thority ; admiration of their bravery secured obedience. None 
but the priests were permitted to put to death, to bind, or to 
scourge f ; that these things might appear to be inflicted, not 
as a punishment, or by the general's order, but as it were by 
the command of that god who they believed attended them in 
war : and to impress this belief more strongly on their minds, 
they carried with them to battle certain images and banners, 
taken from the groves, where they used to be kept in time of 
peace, Ib. 7. and Hist. iv. 22., and where they also deposited 
the standards taken from the enemy, Id. AnnaL 1. 59. % 

The 

* The infantry composed the chief strength of the German army ; a number of 
them, therefore, were always mingled with the cavalry. Ib, Iff Casar, B. G. i. 48. Their 
line of battle was drawn up in the form of wedges, Ib. & Hist. iv. 16. In the time of 
action to give ground, provided they returned to the charge, was esteemed a mark of 
military skill, not of cowardice. Even in doubtful engagements they always carried off 
their slain. It was reckoned the highest disgrace to have left their shield. Such as 
did so were neither admitted to sacred rites nor to any public assembly ; from which 
infamy many extricated themselves by a halter. 

f Caesar says, that the magistrates who commanded in war had the power of life 
and death; that in peace there was no common magistrate, but that the chiefs of the 
districts and cantons administered justice to thflse in their bounds, (inter suos,) vi. %j. 
s. 22. 

$ Another circumstance which tended greatly to inflame their courage was, that 
they were not embodied by chance, but fought by families and clans ; and in the field 
tfaeir dearest pledges were near them ; so that while they fought, they might hear the 
shrieks of their wives and the cries of their children. These were the darling witnesses 
of their conduct, and the applauders of their valour. Their mothers and wives dressed 
their wounds. They even carried refreshments to ttiem while fighting, and exhonted 

them 



158 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans, 



The god chiefly worshipped by the Germans, Tacitus calk 
MERCURY*, to whom, on certain days, they offered human 
victims. To Hercules and Marsf they sacrificed the animals 
usual in other countries, (conccssa animalia)\ part of the Suevz 
performed sacred rites also to Isis. % 

The Germans paid the greatest attention to omens, and that 
species of divination called Sortes, lots ; which was performed 
by means of twigs, cut and marked in a particular manner, 

them to courage. Several armies, when put to the rout, are said to have been incited 
by the interposition of women to renew the combat, lb. 8. The wives of the Cimbri, 
after their husbands were defeated by Marius, slew themselves and their children, 
jFforus, iii. 3. Valerius Maximus says, this was done by the wives of the Teutones 
v. -ni, vi. i. ext. 3. The Germans were more apprehensive of servitude on account 
off their women than of themselves, lb.; see Caesar, B. G. I. 51. and those states 
from which noble virgins were exacted as hostages were thought to be bound by the 
strongest obligation, lb. tsf Suet. Aug. 21. For the Germans believed that there was 
something sacred in the female sex, and even the power of foreseeing future events : 
they therefore never slighted their advice nor disregarded their responses, lb. fcf Casar, 
I. 50. Tacitus mentions several German prophetesses, who were held in the highest 
veneration, lb. 15? Hist. iv. 61. & 65. 

Strabo describes the prophetesses who followed the army of the Cimbri, as grey 
haired, dressed in white, with linen robes fixed with a clasp, and bound with a brazen 
girdle, having their feet bare. They carried each of them a sword, with which, be- 
fore an engagement, they used to cut the throats of captives, and to form con- 
jectures concerning the future success of their countrymen, from the manner in 
which the blood of the captives flowed; and also from an inspection of their entrails, 
and other parts of their bodies. In the time of battle the women used to make a 
dreadful noise, by beating on skins stretched on the outside of the chariots, Strab. 
vii. 294. 

* This name Csesar gives to the chief divinity of the Gauls, B. G. vi. 16. s. 15. 
who was probably the same with TUISCO, Tacit, M. G. 2. or Teutate^, men- 
tioned by Lucan, i. 445. and with Thoth, the Mercury of the Egyptians, Cic. Nat. 
D. iii. 22. 

t Tacitus, in another place, calls MARS the principal deity, (pracipuus deorum^) 
Hist.1v.64. and mentions human victims also offered to him, Annal. xiii. 57. Mars 
was likewise the chief deity of the Scythians, Herodot. iv. 59. from whom the Ger- 
mans are thought to have been descended ; and to Mars the Scythians likewise offered 
human victims, lb. 63. as the Lusitani, Strab. iii. 155. 

Cesar differs from Tacitus in his account of the religion of the Germans. He says, 
that they had no Druids to preside over sacred rites, and that they paid no attention to 
sacrifices, {neque sacrificiis student;) that they reckoned those only as deities whom 
they saw, and whose beneficence they experienced, {quorum opibus aperte juventur ;) 
the Sun, Moon, and Vulcan, or fire, vi. 19. s. 20. 

\ The cause and origin of the worship of Isis is uncertain ; but an image of that 
goddess, in the figure of a galley, shewed that her worship had been imported from 
some foreign country. The Germans never built houses to their gods, nor repre- 
sented them under an human form. This they thought would have derogated from 
their greatness. They consecrated to them groves and woods, and called by the names 
of their deities those secret recesses which they only beheld with reverence, c. 9. 
but never profaned by hunting in them, or cutting down the trees. Claudiau 
de laud. Stil. c. i. 228. Here their cruel sacred rites seem to have been performed, 
Lucan. iii. 399. their solemn feasts held, Tacit. Hist. iv. 14. and the military oath 
administered, Annal. ii. 12. The gloom of woods, Seneca observes, naturally 
fills the mind with religioqs awe, Ep, 41. So Pliny, (in lucis silentia ipsa adora- 
mus,) xit, 1, 

and 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 559 



and laid on a white cloth*. They took presages of futurity, 
not only from the flight and singing of birds \ but also, what 
Tacitus says was peculiar to that nation, from the neighing 
and snorting of horses f. A number of these animals of a milk- 
white colour were kept for this purpose in the sacred groves. 

- Another kind of divination used in dangerous wars, was 

to oblige a captive of the enemy, procured by whatever means, 
to fight with a champion of their own country, each in the 
armour of his country. The victory of the one or the other 
was taken for a prognostic of the event of the warf j (pro pfg- 
judicio accipiebatur,) c. 10. 

About matters of smaller moment the chiefs alone delibe- 
rated : important affairs were referred to the whole community, 
but not till they had been previously canvassed by the leading 
men. The national assembly met, unless when something 
sudden or unexpected happened, on stated days at the new and 
full moon : for they thought these the most fortunate times for 
beginning any enterprise, (rebus agendis mtspicatissimum initlum^) 
c. ii. In the computation of time they reckoned by nights 
and not by days. || 

When a public assembly was summoned, the Germans were 
not punctual in meeting at the time appointed j but two or 
three days were lost by their tardiness in convening, (cunctatione 
coeuntium ;) which fault was the consequence of their liberty, 
(Mud ex libertate vitium). When the meeting appeared suffi- 
ciently numerous, (at turba vel turba placuit,) they sat down 
armed. Silence was ordered by the priests, who then had also 
a coercive power. The king or chief of the community spoke 
first *, the rest were heard in their turn, according to their age, 
nobility, renown in arms, or eloquence ; and gained attention 
rather from their authority to persuade, than their power to 
command. If the opinion of any one was disagreeable, the 
assembly expressed their disapprobation by a murmur ; if agree- 
able, they brandished their javelins. The most honourable kind of 
assent was to applaud by the sound of arms,i£. ii. Hist. iv. 15. ; 
Casar, B. G. vii. 21. In this assembly accusations were made, 

* The Scythians also formed conjectures about futurity from rods, Hervdotstf. 67. 

f The neighing of horses seems also to have been much attended to among the 
Persians. Thus the dispute about the crown was determined in favour of Darius, 
Herodot. hi. 85. Justin. L IO. 

I Hence the origin of duelling, as it is thought, which anciently was considered as 
an appeal to Heaven. 

I Thus all their resolutions and appointments or summonses were dated, (sic constt- 
tuunt, sic cpndicunt). The light was thought to lead or precede the day, c. ii. So 
among the Gauls, Casar, B. G. vi. 17. s. 16. In like manner we use siennight, 
fortnight, for seven days, fourteen days. Hesiod makes day to be the child of night, 
Theog. 134. because darkness existed before light, Genesis, i, 2. 

and 



560 Manors and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 



and capital offenders prosecuted* Punishments were propor- 
tioned to the nature of the crime. * 

In the same assemblies also were elected chiefs to administer 
justice in the cantons and villages. To each of these an hundred 
companions (comites) were assigned from among the common 
people, to assist the judges with their counsel, and sanction 
his decisions by their authority. 

The Germans transacted no business, public or private, with- 
out being armed, c. 13. So the ancient Greeks, Thucydid. i. 6V 
and Gauls f, Liv. xxi. 20. But it was not customary for any 
one to assume arms, till the state approved his ability to use them. 
Then, in presence of the assembly, the young man was pre- 
sented (ornabatur) with a shield and a framea. % 

When 

* Traitors and deserters were hanged on a tree : cowards, effeminate persons, and 
those guilty of unnatural practices, {corpore infames,) were sunk in dirt and mire un- 
der a hurdle. Acts of wickedness, (scelera,) it was thought should be publicly pu- 
nished ; but base crimes {jlagitia) concealed. For smaller offences a mulct was im- 
posed of horses or cattle ; part of the tine went to the king, or, in free states, to the 
community, and part to the injured person or his relations. 

f Hence the custom among those descended from the Celtic nations, of wearing 
swords; which was not permitted among the Romans, and other polished nations of 
antiquity. 

\ This ceremony had the same effect among the Germans as assuming the manly 
gown (toga <uirilh) among the Romans. After this the young man ranked as a citi- 
zen, (bic primus jwventa honos } ) before, he was reckoned part of a private family, 
but now, of the commonwealth. High birth, (insignis nobilitas,) or the great merits 
of a father, procured even for a young man the dignity of a chief. But in genera} 
those only enjoyed the distinction of having a numerous train of followers, who had 
reached the age of manhood, and signalised themselves by their valour. Nor 
was it thought dishonourable to be seen among the retainers of an illustrious chief, 
who divided them into different ranks, as he judged proper. There was a great emu- 
lation both among the Companions, who should possess the first place in their pa- 
tron's favour; and among the chiefs, who should have the most numerous and the 
bravest companions. This was his dignity, this his strength, to be always surrounded 
with a large body of select young men, his ornament in peace, his bulwark in war. 
Nor was his fame confined to his own nation : his glory also extended to neighbouring 
states, if he excelled others in the number and valour of his companians. He was 
courted by embassies, honoured with presents, and by his very name usually terminated 
wars, ik. 13. 

In battle it was disgraceful for a chief to be surpassed in bravery, and for a Compa- 
nion, not to equal the courage of his chief. If the chief fell, to have survived 
him entailed on the companions infamy and disgrace for life. To defend, to protect, 
him, to make their own brave deeds subservient to his glory, was the sacred obli- 
gation of followers. The chiefs fought for victory, the Companions for their 
chiefs. 

When their own nation was at peace, young noblemen among the Germans 
usually repaired to some other state then engaged in war. Repose was hateful 
to them. It was only in the midst of dangers they could gain renown. Without 
violence and war they could not support their train of dependents, who de- 
manded from the liberality of their chief the warlike horse, the bloody and victorious 
framea; and, in place of pay, expected a table, although not elegant, yet always 
plentiful. The fund of this munificence was procured by war and rapine, (La- 
trocinia nullum habcnt infamiam t qu<£ extra jints cujtisque clvitutis jiant ; atque ea 

1 6 juvsntuti? 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans* 56 i 



When there was no war, the Germans paid little attention 
to hunting *, but spent most of their time in repose, devoted 
to sleep and feasting. The warrior, resigning the management 
of his house and farm to women, to old men, and the weakest 
of his domestics, remained himself in stupid inaction ; by a 
wonderful diversity of nature exhibiting in the same character 
a love of sloth and a hatred of repose, f 

The Germans had no regular cities ; nor indeed did they 
allow a continuity of houses. They lived in separate habit- 
ations scattered up and down, as a fountain, a plain, or grove 
invited. J 

The clothing used by all the Germans, was a loose mantle §, 
(Sagum, ib. 17.) fastened with a clasp, or when that could not 
be had, with a thorn. Naked in other respects, they passed 
whole days by the fire-side. Jj 

Among 

juventutis exereenda, ac desidid! mimtenda causa fieri predicant, Csesar, vi. 22. Jus 
in miribus habent, adeb ut he latrocinii quidem pudeat, Mela, iii. 3.) To cultivate the 
ground and wait the produce of the year was not so agreeable to the disposition 
of a German, as to provoke the enemy and incur the risk of wounds, {vulnera 
mereri). It appeared lazy and indolent to acquire by sweat, what might be 

obtained by blood This dependence of the comites on their chief, after the 

Germans sallied forth from their forests, and conquered various provinces of the Roman 
empire, proved the origin of vassalage, and of the FEUDAL SY3TE M. 

* Ca?sar on the contrary says, that they spent all their life in hunting and military 
affairs, being inured from their infancy to labour and hardship, B. G. vi. 19. s. 20. 

f It was customary in the several states for individuals to make voluntary contribu- 
tions to their chieftains, either of cattle or corn ; which being received as an hono- 
rary gift, also supplied their necessities. They were particularly pleased with presents 
from the neighbouring nations, which were sent, not only from individuals, but also 
from communities; choice horses, magnificent armour, trappings, and chains. The 
Romans taught them the custom of receiving money; Tacit, de mor. German. 15. 

f They laid out their villages not with a row of connected buildings; each house 
stood detached, with a vacant space around it, either as a security against the accidents 
of fire, or from want of skill in the art of building. They neither knew the use of 
mortar, nor of tiles. They used only rude materials, for all purposes, without 
either beauty or ornament. Particular parts were covered over with a kind of 
earth so pure and shining, that it resembled the lights and shades of painting. 
They used also to dig subterraneous caverns, and cover them over with a quantity 
of dung; which served both as winter retreats and repositories for their grain. 
Those hidden recesses not only mitigated the rigour of cold, but in times of 
hostile invasion, when the open country was ravaged, remained undiscovered, either 
because the enemy was ignorant of them, or avoided the trouble of a search, ib. 16. 

Other nations also used subterraneous caverns, Ovid. Met. i. 121; Mel. ii. I. 

Many of these still exist, in different parts of the world. Strabo says, that the 

Germans neither cultivated the ground "or laid up grain ; that they lodged in huts 
reared to shelter them only for a day ; that their food depended chiefly on their cattle, 
as that of the Nomades ; and that, like them, putting their effects on waggons, they 
shifted their habitations, with their flocks, where they chose, vii. 291. But this, 
according to Cajsar and Tacitus, was not universal. 

§ Pellibus aut parvis rhenonum tcgumentis ittuntur, magna corporis parte mtda , 
Cassar. b. G. vi. 20. Viri sagis r vclantur i aut libris arborum, quamv'u steva. bieme, 
Mela, iii. 3. 

(j The rich wore a garment, not flowing loose, as the Sarmathians and 'Parthiaus, 
but girt close, and shewing the shape of every limb, They also wore the skins of 

O o wiH 



4 



582 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 

Among the Germans the bond of marriage was rigidly ob- 
served, and no part of their character does Tacitus more highly 
extol. * 5 1 

The children of the Germans, in every family kept always 
naked and dirty, grew up to a size of limb and body, which the 
Romans beheld with wonder. Every mother suckled her own 
infants, and did not commit them to the care of maid-servants 

wild beasts; those bordering on the Rhine, without choice or nicety, {negligent er ;) 
those in the interior parts were more curious in the selection, (exquisitlus,) as not hav- 
ing acquired by commerce a taste for other apparel. They chose particular beasts, and 
having stripped off the furs, variegated them with spots and pieces of the skins of 
marine animals, which the exterior part of the ocean and seas unknown to the Romans 
produced. The dress of the women was not different from that of the men: except 
that the women frequently wore linen robes, and variegated them with purple ; not 
extending part of the upper garment into sleeves, but leaving the whole arms (brachia, 
a manibus ad cubitum, ac tacerios, a cubito ad humeros,) and part of the bosom, 
bare, lb. 17, 

* Every man was contented with one wife ; a thing singular among savages ; except 
a few of the nobility, who practised polygamy, not from loose desire, but because 
their alliance was courted. The wife brought no dowry to the husband, but the hus- 
band to the wife. The parents and relations of the virgin were present and approved 
the presents; which were not calculated to please female vanity, or to adorn the 
future bride ; but oxen, a caparisoned horse, a shield, a framea^ and a sword. By 
giving these presents, {in h<sc mimera, i. e. bis muneribus datis,) the wife was espoused; 
who also in her turn made a present of arms to her husband. This, says Tacitus, 
was considered as the strongest bond of union, these the secret sacred rites, these- 
the nuptial^ deities. Lest the wife should think herself exempted from the practice of 
the same vhtues with her husband, or removed from the accidents of war, she was 
reminded by the very ceremonies of her marriage, that she came to be the sharer of 
his toite and dangers, to partake with him the sufferings of peace, and hazards of 
war. This the yoked oxen, the harnessed horse, the present of arms, indicated ; that 
thus she was to live, and thus to die: that she received these things, which she should 
deliver inviolate, and with honour, to her children ; which her daughters-in-law should 
receive and again transmit to her grand children. The German women therefore 
lived with impregnable chastity, without enticing spectacles to seduce them, or ban- 
quets to inflame their passions. The art of carrying on a secret correspondence by let- 
ters was equally unknown to both sexes, ib. 19. although the Germans were not alto- 
gether unacquainted with writing, Annal. ii. 63. & 88. Among so numerous a people 
instances of adultery were very rare. The punishment of it was instant, and at the 
pleasure of the husband. Having cut off the hair of the offender, and stript her be- 
fore her relations, he expelled her from his house, pursuing her with stripes through 
the village. For the loss of honour there was no forgiveness : neither beauty, nor 
youth, nor fortune could procure a second husband. Vice was not treated by the 
Germans as a subject of raillery ; nor was the profligacy of corrupting and being cor- 
rupted called the fashion of the age, (SiE culum). In some states female virtue was 
carried to still greater perfection, where none but virgins married, and when a wo- 
man once fixed her choice, her hopes and wishes were at once terminated. She re- 
ceived one husband, as one body and one life, that her thoughts and desires migh 
not extend farther, and that she might love him, not merely as her husband, but 
her marriage, i. e. the only person to whom she could be married, ib. (Among th 
Indians this principle was carried still farther, where wives were burnt on the funer- 
piles of their husbands, Dlodor. xvii. 91. Strab. xv. 699. & 714. as they still are: 
and as polygamy is there in use, the favourite wife is preferred. So anciently among 
the Thracians, trie wife most beloved was sacrificed at the husband's tomb. Hero* 
dot. v. 3.) To limit population by rearing only a certain number of children, or to 
kill any one of a husband's kindred, (ex agnath,) was accounted an infamous crime. 
Good morals had more influence ameng the Germans, than good laws in other coun- 
iries, it. 19. 

and 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 565 



and nurses. There was no distinction in the mode of rearing 
the master and the slave. They iived among the same cattle, 
and lay on the same ground, till age caused them to be separa- 
ted, and superior valour marked out the free-born. * 

Among the Germans every one was obliged to adopt the 
enmities as well as the friendships of a father or kinsman i 
These resentments however were not everlasting nor implacable j 
for even homicide might be atoned for by a certain number of 
cattle and sheep, and the whole family was appeased by this 
satisfaction : a custom useful to the public, saysTacitus, because 
•quarrels are more or less dangerous in a state, in proportion to 
its liberty, (juxia libertatem). 

No nation enjoyed more liberally than the Germans the 
pleasure of convivial entertainments and hospitality. To refuse 
admittance to any human being was reckoned an impious 
crime f, {nefas habebatur,) ib. 21. 

The Germans, as soon as they rose from sleep, which they 
usually protracted to broad day-light, first bathed, generally 
on account of the coldness of the climate, in warm water 5 
they then sat down to meat, each on a distinct seat, and at a 
separate table.J Their drink was a liquor drawn from barley 

or 

* Young men were late in enjoying the pleasures of love, and therefore not en- 
feebled in their prime, {looc alt staturatn, ali vires, nervosque conjirmari putant, Cassar. 
ib.) Nor were virgins married too soon. Both parties waited till they attained their, 
full growth, and the children inherited the vigour of their parents. The uncle by 
the mother's side regarded his nephews with the same affection as their father. Some 
reckoned this the strongest tie of consanguinity; and therefore in exacting hostages 
preferred those of this relation, as engaging the mind by a firmer bond, and the fa- 
mily by a more extensive obligation. Every man's own children, however, were his 
heirs and successors, without any testament or last will. If there was no issue, the 
next in succession were the brothers of the deceased, and then his uncles by the 
father's and mother's side. The more numerous a person's kinsmen (propinqui) 
and relations by marriage [ajfines) were, the more comfortable and respectable was 
his old age. It was no advantage to be childless, ib. 20. as at Rome, where the 
greatest court was paid to rich men without children by heredipetts, legacy hunters, 

\ Every one regaled a stranaer according to his ability. When his stock of 
provisions failed, he accompanied his guest to some neighbouring house, where s 
though they went uninvited, they were sure of meeting with a cordial reception. To 
known and unknown the law of hospitality was always the same. The guest at his 
departure received as a present whatever he desired ; and the host was equally free 
in asking from his guest. The Germans delighted in presents, but neither imputed as 
a favour what they gave, nor thought themselves obliged by what they received, ib. 

\ After their repast, they proceeded to business completely armed, and not less fre- 
quently to convivial entertainments. It was not a disgrace to any one to continue day 
and night in drinking. Quarrels often happened, as is usual among persons in liquor J 
which were rarely confined to abusive language, but usually terminated in blood and 
slaughter. But the Germans generally at their feasts also deliberated about the re- 
conciliation of enemies, the forming of family alliances, the election of chiefs,, 
finally, about peace and war; conceiving that at no other time did the mind open it- 
self with greater sincerity, or glow with more heroic ardour. Strangers to artifice 
and disguise, they disclosed the secrets of their hearts in the freedom of festivity. 
The opinions of all being thus laid open without reserve, were on the following 

O o % day 



564 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans, 



or wheat, and, like the juice of the grape, fermented to 3 
spirit, Ib. 23. & Plin. xiv. 22. Those bordering on the Rhin# 
also purchased wine. Their food was simple, wild apples, 
fresh venison, or coagulated milk. Without elegance, without 
delicacies, they ate to satisfy hunger, Ib. Casar. ib. •, Mel. iii. 
3. ; Plin. xi. 41. But they were not equally temperate in 
quenching their thirst. If one indulged their love of liquor by 
supplying them with as much as they desired, they might be 
vanquished no less easily by their vices than by arms. 

The public spectacles of the Germans were but of one sort, 
and the same in all their meetings. A band of young men 
made it their diversion to dance naked amidst swords and point- 
ed javelins, {inter itifestas frameas). Exercise produced art, and 
art gracefulness. They did not, however, exhibit for gain or 
hire. The only reward of this diversion, although a hazardous 

one, was the pleasure of the spectators. -The passion of 

the Germans for play was wonderfully strong. Without the 
excuse of liquor, (strange as it may seem,) in their sober mo- 
ments they applied to dice as to a serious business, with such 
desperate eagerness to gain or lose, that, when every thing else 
was gone, they risked their liberty and persons on the last 
throw. The loser submitted to voluntary slavery. Though 
younger and more robust than his antagonist, he suffered him- 
self to be bound and sold. Such was their obstinacy in a wrong 
thing, they called it honour. Slaves acquired in this manner 
were bartered away by commerce, that the winner might get 
rid of the scandal of his victory. * 

The lending of money at interest, and taking usury, was un- 
known among the Germans ; ignorance was a better prevention 
against this evil than prohibitory laws. 

In cultivating the soil each village occupied a certain tract, 
according to the number of its inhabitants ; which was parcelled 

day again taken into consideration. Each time had its proper use, and due regard 
was paid to it, {saln/a utriusque temporis ratio est). They delibei ated when warm, 
and incapable of disguise ; they decided when cool, and not liable to mistake, ib. 22. 

* The slaves of the Germans were not divided, as at Rome, according to the dif- 
ferent employment? assigned them in the family. Each slave had a dwelling and house- 
hold of his own. The master required from him a certain quantity of grain, cattle, 
and clothes, as from a tenant. This the slave furnished, and no farther did his 
servitude extend. The master's wife and children performed the other offices 
of his family. A slave was rarely punished with stripes, loaded with chains, 
or condemned to hard labour. They used sometimes to be killed, not through se- 
verity of chastisement, but in the heat of passion, as an enemy ; but with this dif- 
ference, that it passed with impunity. The German slaves were much in the 
same state with rural vassals in after-times, called Serfs, (ascrifiti gleba,) or 
villeins, Ib. Freedmen were little superior to slaves; of small influence in the 
master's family, and of none in the state, except in those parts where regal go- 
vernment was established ; for there they rose both above the free-born and the noble. 
la. gther states the unequal condition of freedmen was a proof of public liberty. 

out 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans, 665 



out among individuals according to their ravk and dignity *, 
Ib. 26. & Casar. ibid. 

The Germans had no parade in their funerals: only the 
bodies of illustrious men were burnt with certain kinds of 
wood. The funeral pile was not, as among the Romans, 
heaped [cumulabatur) with garments and rich perfumes. The 
arms of the deceased were committed to the flames, and some- 
times his horse. A mound of earth was reared for his tomb. The 
lofty and laboured magnificence of monuments they despised^ 
as burdensome to the dead. Tears and lamentations they soon 
laid aside, but not their grief and regret. It was comely in 
women to weep for their friends \ the men remembered them. 

One of the bravest states of the Germans f were the C ATTI, 
inhabiting the skirts of the Hercynian forest, whose chief 
strength consisted in their infantry J, lb. 30. 

The 

* The great plenty of ground made this partition easy. What was cultivated one 
year, was left fallow the next ; and still some ground remained untilled. The Ger- 
mans did not strive to render their industry adequate to the fertility and extent of 
the soil, by planting orchards, inclosing meadows, and watering gardens. They 
demanded nothing from the earth but corn. Hence the year was not, as among 
other nations, divided into four seasons. They knew and distinguished by their 
proper names, zvinter, spring, and summer, the name and fruits of autumn were 
equally unknown, Ib. And it seems the Germans yet have no proper term in their 
language for that season, when all their fruits are gathered, but Herbst, harvest, 
which denotes only the gathering in of corn. Caesar mentions several reasons which 
the Germans assigned for the custom of annually parcelling out their lands, and re- 
moving from one place to another " That they might not lose their martial 

spirit by acquiring a taste for agriculture ; that individuals might not become desirous 
of engrossing extensive estates, and the more powerful dispossess the weaker ; that they 
might not grow effeminate by building commodious habitations to shelter them against 
the cold and heat; that the love of money might not excite factions and dissensions; 
and that the common people might be kept in good order by equity, when every 
one saw himself in point of wealth on a level with the most powerful," B. G. iv. 3.. 
It was thought an honour to a state to have a very great extent of waste land on 
their frontier, as this shewed that no one durst remain near them, and was a security 
against sudden invasions, lb. 

f The Gauls are said to have been anciently more powerful than the Germans, and 
therefore occupied several countries beyond the Rhine, Tacit, ib. 2%. ; Casar,b. G. 
vi. 22. s. 23. The names of some of their tribes remain to this day ; as of the Boil 
in Bohemia, lb. and Bavaria, q. Boiaria. Some of the Germans acknowledged sub- 
jection to the Roman empire ; as the Batavi, who occupied an island at the mouth of 
the Rhine; but were-exempted from taxes, and only furnished soldiers, celebrated by 
Tacitus for their bravery and skill in swimming rivers with their arms, Hist.'u 59. 
ii. 21. iv. 12. 17.&C. Certain states were said to possess the decumate lands ,(Decumater 
agros exercere,) because, as it is supposed, they paid to the Romans the tenth of their 
produce, Tacit, ib. 29. 

X It was a custom common among the Catti, and sometimes, although more 
rarely, used in other parts of Germany, not to cut the growth of their hair and 
beard till they had slain an enemy. Some also wore an iron ring, which was a mark 
of infamy in that country. These always formed the first line in battle, and many 
of them grew old in this ferocious appearance. They had no house or land, ox 
domestic care ; but were maintained by those whom they chose to visit, Ib. 32. 
Next to the Catti, along the banks of the Rhine, were the Usippii and Tencteri, re- 
markable for their skill in horsemanship. Adjoining to the latter were the Brustcri, 
above 60,000 of whom were destroyed in battle by the Chemavi and Agrinari\> in 

O o 3 th« 



£66 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 



The SUEVI possessed the greatest part of Germany, extend 
Ing southward from the Baltic to the Danube, and eastward 
from the Elbe to the Vistula \ divided into a number of dif- 
ferent tribes^ called by different names. * 

The 

thd time of Tacitus, i2.33.-~- North, of the mouth of the Rhine were the FRTS1I 
now Friesela/id, extending to the ocean, where the pillars of Hercules were 
said to be still standing on the coast, lb. 34. Contiguous to the Frisii, were the 
CHAUCT, possessing an immense extent of country along the German ocean and 
the Baltic ; the most renowned people among the Germans for their justice, 
and inferior to none in valour, lb. 35 5 Plin. xvi. .1. Their neighbours, the 
Cheruscl, enervated by a long peace, were subdued by the Catti, so likewisethe Fast, 
a contiguous nation of less note, 7£. 36. In the same part of Germany dwelt the 
CIMBRI, anciently the terror of Rome, but in the time of Tacitus an incon- 
siderable people. They first became formidable in the year of the" city 640. (Ccscilio 
Metello et Paplrlo CarboneUoss.) From thence to the time of Trajan, the contest 
between the Germans and Romans was continued for about %io years, with 
many losses on both sides. German liberty was more vigorous than Parthian despo- 
tism. Tacitus observes, that in later times the Germans had been triumphed 
over, (alluding to the mock triumph of Domitian, Agric. 39; Suet. D. 6.) but 
not conquered, Tacit. M. G. 37. From the exultation of this historian at the de- 
struction of the Bructeri) and his fervent prayer to the gods for the continuance 0? 
civil discord among the enemies of Rome, as the only means of saving the empire 
from its impending fate, lb. 33. he seems to have presaged the subversion of the 
Roman empire by the nations of Germany, which took place about 300 years after. 

* They were distinguished by the custom of wreathing or twisting (obliquandi vel 
torquendi,) their hair, and tying it up in a knot, Tacit. M. G. 38. Thus the 
Suevi were discriminated from the other Germans, and free men among the Sue-vi 
from slaves. But Juvenal ascribes this custom to all the Germans, JMadido torquentes 
cornua cirro, twisting their locks moist with ointment, or with frequent bathing, 
like horns, perhaps also braiding or plating them, and then fastening them in a knot, 
xiii. 165. In ofher nations, indeed, either connected with the Sue-vi by consan- 
guinity, or from imitation, this mode was sometimes adopted, but rarely, and only 
during the season of youth. Among the Suevi it was continued for life. Even old 
men turned back (retro sequebantur) their rough grey hair, fastening it behind, and 
often tied it only on the crown of the head, lb. Martial speaks of the Sicambri 
(twisting their hair into a knot, (crinibus in nodum tertis, Spectac. 3- 9. which from 
the situation of that people along the Rhine, he calls Rheni nodos, v. 38. 8. and 
remarks, that it was quite different from the natural curl of the hair of the ^Ethiopians 
or Blacks, Speet. 3. 10. 

The Semnones asserted, that they were the most ancient and noble tribe 
of the Suevi. This claim they confirmed by religion. On a stated day all the 
tribes of the nation assembled by their deputies in a sacred grove, where they cele- 
brated the beginning of their horrid rites by publicly sacrificing a human victim. 
No one entered the grove unless bound with a chain, indicating his own infe- 
riority and the power of the deity. If he happened to fall, he was not allowed to 
rise, but made his way out by rolling along the ground. The whole of their 
superstition had this import; that from that spot the origin of their nation was de- 
rived; that there the Supreme Ruler of the universe (regnator omnium Deus) resided; 
that other things were subject and obedient to him. The flourishing condition of the 
Semnones gave weight to their pretensions. They were distributed into an hundred 
cantons ; and from their great numbers considered themselves at the head of the 
Suevi, lb. 39. 

The LONGOBARDI, compared with the Semnones, were few in number, but 
ennobled by their valour, lb. 40. They afterwards founded the kingdom of Lorn- 
lardy in Italy, see p. 250. Sc 476. 

The other tribes of the Suevi were the Reud/gni, Aviones, ANGLT, who after- 
wards gave name to England, see p. J03. the Varini, Endoses, Suardones, and 
Ntiithoaes* There was nothing remarkable in any of these states, unless that they 

•j- 3 concurred 



Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 567 



The principal states of the Germans, along the banks of the 
Danube, were, the Hermundurii^ in alliance with the Romans, 
Tacit, ib. 4 1 . then the Narisci, the Marcomanni, and Quadi, ib. 
brave nations who waged war with the Romans under the 
Emperor M. Aurelius. * 

On the coast to the right or south of the Baltic, (Suevici 
tnarisy) dwelt the JEstyif, who in their dress and man- 

concurred in worshipping HERTHUM, v. Hertha, or mother Earth, who, they 
believed, interposed in human affairs, and visited the different parts of the 
globe. She was worshipped with great devotion in an island of the ocean, Ib. 
(supposed to be Heiligeland, or the holy land, near the mouth of the Elbe.) Taci- 
tus takes no notice of the Saxons, who afterwards became so powerful. Ptolemy- 
mentions them in place of the Fosi near the mouth of the Elbe; and Cluverius makes 
them the same. The Fosi are mentioned by no other author but Tacitus. The 
people between the Elbe and the Rhine, having shaken off the Roman yoke, assumed 
the name of FRANCI or freemen ; and having conquered Gaul, gave it the name of 
Francia, France, which it still retains. St. Jerome places them between the Saxons 
and Alemanni, in vita Hilarionis. They are therefore supposed to have occupied the 
country of the Catti. Zosimus represents the Francs as contiguoas to the Saxons, 
and at war with them in the time of Julian, iii. 

* North-east of these were the JVLarsigni, Gothini, Osi, Burii, and Lygii, divided 
into several tribes ; the Arii, remarkable for their ferocity, Helvecones, Manimi, 
Elysii, from whom the name of Silesia is thought to be derived, and the Nabarvali, 
Ib. 43. These states were settled between the Oder and the Vistula. 

North of the Lygii were the Gothones, near the mouth of the Vistula ; under a 
regal government, somewhat more strict than that of the other nations of Germany, 
yet not to a degree incompatible with civil liberty. Contiguous to these, along the coast 
of the Baltic, were the Rugii, whose name the island of Rugen still retains, and the 
Lemovii, distinguished by round shields, short swords, and submission to regal 
authority, {ergu reges obiequiitm^) Ib. 43. 

Next were the states of the Suiones, (inhabiting Sweden and the Danish isles, Funen, 
Langland, Zealand, 8cc. in ipso eceano, as Tacitus expresses it ; because the ancients 
thought Sweden and Norway an island, and called them Scandinavia, Plin. iv. 13.) 
powerful not only by land, but also by sea. Their ships had a prow on either end, so 
that they were always ready for moving either way, without sails or rows of oars on 
the sides. Among the Suiones great deference was paid to wealth; and therefore, as 
Tacitus observes, they were subjected to unlimited monarchy. The use of arms was 
not allowed to all without distinction, as in the other German states; but military 
weapons were kept in a magazine under the charge of an officer, who was always a 
slave. It was thought unsafe to entrust them to a person of any other rank, Ib. 44. 

Beyond the Suiones, Tacitus says, there is another sea, whose sluggish waters 
are almost in a state of stagnation, Ib. 45. (It is uncertain whether Tacitus here 
means the gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, which are always frozen in winter, or 
the icy sea.) Kere the sun continues to diffuse so great a brightness from his setting 
to his rising, as renders the stars imperceptibly, Ib. the real cause of which Tacitus 
could not explain, Agric. 12. Here also, it was believed, that the sound of the sun 
emerging from the waves was heard, as Juvenal says was the case near the straits of 
Gibraltar, xiv. 280. and the form of his horses, (some read deorum, of the s*od$,) 
and the rays of his head, were seen. Thus far, and no farther, nature was sup- 
posed to extend, lb. in other words, this was rhought to be the end of the world, 
{Jinis rerum) : for the ancients imagined that the ocean was the boundary of nature, 
and that no land lay beyond it, Curt. ix. 3. 13. & 9. 4.; Senec. Suas. I. So Agricola 
represents the place in which he fought with Galgacus, the General of the Caledonians, 
as terrarum ac natura jinis, Tacit. Agric. 33. 

f Now the kingdom of Prussia, the dutchies of Samogitia and Courland, the palati- 
nates of Livonia and Esthonia, still retaining the name of the ancient inhabitants. 



O o 4 



ner« 



36H Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans. 



ners resembled the Suevi> but in their language rather the 
Britons. * 

The nations on the east of the Vistula were reckoned to be 
in Sarmatia. Of these the Peuchii or Bastarna were ranked 
among the Germans, Plin. iv. 14. from the similarity of their 
manners f , Tacit. M. G. 46. 

The 

* They worshipped the mother of the gods, as Tacitus names her, (called by the 
natives Frica or Frea, supposed to be the same with Venus ; whence the name of 
Friday, {dies Veneris ;) as Sunday, from the Sun ; Monday, from the Moon; Tuesday , 
(dies Martis,) from the German god Tuisto ; Wednesday, (dies Mercurii,) from 
Woden : Thursday, (dies Jovis,) from Tbor ; and Saturday, (dies Saturni,) from Seafer. 
The Romans, from certain supposed resemblances, usually called the deities of other 
nations by the names of their own divinities. 

This people rarely used iron ; their common arms were clubs. They were more 
industrious in the cultivation of corn and the other fruits of the earth than was usual 
among the indolent Germans. They are said to have been the only people that ex- 
plored the sea for amber, (succinum,) called in their language, glesum, glese, or glass, 
lb. 45; & Plin. xxxviii. 3. which they found among the shallows, and sometimes on 
the shore. The nature and causes of this concretion were unknown to the barba- 
rians, who indeed had no curiosity to inquire, lb. nor are they yet ascertained by the 
riiost skilful naturalists. Tacitus supposes amber to be a distillation (succus, unde sued' 
nutri) from certain trees ; because a variety of insects, and even winged animals, ap- 
pear through the transparent body; which being caught by the viscous fluid, were 
inclosed in it when it hardened; so Martial, iv. 32. & 59. vi. 15. But amber has. 
been found not only on the sea-shore, but also in mines; whence it is supposed 
by some to be a fossile bitumen. This substance long lay neglected on the shore of 
the Baltic, till Roman luxury gave it a name, and brought it into request. 

Contiguous to the Suiones were the nations of the Sitones, (now the Norwegians,} 
differing in nothing from the former but in being governed by a woman ; so much, 
says Tacitus, had they not only degenerated from liberty, but even sunk below 
slavery itself, lb. 45. Here the territory of the Suevi terminated. 

The nation of the Suevi, in the time of Caesar, was by far the greatest and most 
warlike nation of the Germars. They were divided into one hundred cantons, each 
consisting of about two thousand men. Of these, one thousand was annually employed 
in war, the rest remained at home, and cultivated the ground; who in their turn next 
year went to war, and the other thousand remained at home. Thus agriculture and 
arms were equally attended to, Casar, B. G. iv. 1. It was a part of the Suevi who 
are said to have passed the Rhine under Ariovistus, lb. 1.22. 28. & 42. s. 31. 37. & 48. 
But some suppose these to have been the Catti. 

f But Tacitus speaks doubtfully of this matter, as he does of the Venedi, who 
lived near the mouth of the Vistula ; and although they derived a great many of their 
customs from the Sarmata?, yet they more resembled the Germans in building houses* 
wearing shields, and always travelling on foot; whereas the Sarmatians, on the con- 
trary, went almost always on horseback or in waggons, lb. 

North of the Venedi were the FENNI, (now Finland,) remarkable for their 
savage manners and poverty. They had neither arms nor horsts, nor any fixed 
dwelling. Their f-od was the common herbage, the skins of beasts their clothing, 
and their couch the bare earth. Their only dependence was on their arrows, 
which, for want of iron, they pointed with bones. Both men and women were sup- 
ported by hunting, in which the women accompanied the men, and claimed their 
share of the prey. Their infants had no other shelter from wild beasts and the incle- 
mency of the weather, than a covering of branches interwoven together. The same 
was the retreat of young men and the receptacle of the old. But even in this state, 
savage as it was, Tacitus thinks they were more happy than in the possession of pro- 
perty, (Securi adversus homines, securi adversus deos,rem dijficillimam assecuti stmt, ut 
Mis ne voto quidem opus esset, lb. 46.) Seneca uses similar expressions in praise of 
poverty, ep. 17. The Helusii and Oxiones, the last people mentioned by Tacitus, 
are supposed to have been the inhabitants of Lapland. They were said to have the 

f6 countenance 



Germany, 



569 



The manners of the ancient Germans, as described by Ta- 
citus and Csesar, are wonderfully similar in several respects to 

those of the savage tribes of America. It is curious to trace 

the resemblance between the manners of the ancient Germans, 
and the institutions and laws of their descendants, in the dif- 
ferent provinces of the Roman empire which they subdued. 

Modern Divisions of Germany. 

The divisions of this country having undergone very con- 
siderable changes in the lapse of ages, it is deemed proper, first, 
to give its divisions, while it subsisted as an empire, for the 
information of the reader of history ; and 3 secondly, to present a 
concise account of the present political constitution of Germany. 

This country is sometimes divided into Upper or Southern^ 
and Lower or Northern Germany. The Emperor MAXIMI- 
LIAN, predecessor and grandfather to Charles V. divided it 
into ten parts, called CIRCLES, 1552. But the circle of 
Burgundy, or the seventeen provinces, having been detached 
from the empire, there only remained nine circles ; three in the 
north, three in the middle, and three in the south : — > in the 
following order : 

1. UPPER SAXQNY comprehends, 1. Pomerania, sub- 
ject to Prussia — Chief towns, STETIN and Stralsund ; and 
the islands Usedom and Wollm, at the mouth of the Oder, and 
the island Rugen. 

2. The former electorate of Brandenburgh, subject to its 
own sovereign, the King of Prussia — BERLIN, his capital on 
the river Spree ; Brandenburgh> Frankfort on the Oder, Potsdam? 
Custrin, &c. 

3. The former electorate of Saxony, subject to its own 
sovereign, the King of Saxony — DRESDEN, on the Elbe, the 
great school of Germany for painting and statuary *j LEIPSIC, 
where the greatest fairs in Europe are kept f •, LUTZEN, near 
which Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was slain in battle, 
1632^5 WITTENBURG, where Luther preached his first 
sermon against the Pope, 15 17. 

4. Thuringia, subject to a great many different Princes, 
Dukes, and Counts — Erfurt, where there is a bell twenty-seven 

countenance of men and the limbs of wild beasts, because, as it is thought, they were,- 
covered with the hides of animals, as the Samojedes at present, and other savage 
tribes near the Frozen ocean. 

* Here also was fought a tremendous but indecisive battle between the allied 
Russian and Prussian armies and the forces of Buonaparte, May 1st, 1813. 

f A most sanguinary battle took place here between the same powers on the 28th 
August, 1 813; 

\ Here Napoleon was totally discomfited on the 16th, 18th, and 19th Oct. 1813. 

thousand 



570 



Germany. 



thousand pounds weight, and eleven yards and three quarters 
wide; Goth a ; Mansfeld ; Eisleben, where Luther was born, 
1483, and died, 1546, &c. 

II. LOWER SAXONY comprehends, 1. Holstein, sub- 
ject partly to Denmark, and partly to Russia — Kiel, Meldorpy 
Gluckstadt. Here also are two imperial cities, called Hanse 
towns; LUBEC; and HAMBURG, on the Elbe, a place of 
great trade. Both these are free cities, and members of the 
Germanic Confederation. 

2. The Duchy of Lauenburg ; of which that part, which 
is situated on the right bank of the Elbe, now belongs to Prus- 
sia : the remainder on the left bank belongs to the kingdom 
of Hanover. 

3. Brunswick, and Wolfenbuttle, subject to its own Prince. 
The King of Hanover has the title of Duke of Brunswick, 
without any property in that duchy. 

4. Hanover, formerly an electorate, subject to its sove- 
reign, the King of Great Britain — Hanover, Herrenhausen, a 
fine palace, Hameln, Gottingen, the seat of an university. 

5. Lunenburg — Zell. That part of Lunenburg which lies 
on the right bank of the Elbe belongs to Prussia ; the remain- 
der, on the left bank, belongs to the kingdom of Hanover. 

6. Bremen, a free city, and Verden, subject to Hanover — 
Stade, a strong fortification. 

7. Mecklenburg, subject to the two dukes of Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. From the latter is 
the present Queen of Great Britain. 

8. Hildesheim, subject to its own bishop. 

9 Magdeburg, and. Halberstadt, subject to the King of 
Prussia. 

III. WESTPHALIA,— Chief towns, Emden, Munster, Pa- 
derborn ; Osnaburg, the titular Bishop of which is Frederick 
Duke of York, second son to the King of Great Britain ; Mjn- 
den, near which the British and allied army, under Prince 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, defeated the French, 1st August 1759 : 
Lippe, Pyrmont, famous for its mineral waters; Cleves; Dussel- 
dorp, on the Rhine; Juliers, Aix-la-Chapelle, famous for its hot 
baths; Ham, Liege, &c. The Duchy of Westphalia belongs to 
the King of Prussia ; the remainder to various petty sovereigns. 

IV. UPPER RHINE, which cresses the Lower Rhine, con- 
tains a great many states, subject to various petty sovereigns, 
styled Landgraves, Counts, and Dukes ; besides some imperial 
cities— Cassel; Darmstadt} FRANKFORT on the Main, 
a free city, and a member of the Germanic Confederation ; 
Spire; Waldec ; Deuxponts, &c. From a protest made against 
the decree of a diet of the empire, held at Spire, 1529, by the 

Elector 



Germany. 



511 



Elector of Saxony, the Landgrave of Hesse, and others, the 
PROTESTANTS have their name. 

V. LOWER RHINE, formerly called the Electoral circle, 
comprehended four electorates, Palatine, Cologne, Mentz, and 
Triers. The capital of the Elector Palatine was Heidelburgh, 
where is a famous tun, fit to contain eight hundred hogsheads, 
which used to be generally kept full of the best Rhenish wine. 
The archbishop of Mentz was the first elector, and presided in 
the diet of the empire. Here BERTH-HOLD SCHWARTZ, 
a Franciscan friar, is said to have invented gun-powder, A. D. 
1330. Other considerable towns are Phillisburg, Manheim, 
Bonn, WORMS, where Luther was summoned to appear 
before a diet of the empire, A. D. 1521, &c. 

VI. 'FRANCONIA, subject to several petty princes, Mar- 
graves, Bishops, &c. — Chief places, Wurtzburg, Culembach 9 
Nuremburg, Merge?itheim. The Grand Duchy of Wurtzburg 
belongs to the King of Bavaria. 

VII. AUSTRIA, subject to the Emperor of Austria: 
contains the archduchy of Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola % 
Goritia, Tyrol, Brixin, and Trent. — Chief towns, VIENNA, 
N. lat. 48 — 20. E. long. 16 — 20. on the Danube, containing 
about two hundred thousand inhabitants ; Gratz ; Trieste; In- 
spruck ; Trent, where a famous council began to be heki 
1545, and was finished 1563. 

VIII. BAVARIA, formerly an electorate, subject to its own 
King, and a part of it to a few petty princes. The capital 
is MUNICH, where there is a magnificent palace, and a fine 
collection of pictures ; Landshut, Ingoltstadt, Donawert, and 
RATISBON, where the diet of the empire has usually been 
held, since Spire was burnt by the French, 16895 Passau, 
Newburg, and Saltburg. 

IX. SUABI A, subject to various sovereigns. Stuigard t 

capital of the kingdom of IV urtemberg ; Weiblingen, which 
being besieged by Conrad III. and the women being allowed by 
capitulation to depart, and carry out as much as they could on 
their shoulders, carried each of them their husbands j Baden ; 
AUGSBURG, an imperial city, where the Protestants pre- 
sented their confession of faith to the Emperor, in a diet of 
the empire, held 1530, hence called the Augsburg Confession ; 
Ulm, on the Danube; CONSTANCE, on the lake of that 
name, famous for the death of JOHN HUSS of Prague, who 
was burnt by the orders of a general council held there 1415, 
for maintaining the doctrines of Wickliffe, although he had re- 
ceived a promise of protection from the Emperor Sigismund. 
JEROME of Prague, his scholar, shared the same fate the 
following year. 

, Germany 



S72 



Germany, 



Germany is a level country, with very few mountains of 
note. It is covered in many places with wood, which is oc- 
casioned by the passion of the Germans for chasing the wild 
boar. The HERCYNIAN forest, supposed to be so called 
from the German hartz, denoting resinous or'pine trees, which, 
in the days of Csesar, was nine days' journey in length, and six 
in breadth, is now in many places cut down. 

The chief river is the DANUBE or Donau, which rises in 
the Black Forest in Suabia, and, including its windings, is sup- 
posed to run above one thousand six hundred miles. It receives 
in its progress above forty navigable rivers. The chief of these 
are, on the south, the Iller, or Iser, the Lech , the Inn, the Ens, 
the Drave, the Save, and the Morava ; on the north, the Re- 
gen, the Nab, the Theysse, the Alauta, and the Pruth. 

The Danube discharges itself into the Euxhie or Pontic sea 
by six channels, (the seventh is absorbed by marshes, Tacit. 
Mor. G. i.) According to Pliny, it sweetens the water of the 
sea for forty miles, iv. 24. 

The empire of Germany was established by CHARLES the 
Great, King of France, after his conquest of the Saxons, A. D. 
800. The imperial dignity was- possessed by a branch of his fa- 
mily for about one hundred years. It was afterwards obtained 
by different families ; and was, with little intermission, en- 
joyed by the house of Austria for more than three centuries 
and a half. 

The emperors having had occasion to borrow considerable 
sums from several cities, repaid them by granting certain in- 
digencies and immunities, whereby they became sovereign 
states. These are called Imperial cities , in number about fifty-two. 

The number of inhabitants in Germany is supposed to ex- 
ceed twenty millions. 

The number of sovereign states in Germany formerly was 
about three hundred. Every petty prince was arbitrary in his 
own territories. All these were subject to the Emperor, whose 
power in that capacity was very limited, although absolute in 
his own dominions. An assembly of the princes of Germany 
with the Emperor, or his commissioner, at their head, was 
called a diet. When the imperial throne happened to be vacant, 
a successor was chosen by nine electors. These were, the arch- 
bishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne ; the electors of Bohemia, 
Bavaria, Saxony, Brandenburg, Palatine, and Hanover. But it 
was usual, in the Emperor's lifetime, to chuse a King of the 
Romans ; who, upon the Emperor's death, succeeded him of 
course without any further election. The Emperor was ad- 
dressed by the title of Sacred Imperial Majesty always August, 
in imitation of the Roman emperors of the later ages. He 

claimed 



/ 



Germany. 



573 



claimed a precedency for his ambassadors in all Christian 
courts. 

Such was the constitution of the Germanic empire, as it 
subsisted during one thousand years, until its extinction in the 
year 1806. A confederacy, which had been formed against 
France by Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, having been 
dissolved by the complete victory obtained by Buonaparte at the 
battle of Austerlitz, fought Dec. 2,1 805, was almost immediately 
followed by the treaty of Presburg. Shortly after this, most 
of the princes and states on the southern and western divisions 
of Germany, separated themselves from the Germanic body, 
and formed themselves into a league, under the protection of 
Napoleon, with the title of the " Confederated States of the 
Rhine." The charge of chief of the Germanic empire having 
ceased by this confederation, the ties by which the Emperor 
(Francis II.) was attached to the states of Germany w r ere com- 
pletely dissolved : he therefore, by a solemn act, dated Aug. 7, 
1806, abdicated the imperial government, and absolved the 
electors, princes, and states, and all that belonged to the em- 
pire, from the duties and obligations by which they had been 
united to him as their legal chief. Two years before this 
event, Francis II. had assumed the title of Emperor of Austria 
for his independent kingdoms, and was crowned at Vienna. 

The usurped power of Buonaparte being totally annihilated 
by the events of the year 18 14, a new federative constitution 
was given to Germany by a solemn act of the sovereign princes 
and free towns of that country, executed June 8th, 18 15, and 
by the general treaty in Congress, executed at Vienna on the 
following day. Of this constitution the following is an outline. 

The sovereign princes and free towns establish among them- 
selves a perpetual confederation, to be called " the Germanic 
Confederation;" whose object is the maintenance of the external 
and internal safety of Germany, and of the independence and 
inviolability of the confederated states. The members of the 
confederation, as such, are equal in respect to rights ; and they 
all equally engage to support the act which constitutes their 
union. The affairs of the confederation are to be confided to a 
federative diet, in which all the members shall vote by their 
plenipotentiaries, either individually or collectively, in the fol- 
lowing proportions, viz. His Imperial and Apostolical Majesty 
the Emperor of Austria (for such of his possessions as anciently 
belonged to the German empire) has 1 vote; the King of 
Prussia (on the same account also), 1 ; the King of Bavaria, 1 ; 
the King of Saxony, 1 ; the King of Hanover, 1 ; the King of 
Wurtemburg, 1 ; the Grand Duke of Baden, 1 ; the Elector 
of Hesse, 1 ; the Grand Duke of Hesse, 1 ; the King of 

Denmark, 



Germany, 



Denmark, for the Duchy of Holstein, i ; the King of the 
Netherlands, for the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, i; the Grand 
Ducal and Ducal Houses of Saxony, i ; the Dukes of Bruns- 
wick and Nassau, i ; the Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, I j the Duke of Holstein-Oldenburg, 
Duke of Anhalt, and Princes of Schwartzburg, x ; the Prince 
and Duke of Hohenzollern, and the Princes of Lichtenstein, 
Reuss, Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck, i ; the Free 
Towns of Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg, i*, 
total 17 votes. 

Austria is to preside at the federative diet ; each state of the 
confederation has the right of making propositions, and the 
presiding state is to bring them under deliberation within a 
definite time. Whenever fundamental laws are to be enacted, 
or changes made in the fundamental laws of the confederation, 
or measures are to be adopted relative to the federative act itself, 
and organic institutions or other arrangements are to be made 
for the common interest, the diet is in such case to form itself 
into a general assembly, in which case the distribution of votes 
is to be according to the respective extent of the different states. 
Thus Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hanover, and Wur- 
temburgh, will have 4 votes each Baden, Electoral Hesse, 
Grand Ducal Hesse, Holstein, and Luxemburg, 3 each ; Bruns- 
wick, Mecklenburg- Schwerin, and Nassau, 2 each; the re- 
maining princes and states, twenty-five in number, (including 
the free towns of Lubeck, Bremen, Frankfort, and Hamburgh,) 
have 1 vote each ; total 69 votes. Various other regulations 
have been made for conducting the business of the Diet, and 
securing the peace and tranquillity of the entire confederation, 
as well as of the various individual states and kingdoms of 
which it is composed. 

The different Christian sects, in the countries and territories 
of the Germanic confederation, are not to experience any dif- 
ference in the enjoyment of their civil and political rights. The 
Diet is to consider the means of ameliorating the civil state of 
the Jews in Germany 5 and also to secure to them the enjoy- 
ment of their civil rights in the confederated states, upon 
condition of their submitting to all the obligations imposed on 
other citizens. In the mean time, the privileges already granted 
to the Jews, by any particular state, are continued to them. 
Germany is pretty equally divided between Papists and 
Protestants. Of the latter the greater number are Lutherans, 
The King of Prussia, the Landgrave of Hesse, and some others, 
are Calvifiists, 

The LUTHERANS have bishops and superintendants for 
the government of the church ; the CALVINIST Clergy are 
all equal, and govern their churches by presbyteries, where lay- 
elders 



I}ohemia, 



575 



elders are admitted ; whence with us they are called Presbyte- 
rians. But the chief differences between these two churches is 
that the Lutherans believe in what is called consubstantiation, 
and the Calvinists do not. *' 

BOHEMIA. 

BOHEMIA was anciently included in Germany, under the 
name of Boiemum or Boiohemum> so called from the Boji, a 
Gallic nation, who settled in it. They being expelled by 
the Marcomanni, seized on the west of Vindelicia> hence called 
Bavaria. The Marcomanni were displaced by the Boiohemi^ a 
tribe of Sclavonians, who still possess it. It remained long a 
separate kingdom ; and the nobility used to elect their own 
princes ; till at last it fell under the dominion of the house of 
Austria, whence it is sometimes ranked in Germany. Bohe- 
mia is bounded on the north by Saxony ; on the east by Po- 
land and Hungary ; on the south by Austria and Bavaria, and 
on the west by the palatinate of Bavaria. It is 300 miles long, 
250 broad; between 48 and 52 deg. N. lat. and 12 and 19 
deg. E. long. 

It comprehends, 1. Bohemia Proper, mostly subject to 

the house of Austria. Towns, Prague a large city on the 

river Muldau, which runs into the Elbe, over which there is a 
magnificent bridge 1850 feet long and 34 broad, consisting of 16 
arches ; Koningsgratz ; Tabor > famous for being the head- 
quarters of the Hussites * under Zisca. 

2. Silesia, 

* The Lutherans believe, that the sacramental elements, instead of being changed 
after the words of consecration into the real body and blood of our Saviour, according 
to the doctrine of the Roman Catholics, called TRANSUB5TANTIATION, still 
retain the nature of bread and wine, but, at the same time, in a mysterious manner, 
also partake of the substance of Christ's body, or are consubstantiatcd with it; whereas 
the Calvinists maintain, that the bread and wine are only symbolical representations 
of the body and blood of our Saviour. The intolerance of the church of Rome with 
respect to this and other such abstruse doctrines occasioned, in Germany and other 
parts of Europe, for several centuries, the most dreadful scenes of cruelty and 
massacre. 

* The Bohemians, enraged upon hearing of the cruel death perfidiously inflicted on 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague at Constance, see p. 571. and of the Emperor's se- 
vere decrees against their followers, flew to arms, and murdered the magistrates of 
Prague, who had published the royal mandates. They chose for their leader John 
Trautenaw, commonly called ZISCA, because he had but one eye, having lost 
the other in battle. He conducted the war with astonishing conduct and success, de- 
feating with great slaughter all the armies sent against him. He encamped his men on 
a rocky mountain, about ten miles from Prague, and fortified it with a wall, within, 
which the people built houses. To this place he gave the name of Tabor, in allusion 
to the mount of transfiguration. Zisca had the misfortune to lose also his other eye; 
but notwithstanding continued still to command the army for five years. At last, 
while going to meet the Emperor, who offered to give him his own terms, he was 

seized 



576 Hungary, 

2. SiLESfrA, mostly subject to the King of Prussia -It? 

chief towns are, Breslau ; Glogaiv. 

3. Moravia, entirely subject to the house of Austria. 

Its chief towns are, Ohnutz ; Brunn. 

HUNGARY. 

HUNGARY is bounded on the north by Poland on the 
east by Transylvania on the south by Sclavonia ; on the 
west by Austria and Moravia ; about 300 miles in length, and 
200 in breadth; between 17 and 23 E. Ion. and 45 and 49* 
N. lat. 

It was anciently called PANNONIA, divided into Superior 
and Inferior. — The chief town was Sirmium, at the conflu- 
ence of Savus, the Save, and Bacuntius, the Bosna. It obtain- 
ed its present name from the HUNS, who settled in it. It 
formerly comprehended several other states, as Transylvania, 
Zclavonia, &c. The crown used to be elective, till the year 
1526, when Lewis, King of Hungary, being slain in a battle 
against the Turks, FERDINAND, the brother of Charles V. 
and afterwards Emperor of Germany, having married the sister 
of Lewis, with some difficulty obtained the kingdom of Hun- 
gary ; and it has ever since been held by the house of Austria. 

The chief towns are, Presburg ; Buda, famous for its hot 
baths ; and Pest, all on the Danube ; Tokay, famous for its wine, 
at the confluence of the Teisse and Bodruc ; Raab, on a river 
of the same name. 

Hungary is separated from Poland by the Carpathian moun- 
tains, anciently Mons Carpates. There are besides many de- 
tached mountains in this country very high, as the Benikova, 
six thousand two hundred feet perpendicular height, the Gra- 
pach, &c. 

seized with a dangerous disease from infection. Perceiving his end approaching, when 
his friends asked in what manner he wished to be buried, he is said to have desired them 
to leave his body in the open fields, because he chose that it should be the food of birds 
rather than of worms ; and to make a drum of his skin, that the sound of it might 
strike their enemies with terror. The inhabitants of Tabor erected for him a noble 
monument, with a suitable epitaph, and put up his picture at the gate of the city. 

After the death of Zisca, the Hussites, or as they called themselves, the Taboritesy 
chose PROCOPIUS, a priest, for his successor; who for a long time carried on th&- 
war with still greater success than Zisca, spreading his ravages over most of the 
neighbouring countries. Among the rest he defeated jfulian, a warlike cardinal, who 
by the order of Pope Martin the Vth, led against Procopius an army of 80,000 cru- 
saders, furnished by different princes, a. 1431. At last, however, discord having 
arisen among these enthusiasts, through their own imprudence and the arts of their 
enemies, Procopius was defeated an'd slain, and the Hussites in a manner entirely ex- 
tirpated. The most shocking cruelties were committed on both sides during the con- 
tinuation of this struggle. 

POLAND. 



Poland, 



577 



POLAND. 

F3L AND is bounded on the north by the Baltic and Russia ^ 
on the east by Russia and Little Tartary on the south by 
Turkey and Hungary ; and on the west by Germany 700 miles 
in length, and 680 in breadth*, between 46 and 57°N. lat. 
and 16 and 34 E. long. 

The chief provinces are, on the south, Volhinia, Padolia, 
Red Russia ; in the middle, Little Poland, Great Poland, 
Polesia, Polachia, &c. *, in the north, Polish or Royal Prussia, 
Ducal Prussia, subject to the King of Prussia ; and Courland, 
subject to Russia. 

The chief cities are WARSAW, the capital of a Duchy of 
the same name, N. lat. 52 15'. E. long. 21 5'. Cracow *, and 
Gnesna ; Dantzic, Thorn, and Elbing, in Prussia Royal, for- 
merly were free cities, under the protection of Poland, but some 
years since were seized by the King of Prussia, to whom they 
have been confirmed by treaty. 

The rivers are, the Dwina or Dunn ; the Wilna, joined by 
the Berezina or Russ ; the Wiesel or Vistula ; the Warta, which, 
falls into the Oder ; the Dnieper, joined by the Bog, anciently 
HypMnis ; and the Niester. 

Poland is in general a level country, and exceedingly fertile 
both in corn and pasture. 

The government of Poland (before its final dismemberment 
in 1795) was an elective monarchy, the only one in Eu- 
rope. The King was elected by the clergy and nobility 
in the plains of Warsaw. Pie lived in great splendour, but 
his authority was very limited. The grandees had the ab- 
solute disposal of the lives and properties of their vassals. The 
last King was Stanislaus. Augustus, chosen 6th September 
1764, formerly Count Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman. 

The established religion was Popery. There were two arch- 
bishopricks, Genesna and Leopold ; and 13 bishopricks. The 
Protestants here called Dissidents, being harshly treated by the 
Catholics, applied to Russia for protection ; whereupon the 
Catholics, who got the name of Confederates, solicited the assist- 
ance of the Turks. The contest between these two powers 
involved Poland in the greatest calamities, and was terminated 
by the dismemberment of the .kingdom. The Russians being 
finally victorious over the Turks, the Empress of Russia, the 
Emperor of Germany, and the King of Prussia, agreed to share 

* By the treaty of Vienna, Cracow with its territory is declared to be for ever a 
free, independent, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia ; and its neutrality and liberty of commerce are solemnly guaranteed. 

P p among 

■ 



Russia, or Muscovy, 



among themselves some of the finest provinces of this unhappy 
country. After another partition of an extensive territory be- 
tween the Empress of R ussia and the King of Prussia, the remains 
of this kingdom were possessed by these powers in 17955 and 
Poland no longer existed as a separate state. A further par- 
tition of this country took place, in consequence of the general 
treaty at Vienna, executed June 9. 18 15 : by which part of # 
the Duchy of Warsaw was ceded to the Emperor of Russia, 
with the title of King of Poland the remainder of the Dutchy 
was ceded to the King of Prussia, under the title of the Grand 
Duchy of Posen. And the salt mines of Wielizka, with the 
territory belonging to them, and also some parts of the ancient 
province of Gallicia, were ceded to the Emperor of Austria. A 
clause was added, that the Poles, who are the respective sub- 
jects of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, should obtain a repre- 
sentation and national institutions, regulated according to the 
degree of political consideration, that each of the governments 
to which they belong, shall judge expedient and proper to 
grant them. 

DUCAL PRUSSIA was formerly subject to the German 
knights of the Teutonic Order, who conquered it in the 13th 
century. ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg, who was 
Grand Master when the Reformation was begun by Luther, 
having embraced that persuasion, had the address to secure this 
province to himself, with the title of Duke. His successors, 
being men of great abilities, gradually enlarged their territories. 
In the year 1701, Frederick, son to FREDERICK WILLIAM 
deservedly called the Great> was decorated with the title af 
King by the Emperor Leopold ; but supported that dignity only 
by pompous dissipation. His son Frederick William, who suc- 
ceeded, 17 13, was of a very different character ; and his grand- 
son FREDERICK III. the late King of Prussia, who succeeded 
in 1740, by his eminent talents raised himself to be one of the 
most powerful princes in Europe, and by his wonderful mili- 
tary exploits, may be compared to the most illustrious warriors 
of antiquity. 



RUSSIA, or MUSCOVY. 

THIS vast empire extends from the Baltic and Sweden to 
Kamschatka and the Eastern ocean in Asia. It is bounded 
on the north by the frozen ocean, and on the south by Poland, 
Little Tartary, Turkey, Georgia, the Euxine and Caspian seas, 
Great Tartary, Chinese Tartary, and other unknown regions 
in Asia. 



Russia, or Muscovy, 



519 



It is of greater extent than all the rest of Europe, and even 
exceeds the limits of the greatest empires of antiquity. When 
it is noon-day in its western parts, it is almost midnight in its 
eastern parts. In the south, the longest day does not exceed 
fifteen hours and a half j in the north, the sun is visible for two 
months. The part contained in Europe is 1 500 miles in length, 
and ! 100 in breadth ; between 47 and 7 2° N. lat. and 23 and 
65 E. Ion. It comprehends a great number of different pro- 
vinces, which have been divided into various governments. 

The chief provinces and governments are : in the north, part 
of Lapland ; Samoieda, or the country of the Samoiedes, ex- 
tending from the White Sea, along the northern ocean, an im- 
mense way, separated from Nova Zembla by the Waygat Straits, 
included in the government of Archangel, which city stands 
near the mouth of the Dwina, four miles from the White Sea. 
The English first opened a trade with it, 1553. The extent 
of Nova Zembla is unknown, as mariners have been prevented, 
by fields of ice, from sailing to the north of it. 

In the middle, Carelia, Ingria, Esthionia, Livonia, countries 
conquered from Sweden ; the Governments of Novogorod, 
Smolenski, Moscow, Jarislaw, Wologda, Galiczkow, Wiataka, 
Kasan, Solokamskoi, &c. 

In the south, the government of Kiow or KiofF, in the Ukrain, 
the country of the Cossacks, along the Nieper, remarkably fer- 
tile ; Bielogorod, Woronesh, &c. 

Most of these provinces and governments have capitals of the 
same name. MOSCOW, on the river Moskwa,was anciently the 
capital of Russia, celebrated for its magnificence, and the number 
of its great bells, of which the Russians have always been fond. 

PETERSBURG, the present capital, consisted only of a 
few fishing huts, till the year 1703, when it was founded by 
Peter the Great. It stands on swampy ground, on both sides 
of the river Neva, extending six miles every way, between the 
lake Ladoga, and the Finland Gulf. As the Neva is not in 
all places of a proper depth, merchant ships are commonly 
cleared at Cronstadt, on the island Retusari, in the Finland 
Gulf, where the Russian fleet is usually laid up. In the neigh- 
bourhood of Petersburg are several magnificent palaces, PeterhofF, 
an imperial seat; Oranienbaum, built by Prince Mentzikoff, &c. 

Noteburg, at present Slusselburg, situate on an island in the . 
lake Ladoga, was the capital of Ingria before the building of 
Petersburg. 

In Carelia are, Wiburg, Fredericsham, and Kexholm. In 
Livonia is Riga, at the mouth of the Duna or Dwina, a city 
of considerable trade ; Dort ; Revel ; and Nerva, on a river of 
the same name, near which Charles XII. of Sweden, with 
20,000 men, gained a signal victory over 100,000 Russians, 

P p 2 1700. 



580 



Russia, or Muscovy. 



1700. In the Ukraine, south-east of Kiow or Kiof, is PUL- 
TOW A, on the river Worskla, celebrated for the decisive vie- 
tory gained by Peter the Great over Charles XII. of Sweden, 
27th June 1709. 

The principal river in Russia is the WOLGA, one of the 
largest in the world. After a course of above 2000 miles, in 
which there is not a single cataract, it falls into the Caspian Sea 
below Astracan. It approaches so near the Don, that Czar Pe- 
ter proposed forming a communication between them : but this 
noble project was defeated by the irruption of the Tartars and 
it has never since been resumed. The Nieper has a great many 
water- falls, which prevent its navigation. 

The most considerable lakes in this country are Ladoga, 150 
miles long, and 90 broad j subject to storms, which produce 
shelves in it j joined to the sea by a canal 70 miles in length, 
cut by Peter the Great at an immense expence : Onega, 100 
miles long, and 40 broad, which has a communication with La- 
doga by the river Swir, and with the White Sea, by a channel 
lately cut : the White Lake, Ilmen Lake, Worsero, and Pepus. 

In this empire are supposed to have been situate the Montes 
Riphai and Hyperborei of the ancients ; but their situation is 
uncertain. 

The number of inhabitants in Russia is by no means propor- 
tioned to its extent. They are computed at twenty-four mil- 
lions. Before the days of PETER the GREAT, the Russians 
were little better than savages. That illustrious prince, by the 
native force of his own genius alone, for he had received but 
an indifferent education, produced an astonishing change. Hav- 
ing committed the management of his affairs to La Forte, a 
Genevan, and General Gordon, a Scotsman, he travelled in dis- 
guise through several countries of Europe, to learn their arts 
and improvements. He left Moscow in April 1697, and did 
not return till September 1698. At Saardam and Deptford, 
he worked as a common carpenter, to acquire the knowledge 
of ship-building. Since his time, this empire has made wonder- 
ful progress, not only in power and opulence, but in every kind 
of improvement. Peter left the crown to his Empress Cathe- 
rine, a native of Livonia, whom he had raised to that dignit 
from being the wife of a Swedish corporal, and a captive. Princ 
Mentzikoff, his chief favourite, and one of his best generals, ha 
been in his youth a pastry-cook. The late Empress of Russi 
Catherine II. succeeded in 1762, upon the deposition and deat 
of her husband Peter III. formerly Duke of Holstein. Sh 
died in 1 796, and was succeeded by her son Paul I.5 who havin 
died suddenly, in the night between the 1 ith and 12th of March 
old stile, A. 1801, was succeeded by his son Alexander, now 
Emperor of Russia, 

Christianity 



Sweden, 



581 



Christianity was introduced into Russia about the end of the 
tenth century, by the zeal of a princess, as it had been formerly 
into France and Britain. The Russian church used to be sub- 
ject to the patriarch of Constantinople ; but about the end of 
the sixteenth century, it had an independent patriarch of its 
own. This office Peter abolished, on account of its exorbitant 
power. All religious matters are now under the direction of a 
council, called the Holy Synod. Besides archbishops and bishops, 
there are two metropolitans, the one residing at KiofF, and the 
other at Tobolski. Although the Russians disclaim image- 
worship, their churches are full of the pictures of saints ; and in 
their private devotions they kneel before some image, They 
retain many other superstitious and idolatrous customs, such as 
bowing and crossing themselves when they pass by a church, 
and prostrating themselves at the entrance. Even the ringing 
of bells is considered as an act of devotion. Divine service is per- 
formed in the Sclavonic tongue, which, as it differs much from 
the modern Russian language, is only understood by the clergy. 

The professors of all religions are tolerated, Jews and Jesuits 
excepted : a great number of the Russian subjects are Mahome- 
tans and Pagans. 



SWEDEN. 

SWEDEN is bounded by Danish or Norwegian Lapland on 
the North; by Russia on the east { by the Baltic on the 
south; by the Sound, the Scaggerac Sea or Cattegat, and the 
Dofrine mountains, on the west: 800 miles in length, and 500 
in breadth ; between 56 and 69 N. lat. and 10 and 35°E. long. 

The principal divisions are, Schonen — chief town, Lunden: 
Gothland — Gottenburg, Norcoping, Christianstadt, Calmar : 
Sweden Proper — Stockholm*, N. lat. 59° 20' ; E. long. 19 
30'; Upsal, an archbishop's see : West Bothnia, and part of 
Lapland ; East Bothnia, subject to Russia ; and part of Fin- 
land—Abo, Nystad, Cajenburg, Uma, Torne.f 

The islands in the Baltic belonging to Sweden are, Aland, 
Gothland, Oeland, and Rugen. 

Sweden, in general, is a cold, barren, mountainous country. 
It abounds with lakes and torrents, but has few navigable rivers, 

_ * Stockholm is built on each side of the influx of the lake Mellor, into the Bal- 
tic, and on an island in that influx or streight. The island is properly the city 
and the buildings, on each side, the suburbs, which have communications with the 
city by two long wooden bridges ; on one of which are the butcher's slaughter houses 
and shambles, and on the other, the fish market. These markets are kept clean by 
water pumped up from below, and the strong current carries off" compUcelv all filth, 
f Norway and Danish Lapland have lately been ceded to Sweden. 

Pp 3 and 



582 



Sweden* 



and these are frozen up for four or five months in the year, as 
is likewise the Baltic. The chief wealth of Sweden arises from 
its mines of silver, copper, lead, and iron. 

The Swedes were anciently free, and their King elective. 
In 1397, the crowns of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were 
united by Margaret, daughter of Waldemar, Queen of Den- 
mark, sirnamed the Semiramis of the North. Christiern one of 
her successors, wishing to become absolute in Sweden, by the 
assistance of Trollo, Archbishop of Upsal and Primate of Swe- 
den, formed a plot for massacring the principal nobility, who 
opposed his views ; which inhuman design was executed at 
Stockholm, 8th November 1520. Sweden was delivered from 
his tyranny by GUSTAVUS VASA, descended from the an- 
cient royal family, who, having escaped from prison, had taken 
refuge in the mountains of Dalecarlia. Christiern was deposed 
by his own subjects for his cruelty, 1523. Under Gustavus 
Vasa the Protestant religion was introduced into Sweden, as it 
was taught by Luther. Vasa died 1559. 

His grandson GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, and the fourth 
in order of succession from him, by his great abilities and noble 
exploits filled all Europe with his renown. Being set at the 
head of the Protestant confederacy in Germany, he defeated 
the Imperial troops in repeated engagements, in one of which 
the famous Austrian general Count Tilly was slain. But in the 
midst of his successes, Gustavus was killed in battle fighting 
against Walstein, the successor of Tilly, on the plain of Lutzen, 
15th November 1632, aged only thirty-seven. His lieutenant- 
general, however, Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, gained 
a complete victory. The war was continued with great success 
by Sweden and the Protestants in Germany, aided by France, 
under the famous generals Bernard, Bannier, Torstenson, 
Wrangel, and others, all trained under Gustavus, till it was 
finally terminated by the celebrated treaty of Westphalia, 24th 
October 1648 \ by which the Protestant religion and the liber^ 
ties of Germany were established on a solid basis. The affairs 
of Sweden were conducted by Chancellor Oxenstiern, a man 
of great sagacity, during the minority of CHRISTINA, the 
only child of Gustavus, who was only six years of age at her 
father's death. This capricious Queen, from a passion for let- 
ters, resigned the crown to her cousin Charles Adolphus son to 
the Duke of Deux-Ponts, 1654 ; and, embracing the Catholic 
religion, retired to Rome, where she was not treated with that 
deference she expected. She died 1689. 

Charles XL the son of Charles Adolphus, oppressed the liber- 
ties of Sweden, and made himself absolute. CHARLES XII. 
his son, who succeeded 1697, aged 15, was one of the most 
distinguished warriors of modern times. At an early period of 

life, 



Norway and Lapland. 



583 



life, he performed wonderful exploits against the Danes, the 
Poles, and the Russians, who had all combined to crush him. 
Laying siege to Copenhagen, he forced the King of Denmark 
to accept a peace ; he deposed Augustus King of Poland, 1702 5 
but afterwards madly attempting to dethrone Czar Peter, he 
was completely defeated by him at Pultowa, 1709, Upon this 
Charles took refuge in Turkey, where he remained for five 
years. Being ordered to depart from that country, with a fran- 
tic boldness he attempted, at Bender, with 300 Swedes, to de- 
fend himself against 30,000 Turks. Having at last returned 
to Sweden, he resumed the war against Denmark. He was 
killed by a musket shot at the siege of Frederickshall, a frontier- 
town of Norway belonging to the Danes, 17 18, aged thirty-six. 
After his death, the Swedes recovered their former liberty ; 
but Were deprived of it, by the address of their late King, Gus- 
tavus. This change took place 19th August 1772. 

Gustavus was assassinated in 1792, and succeeded by his son 
Gustavus IV. At present Sweden is governed by Bernadotte, 
who has been appointed heir to the crown. 

NORWAY and LAPLAND. 

NORWAY, called Norgie by the natives, is divided into 
four governments, Christiana, Christiansand, Bergen, and 
Drontheim, so called from cities of the same name. 

Norway and Danish Lapland have been lately ceded to 
Sweden ; and a part of Swedish Lapland was conquered by 
Russia. Norway continues to be governed by its own laws. 

This is one of the most mountainous countries in the world. 
A chain of mountains extends between Norway and Sweden 
above 800 miles. Some of the ridges are esteemed the highest 
ground in Europe. These are called Hardanger, sixty miles 
over ; Filefield, Dolrefield, &c. At the foot of several of these 
mountains are caverns of a prodigious extent. 

On the north coast of Norway, in lat. 68, is that dreadful 
vortex, called the Malestrom or Moskoestrom, from the ad- 
joining island Moskoe, which swallows up every thing that 
comes near it. The noise of it is heard at a great distance 
and its attraction is said sometimes to reach more than six Eng- 
lish miles. At the turn of ebb and flow, the water, for a short 
time, becomes still. 

The Norwegian seas are said to contain various monsters; 
some of them of an incredible size. The sea-serpent is above 100 
feet long ; the kraken or korven is reported to be a mile and an half 
in circumference. But what is related concerning it, and concern- 
ing the mermen, and merwomen or mermaids, is fabulous. 

P p 4 The 



Denmark, 



The most remarkable cape is at the bottom of the Cattegat, or 
Scaggerac Sea, called the Nase of Norway, 

LAPLAND is very thinly peopled. The inhabitants are of 
low stature and mostly Heathens. They live chiefly by fishing 
and hunting. In this country is produced the rein-deer, a most 
useful animal, and of surprising speed in travelling. 

The only place worth notice is Wardhus, an old fort and 
harbour, with a few houses, in a small island of the same name, 
about one hundred miles east from North Cape, N. lat. 71 55'. 

DENMARK. 

THE dominions of Denmark consist of Denmark Proper, 
Iceland, Greenland, the Faro islands, and the Duchy of 
Holstein in Germany. 

DENMARK PROPER consists of the peninsula of Jutland, 
and the islands at the entrance of the Baltic ; Zealand, between 
the Sound and the Greater Belt \ Funen between the two Belts y 
and several other lesser islands, Langland, Laland, Falster, 
Mona, Femeren, and Alsen. 

Jutland — Chief towns, Alburg, situate on the gulf of 
Limburg ; Wiburg, Arhusen, Scanderbourg, Ripen, Fredericia. 
The south part of Jutland is called the duchy of Slyswick. 

Zealand — Copenhagen, 55-30 N. lat. 13 E. Ion. Elsi- 
nore, where all the ships which enter the Baltic pay toll. 

Other cities of note are, Koningsberg, famous for its silver 
mines, which were first discovered 1623 ; Frederickshall 5. 
Frederickstadt ; Arndal, situate on a rock in the river Nid, &c. 

ICELAND is situate between 63 and 66° 30' N. lat. and 12 
and 27 e W. Ion. about 400 miles long, and 180 broad. The 
chief town is Scalholt. The inhabitants are supposed to be 
about 80,000, most of them Christians, but some Heathens. 

The most remarkable thing in this island is Mount HECLA, 
which, although covered with snow, is always throwing up 
flames of sulphur, and torrents of boiling water, which renders 
it unsafe to approach it. 

GREENLAND is divided into East Greenland and West 
Greenland. 

The extent of this country is unknown, as mariners have been 
prevented from sailing beyond the 80 or 81 deg. of N. lat. by 
mountains of ice ; nor is it agreed to which quarter of the 
v/orld it belongs. 

East Greenland, called also Spitsbergen, from its rocky 
coasts, was first discovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby, in 1553. 
It is quite unhabited, although some Europeans, who were 
accidently left here, made a shift to preserve themselves through 

the 



Denmark. 



585 



the winter. In the summer-season the Dutch and English carry 
on the whale fishery on its coasts. 

West Greenland, which extends from 60 to 75 deg. N. 
lat. is inhabited by a wild sort of people, to the number of 7000, 
who in summer employ themselves in fishing and hunting; and 
in winter live in small huts, which are dug to a great depth 
below ground, and raised only a little above the surface. 

The straits betwixt Greenland and North America, are called 
Davis's Straits, from Captain Davis, an Englishman, who first 
sailed through those seas, 1585. 

The FARO or FERRO ISLANDS, are so called from their 
lying in a cluster, and the inhabitants ferrying from one island 
to another. They are 22 in number, of small extent, N. lat. 64 
deg. W. long. 7 deg. between Iceland and the Shetland islands ; 
and occupy in a direction from north to south, 67 miles, and 
extend in breadth from east to west 45 miles. The inhabitants 
are computed to amount to about 5000. 

From Denmark and the north of Germany issued those 
swarms of barbarians, who, for several ages, under the name o£ 
Danes and Normans, ravaged the different countries of Europe* 

The regal dignity in Denmark was at first elective ; but in 
process of time, to prevent the horrible ravages of civil wars 5 
it became hereditary in the present family. The powers of the 
crown, however, were very limited. The common people,, 
being oppressed by the nobles, at the instigation of the clergy 3 
put themselves under the protection of the king ; and, ac- 
cording to a preconcerted plan, made a solemn surrender of their 
liberties to Frederick III. at Copenhagen, 1660. He accepted 
their tender ; and the nobility were obliged to confirm what the 
common people had done. Frederick and his successors have 
used the absolute power vested in them with great moderation. 

The established religion in Denmark is the Lutheran, which 
was introduced by Christian III. 1533. The office of bishops here«> 
is only to superintend the inferior clergy, without any other mark 
of pre-eminence than a distinction of their ecclesiastical dress. 



ASIA. 

ASIA is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean ; on 
the west by Europe and Africa ; on the south by the Indian 
Ocean ; and on the east by the Pacific Ocean, or great South 
Sea, which separates it from America: Extending 4740 miles 
from east to west, between 25 and 180 deg. E. Ion. and 4380 
from north to south, between the equator and 80 deg. N. lat. 

t 3 The 



£86 



Asia, 



The chief seas, gulfs, and straits of Asia are : 

On the Northern Ocean, the Gulf of the Icy Sea on the south- 
east coast of Nova Zembla ; and the Gulf of Obi or Obskaia. 

On the west, the Caspian Sea *, Mare Caspium or Hyrca- 
num ; part of the Mediterranean ; Sinus Arabicus, or Mare Ru- 
brum, the Red Sea ; and the Straits of Babelmandel. 

On the south, the Arabian Sea, anciently Mare Erythraum 
Gjulf of Persia and Gulf of Ormus ; Gulf of Sindi ; Gulf of 
Cambaya ; Bay of Bengal % Straits of Majacca and Sincapora ; 
Straits of Sunda ; Gulf of Siam ; China Sea. 

On the east, the Gulf of Tonchin or Cochin China ; Bay of 
Canton ; Gulf of Nanking ; Yellow Sea, near Peking ; Gulf 
of Corea, between Corea and the islands of Japan ; Sea of 
Ochozk or Lama ; Sea of Kamschatka, &c. 

The chief rivers are, the Euphrates and Tigris, which run into 
the Persian Gulf ; the Indus, which runs into the Indian Ocean 
and the Ganges, which runs into the Gulf of Bengal the laxartes 
and Oocus, which anciently ran into the Caspian Sea, but now 
run into a great lake called Aral, east of the Caspian Seaf. 
The other great rivers of Asia were unknown to the ancients ; the 
Burrampooter, the Ava or Menamkiou, the Menan, Mecon, and 
Domea, in India beyond the Ganges ; the Kiarn or Blue River, 
and the Whamho, Crocceus or Yellow River, in China ; the 
Argun, and Yamour, which separate Chinese and Russian Tar- 
tary ; the Oby, Genesa or Jenisca, and the Lena, which run 
into the Northern Ocean. 

The chief mountains in Asia are Caucasus, between the Euxine 
and Caspian Seas; Taurus, Antitaurus, and Imaus, connected 
together, and extending the whole length of Asia, from the Me- 
diterranean to the Eastern Ocean. 



ASIA ANTIQUA. 

THE great divisions were, Asia Minor ; Colchis, Iberia, 
and Albania ; Armenia ; Syria - Arabia ; Babyloniay and 

* The Caspian Sea was thought by most of the ancients to be joined with the Nor- 
thern Ocean by a narrow strait ; which erroneous opinion was originally caused by Pa- 
trocles, the commander of the Macedonian fleet, who supposed the mouth of the Rha 
or Wolga to be a narrow strait, communicating with the Scythian or Northern Ocean, 
Strab. xi. p. 507. Plin. 2. 67. 6. 13. s. 15. et ibi Harduin. 

f The course of the Oxus and laxartes are supposed to have been diverted into 
this lake by the Tartars. The notions of the ancients concerning the course 
of these rivers, as concerning the Caspian Sea, were very uncertain. Strab. xi. 
509. 517. Ik 518. Alexander and his men took the laxartes for the Tanais }> iVm. vi. 
16. s. 18. Hence it is so called by Q. CurtitiSjvii. 6. 13. & 7. I. and by Arrian,iv. 
15. See also Strabo, xi. 510. Herodotus is thought to have described the laxartes, 
.under the name of the Araxes > i. 20a.; but this cannot be the case in iv. 40- 

Chaldaa ; 



Asia Antiqua, 



Chald&a; Mesopotamia : Assyria; Media; Persia, and Su liana s 
Parthia, Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, isfc.; India; Scythia. 

ASIA MINOR is a name which does not occur in the Clas- 
sics, but first took place in the middle ages. It is now called 
Natolia or Anatolia, because it lies east from Constantinople. 
The Romans divided it into Asia cis or intra Taurum, and Asia 
ultra or extra Taurum*, Liv. xxxvii. 45. xxxviii. 39. 

The chief parts of Asia Minor were, Mysia, Troas, iEolis, 
Ionia, Lydia, Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia and Pisidia, Isauria and 
Lycaonia, Cilicia, Cappadocia and Armenia Minor, Pontus, Paph- 
lagonia, Bithynia, Galatia or Gallogracia, and Phrygia Magna. 

I. MYSIA, divided into Minor and Major. The first lay 
along the Hellespont ; hence part of it is called HELLESPON- 

TUS.- Chief towns, Cyzicus, or -urn, people Cyziceni 9 

situate in a cognominal island of the Propontis, joined to the 
continent by two bridges, rendered famous by the siege of Mi- 
thridates, which was raised by Lucullus near this is the river 
Granlcus, where Alexander first defeated the Persians, and 
Lucullus cut to pieces the army of Mithridates ; north of it the 
river JEsopus., the boundary of this province \ south of it Lamp- 
sacus ; the people, Lampsaceni. 

Mysia Major was intermingled with the two following divi- 
sions, which it anciently included. 

II. TROAS, or Phrygia Minor. TRO J A or Ilium, near 

the mouth of the river Scamander or Xanthus, below its junc- 
tion with the Simois. These are torrents which flow from 
Mount Ida, and are said to have been drunk up by the army 
of Xerxes. On the sea stood Rh&teum, where was the tomb 
of Ajax, and Sigeum, where was the tomb of Achilles, both 
situate on promontories of the same name ; opposite to which is 
the island Tenedos. On the Jhymbris, a small river which runs into 
the Scamander, stood Thymbra, famous for the temple of Apollo, 
hence called Thymbraus ; in which Achilles was slain by Paris. 

Opposite to the north of the island Lesbos is the promontory 
Lectum ; south of which stood Antandros, and Adramyttium, on 
a bay of the same name ; Campus Thebes, celebrated by Homer, 
and Lyrnessus, the country of Briseis, the mistress of Achilles ; 
all in Mysia Major. In this and the neighbouring countries 
dwelt the Leleges. 

III. JEOLIA, or Molis, between the rivers Catcus and Her- 
mus, peopled by the iEolian Greeks from iEtolia. Taken at 

large it includes the two former divisions. The chief towns 

were Elea ; Grynium, where was an oracle of Apollo, hence 

* Herodotus calls Asia cis vel intra Taurttm, Asia within the river Halys, i. 2%. 
So Strabo, xii. iniU xvii. Jin. Asia when put for a province comprehended only the 
countries along the Propontis and the JEgean Sea, Cic.Flacc. 27. 

called 



sss 



Asia Antiqaa. 



called Gryn^us, Virg. JEn. iv. 345. ; Cana, or on a pro- 
montory of the same name ; Cyme ; Larissa ; Temnosy &c. 

IV. IONIA, likewise peopled by Greeks, containing twelve 

cities. Phoczea, north of the river Hermus, and therefore 

reckoned by some in .ZESlis ; a colony from this city founded 
Marseilles ; SMYRNA, now the chief city in those parts, on 
the river Meles, near the banks of which Homer is said to have 
been born, hence called Melesigenes. Seven cities contended 
about the birth of this poet ; 

Smyrna, Rhodus, Colophony Salamis, ChioSy Argosy Athena, 

West from Smyrna stood Clazomenje •, Erythrje, whence 
the Sibyl Erythrxa, at the bottom of a peninsula, opposite to the 
isle of Chios ; its harbour Cyssus ; near which 'Mimas, a very high 
mountain ; and the promontory and port CorycuSy or -um f near 
which the fleet of Antiochus was defeated by the Romans. 
Alexander made a cut for seven miles, to bring the sea round 
Erythrse and Mimas. 

On the south side of the peninsula stood Teos, the city of 
Anacreon ; and at the top, Lebedus : betwixt these is the pro- 
montory Myonnesus. ' 

Without the peninsula stood Colophon, on the river Hale- 
suSy near which was the grove Claros, sacred to Apollo, hence 
called Clarius ; and Notion, or -urn. 

On the south of the river Cayster, or -tros, stood Ephesus, 
the most illustrious city of Hither Asia, famous for the temple 
of Diana, one of the seven wonders of the world, built at the 
joint expence of the Grecian states in Asia ; the birth-place of 
Heraclitus, the weeping philosopher, of Hipponax the poet, of 
Parrhasius and Apeiles the painters. Strabo, xiv. p. 642. 

Opposite to the island Samos is the promontory Mycale, where 
the fleet of Xerxes was destroyed by the Greeks. 

On the north of the river Maeander stood Priena, the city 
of Bias, one of the seven wise men of Greece. The Maeander 
forms so many windings in its course, that it is put for. any 
winding or maze, Strab, xir. p. 577.^; Virg. JEn. v. 250. 
South of it was Miletus, the city of Thales, the father of phi- 
losophy, and of his scholar Anaximander, the inventor of dials 
and of maps ; and of Timotheus, the musician. This city is 

sometimes ranked in Caria. About thirty stadia from the 

mouth of the Maeander stood Myus, -untis % which Artaxerxes 
assigned to Themistocles, to furnish his table with meat, {op- 
sonium,) as Magnesia was appointed to supply him with bread, 
and Lampsticus with wine, Thucydid. i. 138. ; Strab. xiv. 636.; 
Diodor. xi. 57. ; Nep. 10. 

The cities of Chios and Samos were also comprehended 
among the cities of Ionia, and completed the number twelve. 

V. LYDIA, 



Asia Antiqua, 



589 



V. LYDIA, the kingdom of Crcesus, called also, Maonia, 

anciently included Ionia. Its capital was Sardes, at the 

foot of mount Tmolus, on the river Pactolus y which joins the 
Hermus. North of this was MAGNESIA, at the foot of mount 
Sipylus, near which Antiochus was defeated by the Romans 
under Scipio Asiaticus ; north of it Thyafzra. 

On the river Caystrus stood Philadelphia and Metropolis; 
south of which was Tralles, mentioned by Juvenal, iii. 70. 

VI. CARIA, the inhabitants, Cares*. Halicarnassus, 

birth-place of Herodotus, the father of history, and of Dio- 
nysius, hence called Halicarnasseus, -aeus } or -ensis ; — famous 
for the monument of Mausolus, erected by his Queen Artemisia, 
one of the seven wonders of the world, Strab. xiv. p. 6 56. ; 
Plin. 36". 5. m. situate between the Sinus Seramicus and Iasius* 
which form the peninsula Doris, Plin. 5. 27. s. 29. at the bot- 
tom of which stood Cnidus, sacred to Venus, w r here was a cele- 
brated statue of that goddess, made by Praxiteles, Plin. 36. 5. 

Near Halicarnassus was the famous fountain Salmacis, which 
rendered men effeminate, seep. 363. 

Opposite to Rhodes was a district called Peraa Rhodiorum 9 
because it belonged to that people. At a greater distance from 
the sea, Stratonlce, or ~ea y Alabanda y Alinda, Hydrela y &c. 

VII. LYCIA. Telmessus, or -issus ; Xanthus y on a river 

of that name ; Patara, famous for the oracle of Apollo, hence 
called Patareus : Limyra, on the river Limyrus> where Caius, 
the grandson of Augustus, died of a wound he had received 
in Armenia ; -near which was Promontorium Sacrum oxChelidonium^ 
whence mount Taurus begins ; Olympus, at the foot of a moun- 
tain of that name ; mount Climax , projecting so far into the sea, 
that Alexander's army was obliged to march round it up to the 
waist in water ; Phase lis, on the confines of Pamphilia, Lucan. 
viii. 249. 

The chief mountain in Lycia is Cragus, one of the ridges of 
which emitting flame, gave room to the poetic fiction of the 
threefold monster Chimara, made up of a lion, a goat, and a 
dragon, Ovid. Met. ix. 646. *, Serv. in Virg. JEn. vi. 268. 

The government of Lycia was anciently republican, and the in- 
habitants were distinguished for their virtue, Strabo, xiv.p. 664. 

VIII. PAMPHYLIA and PISIDIA, a mountainous 

country. Between the rivers Cestrus and Cataractes stood 

Perga ; Aspendus, on the river Eurymedon, at the mouth of 

* The Cares are called by Homer Bupfixpotpmoi, Sarbarolingues, II. ii. 867. as 
Strabo thinks, because they spoke the Greek language improperly, xiv. 661. according 
?o Thucydides, because they were not Greeks, Ibid, iff Thucydid. in proam. But the 
division of mankind into Greeks and Barbarians is said to have been unknown in the 
time of Homer, Strab. viii. 370, xiv, 661. & 662. 

which 



590 



Asia Aniiqua* 



which Cimon destroyed the fleet and army of the Persians, In 
Pisidia were Antiochta, Termessus, Lyrba, Selga, &fc. 

IX. ISAURIA and LYCAONIA, intersected by the 
branches of mount Taurus ; subdued by the Romans under 
Servilius, hence called Isauricus ; Coracesium; Sydra; Ha- 
maxia ; Sellnus, where the Emperor Trajan died, hence called 

Trajanop6lis. — Iconium, Derbe, Lystra, where the Apostle 

Paul was stoned, Acts, xiv. 19. 

X. CILICIA, divided into Aspera or Tracheotis, Campestris 
or Pedias, and Cilicia Propria ; so hemmed in with mountains 
that it has few passages, and these very narrow, hence called 
Pyla At the mouth of the river Calycadmus, the promon- 
tory Sarpedon, fixed by the Romans as the limit of Antiochus; 
near which the promontory Zephyr ium. 

Along the coast, Soli, said to have been founded by Solon. 
The Athenians who settled there, having corrupted the purity 
of their language, are thought to have given rise to the term 
solecism. But this is also said of Soli in Cyprus, Strab. 
xiv. 663. ; Eustath. ad Dionys. 875. 

On the river Cydnus, which had almost proved fatal to Alex- 
ander, stood TARSUS, feigned to have got this name from 
the Pegasus of Bellerophon having here lost one of his hoofs*; 
said to have been built by Perseus, Solin. 38. Marcellin. xiv. 25. 
whence it is called by Lucan Persea Tarsus, iii. 225. the birth- 
place of the Apostle Paul. Strabo says that the inhabitants of 
this city excelled those of Athens and Alexandria in the study 
of philosophy and the sciences, xiv. p. 6*] 3. —-676. 

On the confines of Syria, the mount Amanus, now Monte 
Negro, often mentioned by Cicero, approaches so near the sea 
as to form the pass called PyU Syria, or Amanicte, near which 
stood ISSUS, not far from the river Pinarus, where Alexander 
gained his celebrated victory over Darius 5 and to perpetuate 
the memory of it, afterwards built Alexandria, now Scanderoon 
or Alexandretta, the port-town to Aleppo, on the Sinus Issicus, 
or the Gulf of Issus •, and at some distance from it Nicopolis, 

XI. CAPPADOCIA and ARMENIA MINOR. The 

people, Cappadoces, or -ca, anciently called Syri, were one of 
the three bad Kappas, or names beginning with the letter K or 
C, the Cretans and Cicilians being the other two ; which was 
afterwards applied to the three Cornelii, Sylla, Cinna, a ad 
Lentulus. — Upon the extinction of the royal family, the Ro- 
mans, in consideration of the ancient league between them, 
offered this people the enjoyment of their liberty, which they 
refused to accept, alleging they could not bear it. Whereupon 
they were permitted to choose another king. This country was 

* Or one of ftje wings fixed to his ankle, {penna t vel fitina, Juvenal, iii. 11 8. 
from Tetpa-ejf planta pedis t angula vel peitna.) 

remarkable 



Asia Antiqua. 



591 



remarkable for its breed of horses and mules, and for furnishing 
the Romans with slaves. 

On the confines of Cilicia, at the foot of mount Taurus, 
stood Cybistra, the place of Cicero's encampment. 

In Armenia Minor, on the Euphrates, stood Melitene, the sta- 
tion of the legion, called Fulminifera, the thundering legion. 

XII. PONTUS extended along the Euxine from Colchis 
to the river Halys, the kingdom of Mithridates. East from 
Halys stood Amisus. On the confluence of the Iris and Lycus y 
Eupatoria, which Pompey named Megalopolis ; above which was 
Amasia, the city of Strabo the geographer. 

Along the river Thermo don is supposed to have been the coun- 
try of the Amazons ; their city Themiscyra, Strabo, xi.p. 504. 

East from this, along the coast, Polemonia, Pharnacia, and 
Cerasus, -untis, whence Lucullus is said to have first brought 
the cherry-tree into Italy. 

On the borders of Colchis stood Trapezus, Trebisond. 

Along the river Halys lived the Heneti ; a colony of whom 
afterwards settling in Italy, wefe called Veneti, Plin. vi. 2. Liv. 
L 1. and near the Chalybes, who are said to have invented iron 
weapons, Val. Flac. v. 141.; Dionys. 944. 

XIII. PAPHLAGONIA — Sinope, situate on a peninsula, 
the most illustrious city on this coast j the birth-place of Dio- 
genes the Cynic ; Carambis, near a famous promontory of the 
same name, now Karempi, opposite to Criu-metopon, or Arietis 
Frons, in the Chersonesus Taurica, Crim Tartary, Strab. ii. 124.^, 

XIV. BITHYNIA, extending from theThracian Bosphorus 
to the river Parthenias. It was anciently called Bebrycia, the 
country of Amycus, the son of Neptune, the famous pugilist, 
who was slain by Pollux, Serv. ad Virg. JEn. v. 373. 9 Val. Flacc. 

iv. 99. 

On the Propontis, near the mouth of the river Ryndacus, 
stood Apamea, called formerly Myrlea. North of it was Nico- 
media, near which Libyssa, the burial-place of Hannibal, Plin. 

v. 32. s. 43. 

On the Bosphorus stood Chalcedony now Scutari, called the 
city of the'blind, because the founders of it preferred this situation 
to that of Byzantium, on/the opposite side of the Straits, Herodot. 
iv. 144. Strab. vii. 320. ; Plin. v. 32. J". 43. ; Tacit, A?mal. xii. 
63. to which Claudian alludes, de quarto consul. Honorii, 176, 

On the Euxine sea, Calpas, or -es 9 at the mouth of the river 
Calpas, a celebrated harbour ; east of which is the river Sagaris 
or Sangarius ; Heraclea on the Lycus ; Tios, or -urn. 

At the foot of mount Olympus, stood Prusa, now Bursa, for 
some time the capital of the Turks 1 on the Lake Ascanius y 
Nicaa $ Nice, famous for the first general council held there. 

t4 The 



5.92 



Asia Antiqua. 



The most remarkable cities along the sea-coast in Asia Minor 
were settled by Greek colonies. 

XV. GALATIA or GALLOGRiECIA, formerly the 
north of Phrygia. It got this name from the Gauls who settled 

in it about two hundred and seventy years before Christ*. ■ 

Chief town, Ancyra y now Angoura, the capital of the Tectosa- 
gesy near which Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by 
Tamerlane. Tavium, the capital of the Troctniy near the river 
Halys. 

XVI. PHRYGIA MAGNA.- In the north, near the 

source of the river Sangarius, stood Pessinus, -untis, famous for 
an ancient temple of Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose 
image was conveyed to Rome in the second Punic war, at the 
foot of Mount Dindymus ; south of it Gordium, famous for 
the Gordian knot which Alexander cut with his sword, instead 
of fairly untying it *, Eumenia y Acmonia. 

On the river LycuSy before its conjunction with the Maan- 
der 9 stood Laodicaa and Celossa ; north of which Apamea y on 
the river Marsyas, named from the sister of Seleucus, increased 
by the ruins of CeUne y likewise on the Marsyas ; where Apollo 
is said to have flayed alive one Marsyas for presuming to con- 
tend with him in music. The rivers Marsyas and Meander are 
said to flow from the same lake, Strab. xii. 577. At a temple 
near Laodicsea, was a famous medical school in the time of 
Strabo, lb. 580. 

In the east end of the Mediterranean is the island CYPRUS, 
about one hundred and fifty miles long and seventy broad ; 
sacred to Venus, who is hence called Cypria, Cypris, and Cy- 

prigena Chief cities, on the west, Paphosy now Baffo ; 

on the south, AmathuSy and Citium, the birth-place of Zeno, 
author of the sect called the Stoics ; on the east, Salamisy now 
Famagusta, north from the prom. Pedaliura or Idalium ; and on 
the north, Lapithus or Lapethus, Arsirwe, and Soli or Soloe, 
founded by Solon. In the middle of the island was Tamassus, 
famous for producing the metal called JEs Cyprium y copper, at 
the foot of mount Olympus. 

COLCHIS, ALBANIA, and IBERIA, lay between the 
Euxine and Caspian seas, intersected by different branches of 
Mount Caucasus, now Georgia, including Mingrelia, Imaretta, 
and part of Circassia. 

Two rivers which have their source at no great distance 
from one another, run into the opposite seas : the Cyrus into 
the Caspian ; and the Phasis y joined by the Glaucus and Hippus, 



Hence called Altera Gallia, Juvenal, vii. 16. 



into 



Asia Antiqiia. 



593 



into the Euxine. Some say that the Gyrus is joined by the 
Araxes. 

At the mouth of the P basis stood a city of the same name* 
the capital of Colchis, celebrated in fable for the expedition of 
the Argonauts under Jason, in search of the golden fleece ; 
also for the temple of Phryxus, &c. See p. 439. 

On the north-east point of the Euxine stood Dioscurias, said 
to have been built by Castor and Pollux ; whence its name 3 
Mel. i. 19. 

The country north of this was called Bosporus, and the peo- 
ple Bosphorani ; their chief town was Cimmerium. 

ARMENIA MAJOR, now Turcomania, is a very moun- 
tainous country. Here are Taurus, Antitauvus, and Niphates, 
&c. and according to some, Mount Ararat, where Noah's 
ark first rested. In this country rise the rivers Tigris and Eu- 
phrates, which run into the Persian gulf *, the Phasis and Lycus, 
into the Euxine ; and the Cyrus and Araxes, into the Caspian 
sea; Strabo, xi. p. 529. The Tigris, for some space, runs 
below a branch of Mount Taurus, and then bursts forth again 
at a place called fcoroanda, Ibid. ; Lucan. 3. 261. 

The chief towns were, Tigranocerta, on the river Nicepho* 
rius ; and Artaxata, on the river Araxes. 

SYRIA extended from Cilicia and Mount Amanus to Ara- 
bia and Egypt, between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates. 
It was divided into five parts, Commagena, Seleucis or Syria Pro- 
pria, Calesyria, Phoenicia, and Paltestina or Judea. * 

I. Commagene, or -a. The chief city was Samosata, the 

birth-place of Lucian, on the Euphrates ; below which stood 
Zeugma, where Alexander transported his army over that river 
opposite to Apamea. 

* A chain of mountains runs through Syria, from north to south, with a great 
many ramifications: whence the climate, although naturally hot, is greatly varied. 
The most elevated point is LEBANON, as may be perceived on a map, from the 

course of the rivers. The rivers of Syria are very inconsiderable, and most of 

them in summer become dry. The Orontes and 'Jordan, the two chief, are scarcely 
sixty paces wide at their mouths. The Jordan has a considerable depth; but the 
Orontes, if not impeded by repeated obstacles, would be quite dry during the sum- 
mer. The Euphrates and its branches seem chiefly to be denoted by the rivers of 
Syria, (Syri-ze amnes,) in Juvenal, viii. 1.66. Syria, as well as Egypt, Persia, 
and almost all the south of Asia, is sometimes dreadfully infestr.d with clouds of 
liOCUSTS, a kind of insects, which suddenly destroy the leaves of trees and 
plants, and every green herb, and never fail to produce a famine with all its dire- 
ful effects. They are so numerous, that when they take their flight, they literally 
darken the heavens. They are supposed to be bred by too mild winters, and constantly 
«prat from the desert of Arabia. Volnejs Travels through Syria. 

Q q a- Ss- 



594 



Asia Antiqua. 



2. Seleucis, Antiochene or Syria Propria. On the river 

Orontes stood Antioch'ta, Antioch, where Christians were firct 
called by that name ; near which the delightful village and 
grove of Daphne, where was a famous temple of Apollo. At 
the mouth of the Orontes, is the island Meliboza, famous for 
producing purple. On the sea stood Seleucis or Pieria, at the 
foot of Mount Pierius, and north of it Rhosus. 

East from thence Berza, now Aleppo, the chief city in 
this country, about ninety miles from the sea, and one hundred 
miles from the Euphrates ; Bambyca, or Hierapolis, famous for 
the temple of the Syrian goddess Atargatis or Mabog, having 
the face of a woman and the tale of a fish, called by the Greeks 
Derceto, Plin. v. 23. The country here was called Cyrrhestica; 
south of which, Calcidene and Chalyboriitis. Towards the 
source of the Orontes, Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus ; Loa- 
dicea ; Heliopolis, famous for the temple of the sun, now Bal- 
beck, the ruins of which still remain, and shew its former 
magnificence. This country was called Laodkene, and is com- 
monly included in Cafesyria, 

3. CiELE SYRIA (Ko*Xrj 2>ugj«, Cava Syria,) is inclosed 
between two parallel mountains, Libanus, Lebanon, and An- 

tilibUnus. The chief city, Damascus, on the river Abana or 

Chrysorrhoas, which rises in Mount Hermon, 

Between the Orontes and Euphrates, about one hundred and 
seventy miles north-east from Damascus, stood PALMYRA or 
Thadmor, in the middle of a sandy desart, the city of Zenobia ; 
whence the country was called Palmyrene. 

4. Phoenicia, or -Ice, contained the cities TYRUS, Tyre, 
and SIDON, famous for their commerce; north of whicli, 
Tripolis, Tripoli, the present capital. 

5. Pal^stina or Judjea, the Holy Land; called in Scrip- 
ture the Land of Canaan, the Land of Israel, and of Judah. 

This country was differently divided at different times ; an- 
ciently into twelve tribes; afterwards into the two kingdoms of 
Judah and Israel ; and lastly under the Romans, into different 
districts, Galilaa, Samaria, Judaa, and the Regio trans Jor» 
danem, or the country on the east of Jordan. 

The Jor-dan, that is, the River Dan, so called from a town 
near the source of it, not far from the foot of Mount Libanus, 
runs straight south. It is first increased by the small lake Sa» 
machonitis, and then by the Lake of Genesareth, or Tiberias, 
twelve miles long and eight broad. After a course of about 
one hundred and fifty miles, it falls into the lake called Asphal- 
*'*'." 13 fites» 



Asia Antiqua. 



595 



tltes, from its sulphur, or Mare Mortuum, the Dead Sea, from 
the immobility or gravity of its waters.* 

In Galilea — the chief places were, Carta, Chorazim, Ca- 
pernaum, Jezreel, Tiberias, Mount Gilboa, Bethlehem, Nazareth^ 
near Mount Thabor, Nairn, Zabulon; Ace, A no, or Ptolemais, 
now Acre, a sea-port town, north of Mount Carmel, famous in 
the time of the crusades ; see p. 628. 

Samaritis, or Samaria. Its capital Samaria ; the chief 

sea-port town Casarea, called before the days of Herod Turris 
Stratonis; south of which Joppe, where Andromeda is fabled to 
have been bound, and exposed to a sea-monster, from which she 
was delivered by Perseus; see p. 396. 

JUDAEA. Its capital Hierosolyma, Jerusalem, was 

built on four hills, called Sion, Acra, Moriah, and Bezetha or 
Kainopolis, that is the new town. On Moriah stood that mag- 
nificent building the Temple, which was also a kind of fortress. 
The city was surrounded with a triple wall. It was but indif- 
ferently supplied with water. Its principal fountain was called 
Siloa or Gihon. The present city, Jerusalem, is built on the 
ruins of Kainopolis, and small in comparison of what it was 
anciently. 

East of Jerusalem, Hierechus, or Jericho, Bethel, Gilgal, 
Ephraim ; south of which, Hebron, Mamre, &c. Six miles 
south of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, the birth-place of our Saviour 5 
at the same distance north, Emaus, On the west, Rama, 
Gibea, &c. 

The country of the Philistines, Philistaa, lay along the sea- 
coast. Chief towns, Gaza, Gath, Ascalon, Asotus y 01 ' Asdod^ 
and Ekron. 

* This lake contains neither ?.nimal nor vegetable life ; owing to the extreme 
.riltness of its water, which is much stronger than that of the sea. It is not how- 
ever true, as some authors affirm, that its exhalations are pestiferous, so as to de- 
stroy birds flying over it. For it is very common to see swallows skimming its sur- 
face, and dipping for the water necessary to build their nests. The saltness of the 
water is thought to be occasioned by mines of fossil silt, found in the side of 
mountains on the south-west shore. On this shore also are found fragments of sul- 
phur and bitumen, and hot springs. The evaporation from the surface of the lake 
is so great as to carry off the waters brought into it by the Jordan. Pliny makes the 
lake more than 100 miles long, and 25 miles in its greatest breadth, v. 16. Jose- 
phus makes it 580 stadia, or 72* miles long, and 150 stadia, or i8f miles broad, 
de Bell. Jud. iv. 27. Diodorus makes it 500 stadia long, and only 60 stadia broad, 
xix. 98. It is supposed to occupy the place where the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah 
stood. Strabo says, that the tradition of the inhabitants of the country was, that 
thirteen cities had stood there, of which Sodom was the chief; and that they were 
swallowed up by a volcano, xvi. 764. There is every appearance of volcanoes having 
existed in this country; and the whole coast of Syria is frequently subject to earth- 
quakes. s ' * 



Qq a 



The 



BBS 



Asia Antiqua. 



The country east of Jordan, called Beroea, anciently Gi'lead, 
was in general rough and barren. It was divided into several 
parts, Trachonitis or Iturea ; on the north, Gaulomtis, Batan&a, 
or Basan s Galaaditis, in which were Ramoth-Gilead, Ashtaroth, 
&c, Amoriitis, Moabltis, Zsfc. A confederacy of ten cities in 
this country was called Decapolis, 

The country south of the Dead Sea was called Idumxa or 
Edom s in which were Zoar, Theman, Bozra, at the foot of Mount 
Seir, &c.; but these are commonly comprehended in Arabia, 

ARABIA was divided into three parts, Deserta, Petraa, and 
Felix, 

1, Arabia Deserta, new called Arden, extends from the 
deserts of Palmyra and the Euphrates on the north, to Arabia 
Felix on the south, from which it is separated by a range of 
mountains, as it is from Chaldea on the east. 

In travelling through the sandy deserts of this country, peo- 
ple are obliged to direct their course by the stars, or by the 
mariner's compass. 

The city of greatest note was Thapsacus, on the Euphrates, 
where was a bridge which Darius crossed in his march against 
Alexander, and hither he fled after his defeat. Here Cyrus 
the younger waded through with his army, a thing which Xe- 
nophon says the people of Thapsacus had never seen done be- 
fore. This city is sometimes ranked in Palmyrene. 

2, Arabia Petraa, lies west of the former. It had its 
name from the city Petra, which, before the time of the Ma- 
cedonians, was called Arce, the capital of the Nabatai, Strab. 
xv. 776.-, Joseph. Antiq. iv. 8. east from Mount Horeb and 
Sinai, and the desart of Sur; but authors differ about the situ- 
ation of it. 

On the Sinus Arabicus, or Red Sea, stood Berenice, anciently 
Ezion-Geber, whence the ships of Solomon sailed to Ophir, 
supposed to have been a port in Sofala on the south-east coast of 
Africa, see p. 127.; Phara or Par an, whence the adjoining 
wilderness was named, at the bottom of the east side of the 
gulf of Heroopolis; at the top of which stood Arsinoe or Clec- 
patris, now Suez, whence the isthmus has its name. 

3, Arabia Fejlix, is a large peninsula between the gulfs 
of Arabia and Persia. It is remarkable for the fertility of its 
soil ; but was very little known to the ancients. Among the 
different states, the Sabai were the most distinguished. 

BABYLONIA and CHALDJEA, now Eyraco or Iraca Ara- 
hic, extended from the Persian gulf, along the Euphrates a 
Jittle above Babylon, its capital. > 

MESO- 



Asia Antiqua, 



59? 



MESOPOTAMIA was included between the Euphrates and 
Tigris, now commonly called Diarbec. The chief cities were 
NisUis, on the river Midonius, which flows into the Tigris, 
the great bulwark of the Romans against the Parthians S*- 
leucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence of the Tigris with a 
branch of the Euphrates ; built by Seleucus Nicanor, who, to 
people it, exhausted Babylon of its inhabitants ; Carra, be- 
tween the river GhaVtiras and the Euphrates, memorable for 
the defeat and death of Crassus, and afterwards for the murder 
of Caracalla ; north of which Batnx and Edessa, near the foot 
of mount Taurus. 

In Mesopotamia the learned suppose the garden of Eden to 
have been ; but where is uncertain. 

ASSYRIA, now Curdistan, lay east of the Tigris. Chief 

cities, Nintts or Ni/ieve, on the Tigris, opposite to the place 
where Mousal now stands *, Arbela, memorable for the final 
overthrow of Darius by Alexander, which happened at the vil- 
lage Gaugamela, near the river Lycus; Ctesiphon, opposite to 
Seleucia. 

MEDIA extended along the south of the Caspian sea. ■ 
Its chief town was Ecbatana, now Hamadan. 

PERSIS and SUSIANA. Chief towns, Per sepsis and 

Pasagarda, the burial-place of Cyrus ; Susa ; and Elymais, 
which gave name to a distinct province. 

The countries of Asia east of this were very imperfectly 
known to the ancient Romans ; and therefore are seldom men- 
tioned in the classics, except in the history of Alexander the 
Great. 

The northern parts of Asia were altogether unknown. 



Historical Account of ANCIENT ASI A, particularly of tlie 
PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

The State of Asia, as of other countries, during the first 
ages of the world, is involved in obscurity. All we know of it 
is gathered from the sacred writings. The accounts of heathen 
authors, till the wars of the Persians with the Greeks, are fa- 
bulous and contradictory. The authors from whom chiefly we 
derive our information on this subject are, Herodotus, Xeno- 
phon, Diodorus Skulus, who borrows from Ctesias of C nidus, 
the physician of Artaxerxes Mnemon 3 ii. 2. & 32. and Justin , 
the abridger of Trogus Pompeius. 

Q q 3 NINUS 



59S 



History of Ancient Asia. 



NINUS was the first king who established an extensive em- 
pire in Asia. He conquered all the countries from the Euxine 
and Caspian seas to Arabia and Egypt, Diodor. ii. i. & 2. \ 
Justin i. I. He built NINIVE or Ninus on the Tigris, Dio- 
dorus says improperly, on the Euphrates ; a city of immense 
extent, no less than four hundred and eighty stadia, or sixty 
miles in circumference, Diodor. ii. 3. or three days' journey, 
Jonah, iii. 3. The walls were one hundred feet high, and so 
broad that three chariots could go on them abreast. They 
were defended by one thousand five hundred towers, tv/o hun- 
dred feet high, Diodor. ib. 

Ninus, at his death, left the government to his Queen SE- 
MIRAMIS, who raised over his tomb a mound of earth, ac- 
cording to Diodorus, nine stadia high and ten broad, ib. 7. 
which is scarcely credible. Semiramis is said to have founded 
Babylon, Ib. 7. but this is also ascribed to Belus, Curt. v. iv. 
and likewise to others. She extended her empire over Egypt, 
a great part of Lybia, and ./Ethiopia, Diodor. ii. 14. but at- 
tempting to make war on India, she was repulsed with loss, 
Ib. 18. Semiramis was succeeded by her son NINYAS. Some 
say she was slain by him, Justin, i. 2. But about this authors 
differ, Diodor. ii. 20. Ninyas lived in peace. Devoted to 
pleasure, he shut himself up in his palace at Nineveh, and sel- 
dom appeared to his subjects, leaving the charge of every thing 
to his ministers. His successors are said to have imitated this 
example for thirty, generations, during the space of one thou- 
sand three hundred and sixty years*, lb. it. 5 Justin, i. 3. 

The last king of Assyria was SARD ANAP ALUS, who is 
said to have surpassed all his predecessors in luxury and effemi- 
nacy f, Diodor. ii. 23.5 Justin, i. 3.; Juvenal, x. 362. AR- 
BACES or ARBACTUS, governor of Media, having pro- 
cured admission to him, found him amidst crowds of women 
and eunuchs in a female dress, and employed in female occu- 
pations. Disdaining, therefore, to obey so despicable a prince, 
he formed a conspiracy with Belesys, the governor of Babylon, 
to dethrone him. For this purpose they led a great army to- 

* One of these kings is said to have sent assistance to Priam king of Troy, against 
the Greeks, under Memnon, Didd. ii. 22. and Plato makes the kingdom of Priam 
to have been dependant on the Assyrian empire, de legibus, iii. p. 685. but this is men- 
tioned by no other author. 

f Herodotus mentions the riches of this king only by the by, ii. 150. He or- 
dered a sentiment to be inscribed on his tomb, intimating that he had placed his 
chief happiness in sensual gratifications, which Aristotle said was fit only to be put 
on the tomb of an ox, Cie. Tusc, v. 35. ii. 32. 

wards 



History of Ancient Asia, 



599 



wards Nineveh. Sardanapalus, being defeated in battle, and 
reduced to despair, shut himself up in his palace ; where hav- 
ing erected a great funeral pile, he burnt himself and all his 
effects, to an incredible amount ; having in this alone, says 
Justin, displayed the courage of a man. Thus the empire of 
Asia was transferred from the Assyrians to the Medes.* 

Herodotus gives a different account concerning the origin of 
the empire of the Medes, observing, at the same time, that 
the story was told other three different ways, i. 95. The 
Medes first revolted from the Assyrians, and others afterwards 
followed their example. Having established their indepen- 
dence, they for some time enjoyed liberty. But when disputes 
arose among them, one DEJOCES, a man of extraordinary 
sagacity, by an appearance of justice, had the address to per- 
suade the people to create him king. He founded Ecbatana, 
and built there a palace for himself, which he strongly fortified. 
He then surrounded himself with the usual appendages of roy- 
alty, became difficult of access, and transacted every thing by 
the intervention of ministers. He, however, continued to 
maintain his authority by the most rigid administration of jus- 
tice, for fifty-three years. 

After the death of Dejoces, PHRAORTES his son suc- 
ceeded, who subdued the Persians and other nations ; but at- 
tempting to reduce Nineveh, was cut off, with most of his 
army, lb. 102. 

CYAXARES, the son of Phraortes, soon revenged his fa- 
ther's death, by defeating the Assyrians and laying siege to 
Nineveh. But he was prevented from taking the city by an in- 
road of the Scythians, from about the lake Maeotis, who over- 
Tan great part of Asia, and kept possession of it for twenty-eight 
years. At last Cyaxares, having by artifice either destroyed 

* Diodorus makes the empire of the Medes to have lasted about 1300 years, ii. 28. 
but Herodotus, only 500. i. 95. as Diodorus himself remarks-, but prefers the autho- 
rity of Ctesias, ii. 3a. 

Arbaces is thought by some to have contented himself with the empire of Media, 
and to have resigned that of Babylon to his associate Bellesis, who is supposed to have 
been the same with Nabonassar, called also Baladan, a Kings, xx. ia. from whose 
reign began the famous astronomical epoch at Babylon, B. C. 747. called from his' 
name the ara of Nalonassar. 

A third independent kingdom is said to have been established at the same time, 
the capital of which was Nineveh. Its kings are supposed to be those called in 
Scripture the kings of Syria or Assyria; as Tiglatbpileser, Salmaneser; and Esarbaddo*s 9 
who took Babylon, and annexed it to its former dominions ; who also carried away 
the Israelites as captives into the land of Assyria; Nabopdassar, who in conjunction 
with Cyaxares, the Mede, took and destroyed Nineveh; Nebuchadnezzar, who took 
and destroyed Jerusalem, carrying Zedekiah its last king, and the Jews, i(jto captivity to 
Babylon, &c. 

Qq 4 or 



600 



History of the Persian Empire, 



or expelled them, recovered what he had lost, took Nineveh, 
and reduced the Assyrians to subjection, except the country 
around Babylon, lb. 1 06. 

His son ASTYAGES had an only daughter, named Man- 
dane y whom he gave in marriage to Cambysesy a Persian, being 
prevented by a dream from giving her to a Mede. In conse- 
quence of a second dream he sent for her from Persia, when 
big with a child, and after she brought forth a son, commanded 
Harpagusy his chief minister, to destroy him. Harpagus, un- 
willing to execute these orders himself, delivered the child to 
the king's shepherd to be exposed. The shepherd's wife hap- 
pened at that time to be delivered of a dead male-child. Being 
greatly taken with the appearance of the royal infant, she per- 
suaded her husband to preserve him, and expose their own child 
in his stead. Thus CYRUS, for so he was named from Cytio, 
i. e. canisy the Greek name of the shepherd's wife, was brought 
up as her son. After various adventures, he dethroned his 
grandfather Astyages, and became the founder of the Persian 
empire, B. C. 536. Herodot. i. 97.-— 131. Justin, i. 4.-7* 



History of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

Cyrus first made war on CRCESlTS, king of Lydia, the 
most opulent prince of his time. Crcesus was the son of Alyat- 
tesy and the fourth in descent from GYGES, who slew his 
master Cakdaules,_ the last of the Heracllda, or descendants 
of Hercules, at the instigation of his queen, who was provoked 
at the indignity of having had her beauty too openly exposed, 
by the contrivance of her husband out of vanity, to this same 
Gygeshis chief favourite, Herodot. i. 6. — 17. Gygesis said by 
Plato to have effected this revolution by means of a magical 
ring, which, when he put it on, rendered him invisible, Cic. 
Of, Hi. 9. 

Crcesus was the first that subdued the Grecian states in Asia. 
His dominions extended from the JEgean Sea to the river 
Halys. He surpassed all the kings of that age in munificence. 
The fame of his hospitality attracted to his court the most dis- 
tinguished sages of his time ; among the rest, SOLON, the 
legislator of Athens. Crcesus, having shewed him all his trea- 
sures, asked if he had ever seen a happier man. Solon men- 
tioned several of distinguished virtue, though in humble life ; and 
concluded with observing, that no one could be called happy 
before his death. After the departure of Solon, the indignation 

16 of 



Cyrus. 601 

ef heaven (Nemesis) overtook Croesus, because, says Herodotus, 
he thought himself, the happiest man in the world. He lost his 
-favourite son Atys, who was killed, while hunting, by an acci- 
dental wound which he received from one Adrastus, a Phrygian 
exile, whom Croesus had protected, and who, although pardoned 
by Croesus, yet from mere grief privately, slew himself on the 
prince's tomb. 

Croesus mourned the loss of his son for two years. He was 
roused from this despondency by hearing of the revolution in 
Media. Astyages, whom Cyrus had dethroned and put in 
prison, was grandfather to Croesus by the mother's side. In 
order therefore to avenge his cause, to stop the progress of Cyrus, 
and perhaps enlarge his own dominions, Croesus resolved 
to make war. With this view he sent ambassadors to consult 
the oracles in Greece and Lybia, with rich presents to each. 
Several of these presents remained in the time of Herodotus, 
lb. i. 46. 50. 5 1. 92. An answer was returned by the oracle at 
Delphi, that if Croesus marched against the Persians, he should 
overturn a great empire. Encouraged by this oracle, which he 
interpreted in his own favour, he crossed the river Halys, and 
advanced into Cappadocia against Cyrus. They fought in the 
territory of the Pterians near Synope with doubtful success. 
Night put an end to the battle. 

Next day Crcesus, seeing Cyrus did not renew the attack, de- 
parted with his army 10 Sardis, intending, as the summer was far 
spent, to defer further operations till next spring. In the mean 
time he sent forassistance to his allies, to Amasis, king ofiEgypt, 
to Labynetus, king of Babylon, and to the Lacedsemonians. Ap- 
prehending no immediate invasion from Cyrus after so equal 
a conflict, he disbanded part of his army, which was composed 
of mercenaries. But Cyrus being informed of such imprudent 
conduct, led his army by rapid marches to Sardis. Having 
defeated the Lydians, who had come out to oppose him, he laid 
siege to the town, and took it by assault on the fourteenth day. 
He gave strict orders to save the life of Crcesus ; who notwith- 
standing would certainly have been killed, had it not been for 
his son, who till that time had been dumb. But seeing a Per- 
sian rushing on his father to slay him, fear and anxiety broke 
the ligaments of his tongue, so that he called out, O man, do 
not kill Crcesus. He continued ever after to enjoy the use of 
speech. Crcesus being brought to Cyrus, was ordered to be 
bound, and laid on a funeral pile in order to be burnt. When 
the flames were just beginning to blaze, he called out three 
times Solon, Solon, Solon ! Cyrus being told the reason of this 
exclamation, and reflecting on the uncertainty of human things, 

ordered 



&02 



History of the Persian Empire. 



ordered him to be taken down from the pile, and ever afte/ 
treated him with the greatest kindness, Herodot.i. 26, — 92. 
Justin, i. 7. 

Croesus having sent a messenger to Delphi to upbraid the 
priestess for having deceived him, after all his presents, was 
told, that he had deceived himself by explaining an ambiguous 
oracle in his own favour, and that he did not suffer for his 
own fault, but for that of his progenitor (Gyges), who, seduced 
by the artifice of a woman, had slain his master and usurped 
his crown, lb. 91. 

Crcesus derived his great wealth from the gold mines in mount 
Tmolus near Sardis, which being long wrought, were in after 
times exhausted, lb. 93. Strab. xiii. 625. The Lydians were 
the first who coined gold and silver. The invention of dice 
{taliet tessera) and of the ball, is also ascribed to them, lb. 94. 

The Persians acquired from the Lydians a taste for the deli- 
cacies of life, to which formerly they had been strangers, He- 
rodot. Ib. 71. 

After the taking of Sardis, Cyrus next subdued the Greek 
states in Asia, Ib. 141, &c; Thucydid. i. 16. whom he had be- 
fore attempted in vain to detach from the interest of Crcesus, 
Herodot. i. 76. He then turned his arms against the king of 
Babylon ; and having defeated him in battle, laid seige to the 
city, which he took by surprise on a festival day, by diverting 
the course of the river*, lb. 191. ; Polyan. vii. 6. 5. 

Cyrus, last of all, made war on the Massageta, a people of 
Scythia, north of the river draxes, then under the government 
of a queen called TOMYRIS. By a stratagem he cut to 
pieces a part of the enemy's forces, and took the Queen's only 
son who commanded them, prisoner, with a number of his 
soldiers. The prince, unable to bear this disgrace, slew him- 
self. Soon after Tomyris, at the head of her troops, attacked 
Cyrus with such fury, that she gained a complete victory. 
Cyrus himself was slain, with the greatest part of his army. 
His body being found, she ordered the head to be put in a 
leathern bag, full of blood, with these sarcastic expressions ; 

* Soon after the reduction of Babylon, Cyrus granted permission to the Jews, in 
the seventieth year of their captivity, to return to their own country, and rebuild 
Jerusalem, B. C. 536. 

Herodotus relates that Cyrus, in his way to Babylon, provoked that the river 
Gyndes, which ran into the Tigris, for having carried off one of his sacred horses, 
while attempting to cross it, ordered his army to cut 180 canals on each side 
of it, and thus divided it into 360 streams, so verifying his threat, that he 
would make it so dry, that it might be crossed even by a woman, without wet- 
ting her knees, i. 189. 202. v. 52. So Seneca, dt Jr.vi.il. It is hardly to be 
believed, that, at so important a period, he should have spent on this work a whole 
summer, lb. 

Thou 



Cambyses, 



603 



Thou hast ever thirsted for blood, noio take thy fill, Herodot. i. 
20 1 . — ad fin. ; Justin, i. 8. Liv. 9. 1 7. Authors differ as much 
about the death of Cyrus, as about his birth. Diodorus Siculus 
relates, that he was crucified by Tomyris, ii. 44. Xenophon, in 
his Kvpsnuihiot, or institution of Cyrus, says he died a natural 
death, Cic. Sen. 22. legg. ii. 22. ; but this excellent book was 
not intended t6 contain an exact history, {non ad historic fidem 
scriptus,) but, by mingling fable with truth, to delineate the 
model of a perfect prince, Cic. adQ.fr. i. 1.8. From the di- 
versity of accounts concerning Cyrus, we see the uncertainty 
of tradition. Cyrus reigned thirty years. 

CAMBYSES, his son, succeeded. He made war on Amasis 
king of Egypt ; who in the mean time dying, was succeeded by 
his son Psammenitus, Herodot.ii. 1. iii. I. — 10. The causeof 
the war, according to Herodotus, was frivolous, iii. i.; but 
Polysenus makes it a very just one, viii. 29. To facilitate his 
operations, Cambyses, by the advice of one Phanes, a native of 
Halicarnassus, who on account of some offence had deserted from 
Amasis, made an alliance with the king of Arabia. By him 
Cambyses and his army were supplied with water in the deserts 
through which they had to pass. When they reached Egypt 
they were met by the Egyptians near Pelusium. A fierce battle 
was fought, in which the Egyptians were defeated. Herodotus 
informs us, that he saw the bones of the slain scattered up and 
down in the place where they fell. The skulls of the Egyptians 
were hard, because they always went with their heads bare and 
shaved ; those of the Persians, soft, because their heads were 
always covered with a tiara or turban, lb. 1 2. 

Cambyses took Pelusium, according to Polyaenus, by the fol- 
lowing stratagem. He placed before his army a number of 
cats, dogs, sheep, and other animals, which were looked upon 
as sacred by the Egyptians \ and thus prevented them from dis- 
charging their missive weapons, for fear of wounding any of 
these animals, vii. 9. Herodotus does not mention this cir- 
cumstance, but says, that Cambyses, after his victory, advanced 
directly to Memphis. He sent up the Nile before him a ship 
of Mitylene, with a herald, to summon the inhabitants to sur- 
render ; but they, transported with rage, destroyed the vessel, 
and cut to pieces all on board. Cambyses having taken the 
town in ten days, ordered ten of the first rank to be executed, 
for every one of his men that had been massacred ; among the 
rest the son of Psammenitus. The king himself was spared, 
but afterwards stimulating the Egyptians to revolt, he was put 
to death, having reigned only six months, lb. 15. All Egypt 

soon 



History of the Persian Empire. 



soon after submitted to the conqueror, and that country has 
almost ever since been subject to a foreign yoke. From Mem- 
phis Cambyses went to Sais, the burying place of the kings of 
Egypt ; where having caused the body of Amasis to be taken 
from the tomb, and treated with the greatest indignity, he 
ordered it to be burnt, contrary to the custom both of the 
Egyptians and Persians, lb. 16. 

After the conquest of Egypt, the Lybians, the Cyrenians, and 
Barceans, sent ambassadors to Cambyses with presents, as a 
token of submission, lb. 13. Next year, which was the sixth 
of his reign, Cambyses resolved to make war in three different 
places ; against the Carthagi?iians by sea, and against the Am- 
mcnians and Ethiopians by land. But the first of these projects 
he was obliged to drop, as the Phcenicians y without whose 
assistance he could not carry on that war, refused to co-operate 
with him against the Carthaginians, who were descended 
from them, Carthage being originally a colony from Tyre, 
lb. 19. 

But being determined to invade the other two nations, he 
sent persons into Ethiopia with presents of purple, golden 
bracelets, perfumes, and wine, who, under the character of 
ambassadors, should act as spies. The King of Ethiopia, sus- 
pecting the cause of their journey, treated them with contempt, 
and scorned their presents, except the wine. However, in re- 
turn, having bent a bow in their presence, he bid them give 
it to Cambyses, with this advice, that when the Persians could 
draw bows of such magnitude with equal ease, then he might 
make war on the Ethiopians with superior forces ; in the mean 
time, he should thank the gods for not having put it into the 
hearts of the Ethiopians to covet any other country than their 
own, lb. 21. 

Cambyses, enraged at this answer, immediately advanced 
with his army, like a person bereft of his senses, without 
having provided what was necessary for such an expedition. 
When he arrived at Thebes, in Upper Egypt, he detached 
about 50,000 of his men to ravage the country of the Ammo- 
nians, and burn the temple of Jupiter Ammon. But they were 
all overwhelmed with sand in the desert, and never more heard 
of, lb. 26. *, Settee. Nat. Quast. ii. 30. which disaster some- 
times befals travellers in those parts, Sallust. Jug. 79. The 
army of Cambyses before it had proceeded the fifth part of the 
way, was reduced to such straits for want of provisions, that 
they were obliged to eat their beasts of burden, and at last 
some of them one another, every tenth man being selected by 



Cambyses. 



60S 



lot for this dreadful purpose. In the mean time, Cambyses 
himself is said to have been served with delicacies, Senec. de 
Ira y iii. 20. At last, however, apprehensive for his own safety, 
he was forced to return with disgrace, and with the loss of the 
greatest part of his army, Herodot. iii. 25. Upon his arrival at 
Thebes, he pillaged all the temples in that city, which were 
numerous, and very rich, and then set them on fire, Diodir. 
i. 46. and 49. 

When Cambyses came to Memphis, he found the city full 
of rejoicings, and keeping holiday j at which he was greatly 
enraged, supposing it to be on account of his bad success. Be- 
ing informed by the magistrates that it was because they had 
found their God APIS, who had not appeared for a consider- 
able time, he would not believe them ; but imagining that they 
imposed on him, he caused them to be put to death. He then 
sent for the priests, who, making the same answer, were 
ordered immediately to bring Apis to him ; for that since their 
god was so familiar as to appear among them, he wished to 
see him. * 

When Apis was brought to Cambyses, he, still more enraged, 
drew his sword to run him through the belly, but happened 
to strike him on the thigh. Then ridiculing the priests for 
their stupidity in worshipping a brute as a god, he ordered 
them to be severely scourged, and such of the Egyptians as 
should be found celebrating the feast of Apis, to be slain. The 
god was carried back to his temple, where, having died of his 
wound, he was secretly buried by the priests, Herodot. iii. 29. 

The Egyptians believed, that Cambyses, on account of this 
impiety, became mad. But he was so before, and continued 
to give signal proofs of it. SMERDIS, or Mergis, his bro- 
ther, was the only person in the army that could bend the 
bow sent to Cambyses by the king of Ethiopia. Cambyses, 
therefore, from jealousy, sent him back to Persia •, and some 
time after, dreaming that one came to tell him that Smerdis 
was on the throne, he dispatched Prexaspes, one of his con- 
fidents, to kill him, which he accordingly did, lb. 30. His 
sister Meroe> and the same also his wife, whom he carried with 

This 'Apis, called by the Greeks Epapbos, was a calf, distinguished by certain 
uncommon marks, his body all black, except a white square spot on his forehead,. 
«he figure of an eagle on his back, and of a beetle on his tongue, Herodot. iii. 38. 
Sfra6.xvii.807. Pliny makes the marks different, viii. 46. s. 71. When such a 
calf was found, he was carried by the priests to Memphis, placed in a magnificent 
temple, and worshipped by that superstitious people with extraordinary honours. 
After his death he was buried with incredible pomp, and the whole nation went into 
nnourning, Ibid. & Diodar. i, 84, 8j* 

him 



6G6 



History of the Persian Empire, 



him in all his expeditions, he ordered to be slain, for lamenting 
her brother's death. * 

While Cambyses exercised such frantic cruelty in Memphis, 
3. 37. his dethronement was plotting at Susa, 61. Patizzthes, 
one of the Magi, a Mede by birth, to whom Cambyses had left 
the chief direction of affairs in his absence, had a brother ex- 
tremely like Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, and probably of the same 
name. Patizithes being fully assured of the death of that prince, 
which was concealed from the public, and knowing how odious 
Cambyses had rendered himself by his cruelty, having instructed 
his brother to personate Smerdis, placed him on the throne. 
Heralds were immediately dispatched'to all parts of the empire, 
to notify his accession, and to require their obedience. Cam- 
byses,. in his return from Egypt, met the herald sent thither 
at Ecbatana in Syria. Being thunderstruck at the tidings, he 
at first suspected that he had been betrayed by Prexaspes, and 
that his brother was still alive. But being assured of the con- 
trary, he determined to advance towards Susa with the greatest 
dispatch, to inflict vengeance on the usurpers. But as he was 
mounting his horse for this expedition, his sword dropt from 
its scabbard, and wounded him in the thigh, nearly in the same 
part, as the Egyptians alleged, in which he had struck their 
god Apis. Perceiving his wound to be mortal, he assembled 
the chief men of the Persians in his army, and laid before them 
all that had happened, conjuring them at the same time not to let 
the empire again pass from the Persians to the Medes. Cambyses 
died, after having reigned seven years and five months, with- 
out issue. The Persians, after his death, judging what he had 
said, as groundless, and proceeding from hatred to his brother, 

* Cambyses, before he married Merde, as it was contrary to law, is said to 
have consulted the royal judges. They answered artfully, that there was no 
law which permitted a brother to marry his sister; but there was a law which 

allowed the King of Persia to do what he pleased. He one day asked Prexaspes, 

whose son was his cup bearer, what the Persians thought and said of him? All your 
other qualities, says he, are greatly extolled, but they allege you lo-ve toine too much, 
Tbey no doubt suppose, said the king displeased, that ivir.e impairs my faculties. Teu 
shall judge immediately . Then ordering the son of Prexaspes to stand at some distance 
.with his left hand upon his head, he took a bow, and having bent it, said he would 
shoot the young man through the heart; which he accordingly did, adding exult- 
ingly to the father ; Have I a steady ha-id ? To which the contemptible flatterer, 
as if unaffected with the murder of his son, replied, " Apollo could not have 
aimed better." Senec. de Ira, iii. 14. ; Herodot. iii. 34, 35. On another day he 
ordered twelve Persians of the first rank to be buried alive, lb. Croesus having 
presumed to admonish him of the consequences of these atrocities, was ordered to 
be put to death ; but the ministers of his cruelty, knowing he would repent of it 
next day, deferred the execution. It was so; Cambyses expressed his joy at the 
preservation of Croesus, but ordered all the ministers to be put to death for disobeying 
h\S commands, Xb, 36. 

quietly 



Smerdis. 



601 



quietly submitted to Smerdis, the Magian, as the real son of 
Cyrus, especially as Prexaspes now declared that he had not 
killed Smerdis, 3. 66. 

SMERDIS, the Magian, being now secure of the kingdom, 
to ingratiate himself with the people, granted them many im- 
munities, which made them afterwards greatly regret his loss, 
But this, and his living quite secluded from the Persian nobles, 
raised in them suspicions of his not being what he pretended. 
At last, after he had reigned seven months, the imposture be- 
ing completely detected by means of Phedyma, one of his wives, 
daughter to Otanes a Persian nobleman of the first rank, a 
conspiracy was formed against him by Otanes and six other 
Persian noblemen. In the mean time, while they were con- 
certing measures about the execution of their plot, Prexaspes, 
whom the magi had apparently prevailed on to favour their 
views, and to declare to the people assembled for that purpose 
what they wished, having ascended the tower of the palace, 
to the astonishment of every one present, made an open con- 
fession of the whole truth, and then threw himself headlong 
from the tower and thus perished. The conspirators, ignorant 
of what had passed, were now advancing to the palace ; and 
having from their rank procured admission at the gate, they 
rushed into the apartment of the Magi, who were deliberating 
together about the affair of Prexaspes. Smerdis and his bro- 
ther made the best defence they could, and wounded some of 
the conspirators : but they were soon both dispatched. The 
conspirators having cut off their heads, instantly ran forth, and 
exposing them to the people, laid open the whole imposture. 
The Persians, inflamed by what they had heard, drew their 
swords, and slew such of the Magi as they could find. This 
day was ever after kept as a festival, called the slaughter of the 
Magi, (payotpoviu,) on which it was unlawful for any of that 
order to appear in public, Herodot. iii. 74. — 80. 

When the tumult was allayed, the seven noblemen who had 
slain the Magi met to deliberate about the administration of 
the empire. OTANES, who spoke first, arguing from the 
abuses attendant on arbitrary power, gave his opinion for a 
popular government. 

MEGABYSUS, who spoke next, admitting ail that Otanes 
•had said against monarchy, confuted his reasons for a demo- 
cracy. For nothing, he said, was more senseless or more in- 
solent than the populace; and to avoid the insolence of a tyrant 
by submitting to that of an ungovernable multitude, was apian 
hy no means to be approved. A king knows what he does, 



608 



History of the Persian Empire. 



but the people neither knows nor hears any thing, but acts pre- 
cipitately, without thought, like a torrent j he therefore gave 
his voice for an aristocracy, wherein the government is en- 
trusted to a few men distinguished for their prudence and 
virtue. 

DARIUS, who spoke third, agreed with Megabysus in re- 
jecting a popular government*, but contended, that an oligarchy, 
or the government of a few, was productive of hatred, envy, 
seditions, and murders ; he therefore gave his opinion for a 
monarchy, as the best form of government, when well admi- 
nistered ; and to confirm it, added, that to monarchy the Per- 
sian nation owed its liberty and its power. With him the 
other four noblemen agreed. 

Upon this Otanesy finding himself left alone, declined having 
any farther concern in their consultations, as he said he never 
would be king *, and only requested certain privileges for him- 
self and his descendants, which were readily granted, and more 
besides. These, Herodotus informs us, his family continued to 
enjoy in his time. It was determined by the other six, that the 
seven conspirators should have liberty to enter all the apartments 
of the palace, without being introduced, except that of the wo- 
men ; and that the king should not be allowed to marry a woman 
out of any other family than of the seven conspirators. To 
determine which of them should be king, they agreed to meet 
on horseback next morning in a certain place near the city, and 
that he whose horse first neighed after sun rise, should be king ; 
thus leaving the election as it were to the determination of the 
Sun, the chief god of the Persians. The groom of Darius, 
hearing of this agreement, led a mare over night to the place 
appointed, and then brought thither his master's horse. Next 
morning when the horse came to that spot, he immediately 
neighed, and thus Darius was declared king. 

Darius was the son of Hystaspes, then governor of Persia, and 
sprung from the royal family of Achamenes. To commemorate 
the services of the seven noblemen who slew the Magi, the 
privy council of the Persian kings ever after consisted of seven, 
Ezra, vii. 14. ; Esther, i. 14, &c. and these counsellors enjoyed 
the same privileges which had been granted to the seven con- 
spirators, Herodot. iii. 76. — 88. Darius, to establish himself 
on the throne, married Atossa and Artystona, the daughters of 
Cyrus, Parmysy the daughter of Smerdis, and Phedyma> the 
daughter of Otanes, who had detected the Magi, He erected 
an equestrian statue, with an inscription in honour of his horse* 
and of his groom Okbares. 

DARIUS 



Darius. 



609 



DARIUS divided the empire into twenty governments or 
satrapies, and appointed a governor or satrapes over each, 
ordering them to pay a certain tribute. Persia was exempted 
from taxes. The Ethiopians y bordering on Egypt, and the in- 
habitants of Colchis, only brought certain presents j and the 
Arabians furnished yearly frankincense equal in weight to a 
thousand talents. The annual tribute paid to Darius amounted 
to 14,560 Euboic talents, i. e. 1,810,080!. in money, besides 
various contributions in kind, Herodot. iii. 88.-^98. The 
satrap of Armenia sent annually to the Persian king twenty 
thousand young colts, Strab. xi. 530. The place where the 
king's money was kept was called GAZA, Curt. iii. 12. 27. 
& 13. 5. 

IntaphemeSy one of the seven conspirators against the Magi, 
being refused admission to the king, by the porter and one of 
the royal messengers, who said that the king was in his wife's 
apartment, imagining that they told him a falsehood, having 
drawn his scimitar, cut off the nose and ears of both, and 
fastening their necks in a bridle, so left them. On this account 
he was condemned to death, with his children and family, 
His wife having moved the compassion of Darius, and being 
permitted by him to ask the life of any one of her relations she 
pleased, requested that of her brother. Being asked by Darius 
the reason, she said, that she might get another husband, and 
have other children ; but that she could not have another 
brother, as her father and mother were already dead. The 
king was so well pleased with this answer, that he not only 
granted her the life of her brother, but also that of her eldest 
son. Intaphernes and the rest of his family were put to death, 
without regard to his late deserts, lb. 118, 1 19. 

In the fifth year of Darius the Babylonians revolted. They 
were provoked at the oppressive taxes imposed on, them, and 
that the seat of empire was removed from Babylon to Susa. 
That they might be enabled the better to support a siege, they 
strangled all the useless persons in the city, only reserving each 
his favourite wife and a maid-servant. Darius attempted in 
vain to reduce the city. He lay before it a year and seven 
months; and was just on the point of raising the siege, when 
Zopyrus, one of the seven who conspired against the Magi, 
having cut off his nose, his lips, and ears, after shewing himself 
to Darius, and communicating to him his design, went over to 
the enemy, and pretended that he had been so treated by Da- 
rius for advising him to give up the siege. Having thus gained 
their confidence, and being at last intrusted with the command 

R r of 



610 



History of trie Persian Empire. 



of the city, he delivered it up to Darius. Darius beat down 
its walls, (as it is supposed from two hundred cubits high to 
-fifty,) and took away its gates. He caused about three thou- 
sand of those who had been most active in the revolt to be im- 
paled, and pardoned the rest. Zopyrus was rewarded with the 
highest honours. The revenues of Babylon were settled on him, 
for life. Darius used to say, " That he would give twenty 
Babylons rather than see Zopyrus so disfigured." Herodot, iii. 
150—160.; Justin. \. fin. 

Darius soon after undertook an expedition against the Scy- 
thians, who inhabited the country between the Danube and the 
Tanais. His pretext for this war was to revenge their invasion 
of Asia about one hundred and twenty years before. Having 
collected an army of seven hundred thousand men, he crossed 
the Thracian Bosphorus by a bridge of boats, over-ran Thrace ; 
and then having crossed the Ister or Danube over another bridge 
of boats, advanced into Scythia. The Scythians retreated be- 
fore him, laying waste the country and destroying the springs. 
Darius followed them with his army, till he was in danger of 
perishing for want of provisions. At last he was obliged to 
return with disgrace, after having lost a great number of his 
men. The Scythians attempted to cut off his retreat, by per- 
suading those whom Darius had left to guard the bridge over 
the Danube, to break it down and retire home. Miltiades, 
the Athenian, prince of the Chersonesus of Thrace, was one of 
those to whom this charge was committed. He urged the 
other commanders to embrace so favourable an opportunity of 
shaking off the Persian yoke. These were all Greeks, to whom 
Darius had given the chief command of their respective cities 
in Ionia and iEolis. Most of them at first agreed with Milti- 
ades. But Histiaus of Miletus, representing to them that their 
power depended on that of the king, determined them to con- 
tinue faithful to Darius. Miltiades, conscious of his danger 
from what had happened, departed to Athens, Herodot. iv. x. 
85, 86. &c. ; Nep. Milt. 3. See p. 348. 

Darius, after his return from Scythia, sent Scylax, a native of 
Caryandia in Caria, with a fleet, down the Indus, to explore 
the country ; who, having reached the mouth of that river, 
according to his instructions, sailed westward along the coast 
of the Erythraan sea, entered the Red sea by the Straits of 
Babeimandel 5 and on the thirtieth month after his first setting 
out, arrived at the same place from whence Necho, king oi 
Egypt, had formerly sent the Phoenicians to sail round Africa* 
Herodot. iv* 44. which they effected in somewhat more than 

14 two 



I 



Darius. 



611 



two years, lb. 42. Darius subdued the country along the 
Indus to the sea, lb. 44. and imposed on it a tribute of 360 
talents, Id. iii. 94. 

HISTIiEUS, to whom Darius was indebted for his own 
safety and that of his army, being sent for to Sardis, and desired 
by the king to ask what favour he pleased for his eminent 
services, requested a small territory on the river Strymon in 
Thrace, called Myrc'mus, in the country of the Edonians, with 
permission to build a city. This being granted, he immediately 
set about the work. But Megabyzus, the son of Zopyrus, 
whom Darius had left as governor of Thrace, having repre- 
sented the impropriety of this measure, Histiseus was again 
sent for to Sardis, as if to give his advice on affairs of im- 
portance; and from thence was carried by Darius tolSusa, under, 
pretext that he could not want so able a counsellor, Herodot. iv. 
11. 23.-25. 

Aristagoras, the nephew and son-in-law of Histiseus, was 
made his deputy at Miletus. He being ill used by Artapher- 
nes, the king's brother, governor of Sardis, formed a plan of 
exciting the Ionian states to revolt. To this he was prompted 
by a messenger from Histiaeus 5 who, having no other method 
of sending intelligence, shaved the hair of the head of one of 
his most faithful slaves, and imprinted on it the message ; then 
having kept the slave till his hair grew, he dispatched him to 
Miletus, without any other instructions than that, upon his 
arrival, he should desire Aristagoras to cut off his hair, an4 
look upon his head. Aristagoras, encouraged by this, soon 
engaged all the lonians to form a league for the recovery of 
their liberty and former privileges. To confirm them the 
more in this resolution, having first divested himself of his 
power at Miletus, he restored a popular government in that 
city. Next, by persuasion or force, he effected the same 
change in the other cities. Then, by general appointment, he 
was sent as an ambassador into Greece to solicit assistance, 
lb. 30—39. 

He first applied to Cleomenes king of Sparta, to whom he is 
said to have shewn a map of the whole world, engraven on a 
table of brass, lb. 49. Cleomenes asked him, how many days* 
journey it was from the Ionian sea to the city where the king 
resided ; Anaxagoras answered, three months ; imprudently, 
as Herodotus observes (who gives an accurate account of all 
the resting places from Sardis to Susa, called also the city of 
Memnon) : the distance, amounting, at one hundred and fifty 
R r 2 stadia, 



612 



History of the Persian Empire. 



stadia, or eighteen miles and three quarters a-day, to ninety 
days' journey, lb. 52. Cleomenes, hearing of the distance,* 
bid him depart from Sparta before sun-set, and withdrew ; but 
Aristagoras, taking an olive-branch in his hand, after the 
manner of suppliants, followed him to his house, and endea- 
voured to prevail on him by offering money. As he proceeded- 
gradually increasing his offers, till he came to the sum of fifty 
talents, a little girl of eight or nine years of age, who happened 
to be present, cried out, " Fly, father, jly, or else this stranger 
will corrupt you." Cleomenes was so well pleased with the 
child's admonition, that he immediately retired to another 
apartment, and ordered Aristagoras instantly to leave the city,. 
Ib. 51. 

Aristagoras next went to Athens, where he met with a more 
favourable reception. The Athenians were incensed at Arta- 
phernes, for having espoused the cause of their tyrant Hippias, 
the son of Pisistratus, whom they had expelled about ten years 
before* They therefore equipped a fleet of twenty sail, and 
sent it to the assistance of the Ionians. Five ships from Eretria 
in Eubcea accompanied them, lb. 99. 

The Ionians, strengthened by this reinforcement, leaving 
their ships at Ephesus, marched by land to Sardis, which they 
easily made themselves masters of, except the citadel, which 
Artaphernes defended. As most of the houses were built or 
covered with reeds, a soldier accidentally set one of them on 
fire ; and the flames spreading, the whole city was reduced to 
ashes. The Ionians and Athenians, not being able to reduce 
the citadel, and the enemy assembling to attack them, re- 
treated to their ships. But before they reached them, they were 
overtaken and routed with great slaughter. The Athenians 
who escaped immediately hoisted sail and returned home ; nor 
could they be induced again to concern themselves in the war. 
Their having however engaged so far,, gave occasion to all the 
wars which followed between the Persians and Greeks ; and 
which finally terminated in the destruction of the Persian mo- 
narchy. For Darius being informed that the Athenians had 
been concerned in the burning of Sardis, vowed revenge ; and 
that he might not forget it, he ordered one of his officers 
every day, while he was at supper, to call out three times, 
Master, remember the Athenians (Ae<nroT#, psfAvso rwv ASrjvaiar/). 
In the burning of Sardis, the temple of Cybele, the chief 
goddess of that country, happened to be consumed ; which, 
Herodotus says, made the Persians afterwards burn the temples 



Darius. 



61$ 



of the Greeks, v. 102. &c. but Cicero assigns a different reason, 
Legg. ii. 10. See p. 623. 

The Ionians, although deserted by the Athenians, carried on 
the war with vigour, and took several places from the Per- 
sians. At last, however, being defeated by land and sea, 
chiefly by means of internal treachery, they were forced to sub- 
mit. Miletus was taken and plundered ; the other cities were 
treated according to their deserts; Herodot. v. 122. &c. vi. 
22. Aristagoras was slain in Thrace, v. fin. Histiseus, having 
obtained leave from Darius to return into Ionia, as if to allay 
the commotions, upon the discovery of his perfidy, was made 
prisoner ; and being carried to Sardis, was there crucified by 
the order of Artaphernes. It appeared that if Darius had first 
been consulted, he would have pardoned him on account of 
his former services : For when his head was sent to him, he 
expressed great displeasure at the authors of his death, and 
ordered it to be honourably interred, as belonging to a man 
who had merited highly of himself and of the Persians, Id. vi. 
26.— 31. 

Darius now ordered Mardonius to march with an army into 
Greece, and revenge on the Eretrians and Athenians the burn- 
ing of Sardis. Macedonia submitted on his approach ; but a 
number of his ships being lost in doubling the cape of mount 
Athos, see p. 327. and his army being attacked in the night- 
time by the Thracians, he was obliged to return without suc- 
cess, Id. vi. 43. 45. Next year Darius sent DAT1S, a Mede, 
and ANTAPHERNES, his own nephew, the son of the 
governor of Sardis, with a fleet of five hundred sail, and an 
army of one hundred thousand foot, and ten thousand horse 
(Nepos says two hundred thousand foot, Milt. 4. Valerius 
Maximus, three hundred thousand, v. 3. Ext. 3. and Justin, 
six hundred thousand, ii. 9.), to burn the cities of Athens and 
Eretria, and bring the inhabitants in chains to Susa ; for which 
purpose they were provided with a great number of chains. 
They executed their orders upon the Eretrians, Herodet. vi. 
I0i. and 119. but were defeated with great slaughter at Mara- 
thon, ten miles from Athens, by only nine thousand Athenians 
and one thousand Platseans, under the conduct of Miltiades, 
Ibid. & Herodot. vi. 101. — 1 17. See p. 465. 

Darius, provoked by this disaster, determined to make war 
on Greece in person. He spent three years in making prepar- 
ations. In the mean time Egypt revolted. When he was 
about to set out against both, he was prevented by a dispute 
among his sons concerning the succession to the crown •, for 

R r 3 before 



614 History of the Persian Empire, 



before a Persian king went upon a warlike expedition, it was 
requisite that he should fix his successor. Darius had three song 
born before he was king, and four after by Atossa the daughter 
of Cyrus. Artabazanes or Artamenes was the eldest of the 
former, and Xerxes of the latter. The dispute was determined 
in favour of Xerxes, as being the eldest son of the king, 
whereas the other was only the eldest son of Darius, a private 
person. This argument is said to have been suggested by 
Demaratus, a king of Lacedsemon, then an exile at the Persian 
court. Darius died soon after, having reigned thirty-six years^ 
Id. vii. i. — 5. Justin, ii. 10. 

XERXES prosecuted with vigour the designs of his father. 
He first reduced Egypt, and appointed his brother Achamenes 
governor of it. He next set out against Greece with the 
greatest force recorded in history*; and to ensure success he 
had engaged the Carthaginians at the same time to attack the 
Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy, thus verifying the prediction 
of Daniel, xL 2. The unfortunate event of both expeditions 
is related elsewhere ; see p. 465. & 264. 

Xerxes, after his return to Sardis from Greece, conceived a 
violent passion for the wife of his brother Masts tes. Being 
treated by her with becoming disdain, he transferred his affec- 
tion to her daughter who was married to his son Darius : Her 
base compliance involved in undeserved destruction her father 
and mother, from the jealousy of Hamestris, the wife of Xerxes, 
who treated the mother, her supposed rival, with the most 
shocking cruelty. 

While the Athenians were extending their conquests, Xerxes, 
quite, disheartened, was sunk in voluptuousness; which exposed 
him to the contempt and hatred of his subjects. Encouraged 
by this, Artabanus, his chief favourite, murdered him, in the 
twenty-first year of his reign, and placed ARTAXERXES, his 
third son, on the throne ; having induced him to kill his eldest 
brother Darius, under pretext that he had been the author of his 
father's death. But Artaxerxes being informed by MegabijzuS) 
husband to one of his sisters, of the treachery of Artabanus, 

* Xerxes is said to have numbered his army, by ordering each soldier to shoot an 
arrow, and then counting the arrows, Lucan. iii. 285. Herodotus says this was 
done by making a myriad, or io,oco men, stand together as close as they could in a 
circle, and then building a wall round the place which they occupied to the height of 
the waist j after which the iaclo&ure was again and again filled with men, till it was 
discovered of how many myriads the army consisted. The whole amounted to 170 
myriads, r e. 1,700,000 foot; besides cavalry, mariners, and the attendants of the 
camp. The soldiers being thus numbered, were arranged according to their different 
nations, vii. 60. 

and 



Artaxerxes. 



GIB 



and of his designs upon the crown, inflicted on him the 
punishment he deserved, Diodor. xi. 69. He next crushed his 
brother Hystaspes, governor of Bactria \ and reigned prospe- 
rously for forty years *. He is distinguished by the name of 
Macrocheir or Longimanus, from the uncommon length of his 

* The war with the Greeks continued. The Egyptians revolted under Inarus, 
prince of the Lybians, and applied to the Athenians for assistance, which waB readily 
granted them. Achxmenes, the uncle of Artaxerxes, was sent against them, with 
an army of 300,000 men. But he being defeated, was cut off with about one third of 
his forces. Those who escaped fled to Memphis, whither the conquerors pursued 
them, and made themselves masters of two divisions of the city, but could not reduce 
that called the ivhite watt, which the Persians fortified, and defended themselves in it 
for a year, Diodor. xi. 74. and 75. Ctesias says near three years. I-n the mean time 
Artaxerxes, having in vain attempted to excite the Laceajemonians to make war on 
the Athenians, sent a fresh army of about 300,000 men into Egypt under the conduct 
of Artabazns and Megabyzus, attended by a fleet of 300 sail, manned by Phcenicians, 
Cyprians, and Cilicians, Ibid. The Persians, upon their arrival, raided the siege of the 
•white icall at Memphis, defeated the Egyptians and their ;illies in battle, and obliged 
the Athenians to take shelter in Prosopitis, an island in the Nile ; where they besieged 
them for a year and six months. At last having dried up one of the arms of the river 
which formed the island, by diverting the water into canals, they thus opened for 
themselves a passage. The Athenians, finding their ships left on dry land, set fire to 
them, that they might not fall into the power of the enemy. The number of the 
Athenians amounted to 6coo, who determined not to yield, but to defend themselves 
to the last, in imitation of the Lacedaemonians at Thermopyke. The leaders of the 
Persians, perceiving their intrepidity, and fearing the consequences, granted them 
leave to pass in safety. A few made their way through Lybia to Cyrene, and from 
thence embarked for Athens ; but most of them perished. A fleet of fifty sail, which 
was sent to their relief, having entered one of the mouths of the Nile, not knowing 
what had happened, was almost entirely destroyed by the enemy ; and thus ended the 
unfortunate expedition of the Athenians, after it had lasted six years, lb. 77 ; Thucydid. 
1. 109. & no. 

After this the whole of Egypt submitted to the Persians, except the marshy part of 
it, where one Amyrtaius maintained his ground against them. Thucydid. ib. 

The Athenians, not discouraged by their losses in Egypt, fitted out a new fleet which 
they sent against Cyprus under the command of Cimon. He reduced the greatest 
part of that island, and by his victories both on sea and land forced Ar.axerxes to sue 
for peace ; which was at last concluded on terms highly honourable to tne Athenians 
and their allies, Diodor. xii. 4. And thus was terminated a war, which, if we com- 
pute from the burning of Sardis, lasted fifty-one years ; b. C. 449- Cimon died at 
Citiutn, in Cyprus, and was the last of the Athenians who performed any illustrious 
exploits against the Persians. 

Inarus, who had formerly surrendered to Megabyzus, with fifty Athenians, upon 
condition that their lives should be saved, were, after several years' imprisonment, 
basely put to death, to gratify the revenge of Hamestris, the king's mother, for the 
loss of her son Achxmenes. Inarus was crucified, and the rest beheaded, Ctesias t 
c IS- 

Megabyzus, provoked at this, retired to his government of Syria, where he openly- 
revolted. He defeated two armies sent against him, taking Asiris, the general of one 
of them, prisoner. At last the mediation of friends procured what force could not 
effect. By them he was prevailed on to return to his allegiance, which he preserved 
till his death. But the king did not treat him as his extraordinary merit deserved. 
To him he was indebted both for his life and his crown. He owed too much, as 
Tacitus on another occasion observes, to be grateful, Annal. iv. 18. 



R r 4 



hand s 3 



616 



History of the Persian Empire, 



hands, Strabo, xv. p. 735. or because his right hand was longer 
than his left, Plutarch, in Artax. He is also called in scripture 
AHASUERUS ; Esther. 

Artaxerxes left by his queen only one son, called XERXES, 
who succeeded him ; but seventeen sons by his concubines. 
Sogdianus, one of these, slew Xerxes, after he had reigned forty- 
five days, and usurped the crown. But he was soon after 
dethroned, and put to death in a most cruel manner, by his 
brother Ochvs, who assumed the name of DARIUS. He is 
called by historians Darius Ncthus, or Darius the bastard. 
During almost the whole of his reign, which lasted nineteen 
years, he was disturbed by rebellions and commotions, which, 
however, he successfully quelled, although with shocking cruelty. 
He was succeeded by Arsaces, his eldest son by Parysatis, who 
took the name of ARTAXERXES, and is distinguished by the 
appellation of MNEMON, on account of his extraordinary 
memory, Plutarch, in vita ejus. 

Parysatis wished to have procured the succession to her fa- 
vourite son CYRUS, on the same ground that Xerxes, the son 
of Darius Hystaspes, had been preferred, because he had been 
born after his father was made king. To this Darius would by 
no means consent, but continued to him the command of Asia 
Minor, which he had formerly enjoyed. 

Cyrus attempted to dethrone his brother ; and might have 
effected it by means of the Greeks who served in his army, had 
he not in a manner thrown away his life in the moment of vic- 
tory, from a vehement desire of slaying his brother in single 
combat. After his death, the Greeks being deserted by the rest 
of the army, made that memorable retreat called the retreat of 
the ten thousand, Xenoph. Anabas.; Justin, v. 1 1, see. p. 468. 

Artaxerxes had the weakness to give up those concerned in 
the death of Cyrus to Parysatis his mother, who caused them 
to be put to death with the greatest cruelty. Parysatis, from 
her influence with the king her son, at different^ times exer- 
cised her revenge on those who had offended her, in a manner 
too shocking to relate. Among the rest she poisoned Statzra, 
the favourite wife of Artaxerxes, by inviting her to supper, and 
dividing with her a bird, which she cut with a knife poisoned 
only on one side. On this account she was confined to Baby- 
lon, but after some time she recovered her former ascendancy, 
Plutarch. 

Tissaphernes, who had performed important service in the 
war against Cyrus, after his death was sent back to his go- 
vernment in Asia Minor with augmented authority. Here, by 

10 his 



Artaxerxes. 



617 



his oppressive conduct to the Greek states, who had espoused 
the interest of Cyrus, he forced them to apply to the Lacede- 
monians for assistance ; which they granted the more readily, 
as they had been chiefly indebted to the aid which Cyrus had 
given them, contrary to the opinion of Tissaphernes, for their 
decisive victory over the Athenians at the Goat's river, (jEgcs 
potamos,) under Lysander. They therefore sent an army into 
Asia, under the command, first of Thi?nbro, then of Dcrcyllidas^ 
and last of all of AGESILAUS, one of their kings ; who, by 
his victories and depredations, caused such an alarm at the 
Persian court, that Tissaphernes, accused of misconduct and 
treachery, was ordered to be put to death, chiefly at the insti- 
gation of Parysatis. Tithraustes, the captain of the guard, who 
executed these orders, was appointed to succeed him. He, by 
great presents and fair promises, prevailed on Agesilaus to 
depart from his own government. But finding that Agesilaus 
had only changed the seat of war, having attacked Phrygia, the 
government of Pharnabazus, and that he intended after that to 
carry the war into the very heart of Persia, he sent ambassadors 
into Greece, to endeavour, by force of money, to form a com- 
bination among the Grecian states against Lacedssmon. This 
scheme having succeeded, Agesilaus, in the midst of his suc- 
cesses and preparations, was recalled to defend his country. 
He readily complied ; and observed at his departure that the 
Persians had driven him out of Asia by 30,000 archers alluding 
to the Persian darks, which were pieces of gold so called from 
king Darius, and stamped on one side with the figure of an 
archer, Xenoph. 1st Plutarch. 

In the mean time the Persian fleet, under Conon the Athenian 
and Pharnabazus, defeated the Lacedaemonians under Pisander 
or Pisandrus, the brother-in-law of Agesilaus, near Cnidos, and 
reduced all the islands and cities on the coast of Asia under the 
power of Persia, except Sestos and Abydos. Conon then obtained 
leave to go with a fleet and money to rebuild the walls of Athens, 
which Lysander had destroyed. The Lacedemonians, morti- 
fied by these disasters, sent Antalcidas to Tiribazus, to conclude 
a peace with Artaxerxes on the best conditions he could. This 
was done upon terms very advantageous to the king. By these 
all the Greek states of Asia were again made subject to Persia, 
k- C. 393. Conon, having objected to this peace, was sent for 
to Susa, where he was said to have been secretly put to death by 
the king's order. But about this authors differ, Nepos in Conone. 

Artaxerxes now turned his whole force against EVAGORAS, 
who, by his great abilities, had made himself master of the 

sovereignty 



618 



History of the Persian Empire* 



sovereignty of Salamis and most part of Cyprus. An army of 
300,000 men was sent against him under Tiribazus. Evagoras 
at first defended himself with great bravery and success j being 
assisted by the Athenians under Chabrias, by ships from Tyre s 
and from Egypt ; but at last he was overpowered by numbers, 
and obliged to capitulate. He resigned all his other posses- 
sions, and retained only the sovereignty of Salamis, on condition 
of paying a small tribute to Artaxerxes, Diodor. xv. 2, 3, 4. 8. 
& 9. We have a noble eulogium on this prince, written by 
Isocrates the orator* He was succeeded by his son NICOCLES, 
to whom that orator addressed an excellent directory for govern- 
ment. Diodorus relates this fact otherwise, xv. 47. 

After the reduction of Cyprus, Artaxerxes undertook an ex- 
pedition in person against the Cadusians, a people in the north 
of Media, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, who had re- 
volted. In this war the king and his army were in danger of 
perishing for want of provisions ; but the ingenuity of Tiribazus 
extricated him ; and the Cadusians were again brought under 
subjection. Here DATAMES the Carian, whom Cornelius 
Nepos extols, chiefly distinguished himself. His father Camis- 
sares, governor of Leuco Syria } perished in the expedition. Da- 
tames succeeded his father in that government, and performed 
on different occasions signal service to the king : but being 
forced into rebellion by his enemies, he, with a handful of 
men defeated very numerous armies sent against him ; till at 
last, being decoyed into a peace, he was basely slain by the 
artifice of Mithridates, the son of Ariobarzanes, Nepos > 3 Diodor, 
xv. 91. 

Artaxerxes next sent a great army under Pharnabazus and 
Iphicrates the Athenian, to reduce Egypt, which had been in a 
state of revolt for a considerable time, first under Achoris, the 
son of Amyrtaus, then under Psammuthis* who reigned only 
one year ; after him under Nepherotes*. who reigned only four 
months \ and then under Nectanebus, who reigned twelve years. 
This expedition, after various turns of fortune, finally proved 
unsuccessful, Diodor. xv. 29. 41. & 93. The advice of Iphi- 
crates not being followed, he left the army, and returned to 
Athens, lb. 43. In this war Agesilaus was sent to the assist- 
ance of Tachos, king of Egypt, whom, for some offence, he 
deposed, and placed Nectanebus, his son or cousin, on the 
throne. But authors differ about this fact, Diodor* xv. 92. & 
93. ; Nep. 8. It is certain Agesilaus died in returning from 
this expedition, at a very advanced age, lb. tsf Plutarch* in 
Artax. 

Towards 



\ 



Ochus. 



619 



Towards the end of the reign of Artaxerxes, there were vio- 
lent commotions at court about the succession. He had only 
three sons by his Queen, Darius, Ariaspes, and Ochus ■ but one 
hundred and fifteen by his concubines. To preclude all dispute, 
he declared DARIUS his successor, and invested him with the 
ensigns of royalty in his own lifetime. But Darius, not satis- 
fied with this, formed a plot with Tiribazus and others to seize 
also the power, by murdering his father. They were just on 
the point of executing their purpose, when their guilt being de- 
tected,, they were all put to death, Plutarch. & Justin, x. 1,2. 

The former contentions now revived. OCHUS by his daring 
wickedness prevailed. He so frightened Ariaspes by his emis- 
saries, that he forced him to poison himself. He caused Arsa?nes 9 
(who was the king's favourite son, although born of a concu- 
bine, and universally esteemed for his virtues,) to be poisoned. 
Artaxerxes, overwhelmed with grief at these atrocities, died of 
a broken heart, in the ninety-fourth year of his age, and forty-* 
sixth of his reign, Plutarch, Biodorus says he reigned only 
forty-three years, xv. 93. 

Ochus concealed the death of his father for ten months 5 
transacting every thing as if by his father's authority. He even 
caused himself to be proclaimed king as if by his father's order. 
He assumed the name of Artaxerxes ; but he is distinguished in 
history by that of Ochus. 

Ochus supported his power by the same wickedness and 
cruelty by which he acquired it. He put all the princes of th« 
royal family to death, and every person of whom he entertained 
the least suspicion. Many of the provinces revolted ; but they 
were soon forced to submit, by the treachery of the governors 
to one another. 

Artabazus alone, governor of part of Asia Minor, made a 
vigorous resistance, first by the assistance of Chares, the Athe- 
nian, and afterwards of the Thebans ; but being deserted by 
both, one after the other, he fled to Philip king of Macedon 
for protection, Diodor. xvi. 34. & 52. 

Ochus was equally successful in quelling the revolt of the 
Phoenicians and Cypriots, who were supported by Nectanebus 
king of Egypt. Nectanebus had sent to the assistance of the 
Phoenicians a body of Greeks under MENTOR, a native of 
Rhodes; in conjunction with whom they expelled all the Per- 
sians from their country. But, upon the approach of the army' 
of Ochus, Mentor delivered up the city Sidon into his handsr 
The Sidonians in despair shut themselves up in their houses, 
and set fire to thesn. About 40,000 are said to have perished 



620 



History of the Persian Empire* 



by the flames, Diodor. xvi. 45. The rest of the Phoenicians, 
struck with terror at this disaster, submitted. Mentor, having 
joined the Persian army, contributed greatly to the conquest of 
Egypt. Nectanebus being defeated, and giving up all for lost, 
fled into Ethiopia. Ochus having ravaged the country, returned 
in triumph to Babylon, lb. 51. The petty kings of Cyprus had 
formerly submitted. There were at this time no fewer than 
nine kings in the island, every chief city having one. These 
were all subject to the king of Persia, and paid him tribute, 
lb. 42. 

Ochus now abandoned himself entirely to pleasure, leaving 
the management of public affairs to his ministers. The chief of 
these were MENTOR, and BAGOAS an eunuch. The latter 
being an Egyptian by birth, and provoked by the cruelties exer- 
cised by Ochus on his countrymen, particularly for his having 
slain the god Apis, JElian. vi. 8. caused him to be poisoned in 
the twenty-first year of his reign, Diodor. xvii. 5. 

Bagoas placed ARSES, the youngest of the sons of Ochus, 
on the throne, and put to death all the rest. But Arses, who 
was only' king in name, discovering marks of dissatisfaction, 
was also assassinated in the second year of his reign, lb. 

Bagoas next raised to the throne DARIUS, called CODO- 
MANNUS, who was only a distant relation to the royal family, 
Curt. ii. 1. But finding him not sufficiently compliant, he 
determined likewise to dispatch him by poison. But Darius 
being apprised of his design, when the portion was brought to 
him, forced Bagoas himself to drink it, Diodor. ib. 

Darius possessed several qualities worthy of a crown, but 
wanted the sagacity and resolution requisite for the difficult 
part he had to act. In the second year of his reign he was 
attacked by ALEXANDER, king of Macedonia. If the Per- 
sians had followed the advice of MEMNON the Rhodian, they 
would have avoided an engagement, and stopped the progress 
of the enemy, by laying waste the country 5 but Arsites y satrap 
of Phrygia, opposed this opinion, lest the lands of his own 
province should suffer, Diodor. xvii. 18. After the defeat at 
Granicus, Sardis and Ephesus submitted to the victor ; but 
Memnon made a vigorous defence, first at Miletus^ and then at 
Halicarnassus, where he held out for several months with great 
bravery and skill ; but he was at last obliged to abandon the 
place, whereupon all the Greek cities in Asia declared for 
Alexander. 

Memnon now advised Darius to carry the war into Mace- 
donia j which proposal being approved of, he himself was ap- 
pointed 



Maimers and Customs of the Persians, 621 



pointed to put it in execution. Having equipped a fleet of 300 
sail, and put on board a great number of land forces, he reduced 
several of the islands, and by his vigorous conduct raised so 
great expectation, that the Spartans and several other states en- 
gaged, upon his arrival in Greece, to join him. But Memnon 
being soon after cut off by disease before Mitylene } which he 
was obliged to besiege, this enterprise was dropt. Darius 
having no other General fit to be entrusted with the charge of 
prosecuting it, he therefore now directed his whole attention 
to provide for internal defence : but all his plans were ill con- 
certed and worse executed ; hence his reign was soon brought 
to a fatal period, and with it terminated the Persian monarchy, 
b. C. 330. after it had lasted two hundred and six years, under 
thirteen kings, Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius Hyjtaspis, 
Xerxes /., Artaxerxes Longimanus, Xerxes II. , Sogdianus, Darius 
Nothus, Artaxerxes Mnemotty Artaxerxes Ochus> Arses, Darius 
Codomannus, 

The Persian empire had long been on the decline. The 
tyranny of its government^ the depravity of its princes, the op- 
pression of the satrapa, the slavery of the people, the want of 
union among the different parts of the empire, these and other 
circumstances served to precipitate its fall. 



Manners and Customs of the Persians, 

The crown of Persia was partly hereditary, and partly de- 
pended on the will of the reigning prince. The power of the 
sovereign, as almost universally in the east, was very absolute. 
Those who approached him prostrated themselves on the ground^ 
and adored him as a divinity *, Curt, iii. 12. 17. vi. 6, 3. viii. 
5. 11. 

The 

* This Conon refused to do, Justin, vi. 1. from an apprehension that it would be 
offensive to his countrymen, Nep. ix. 3. So the Lacedaemonians Spertbies and Bulls, 
Herodot. vii. 136. ; and Timagoras is said to have been punished capitally by the Athe- 
nians for submitting to it, Val. Max, vi. 3. ext. %. Ismenias the Theban artfully 
evaded it, Milan, i. ai. Cyrus the younger is said to have put two persons to death, 
for not covering their hands with their sleeves in his presence. Xenopbon. The usual 
title of address to the king was Master or Lord ()i/r<rorys, dominus.) He was called 
the Great King, or King of Kings. How great veneration was paid to the Persian 
monarch, we may judge from this: When Xerxes, in crossing from Europe to Asia, 
after his retreat from Greece, was overtaken by a storm, and the pilot declaring that 
all must perish unless the vessel was lightened of some of the passengers, several of the 
Persians, at the king's desire, after having adored him, leapt into the sea. Xerxes upon 

landing 



622 



Manners and Customs of the Persians. 



The Persians were carefully trained to be soldiers. The 
three great lessons the youth were taught, from five to twenty- 
years of age, were, to ride, to shoot the arrow, and to speak 
truth, Herodot. i. 136. In time of war, every one, if required, 
was obliged to attend the king in his expeditions, unless disabled 
by age or infirmity, under pain of death. * 

When the Persians went to war, they carried with them their 
wives and children, as an incentive to courage, Curt. hi. 8. 12. 
The method of mustering the troops, and the order of their 
march are described, Herodot. vii. 60. &c. 

Before the Persians declared war on any natron, they sent 
ambassadors to demand of them earth and water as a token of 
submission f, Id. v. 17. vi. 48. vii. 133. 

The Persians erected neither statues, nor temples, nor altars 
to their deities; considering it as absurd to confine within walls 
that being whose temple is the universe, [cut omnia deberent esse 
potential) Cic. legg. ii. 10. Accordingly they called the whole 

landing presented the pilot with a golden crown for his preservation, but ordered him 
to be beheaded for having caused the death of so many Persians. The truth of this 
however is doubted by Herodotus, viii. 118. The punishment inflicted on those guilty 
of treason, is too shocking to be described, Plutarch, in the life of Artaxerxes. 

* When Darius was about to set out against the Scythians, Oebazus, a Persian 
nobleman, who had his three sons in the army, requested that one of them might be 
left to comfort him in his old age, Darius said he would leave them all, and immediately 
ordered them to be slain, Herodot. iv. 84. ; Seneca de Ira, iii. 16. Thus also Xerxes 
behaved to another nobleman, see p. 349. Herod, vii. 27. & 39 ; Senec. ibid. 17. 

The arms of the Persians were a thick tiara or head-piece; a coat of mail, a cover- 
ing for the thighs and legs, a target (gerra), below it a quiver hung; a large bow and 
arrows of reed, a short sword or scimitar (aci/iaces), hanging from a belt on the 
right thigh, Herodot. vii. 61. The horses also, in different parts of their body, 
were covered with brass {equi cataphracti). The Persians chiefly excelled in fight- 
ing on horseback ; they also fought from chariots. Cyrus is said to have introduced 
the use of chariots armed with scythes, Xenophon. Cyropad. wiu.fm. But Diodorus 
Siculus mentions 10,000 of these long before in the army of Ninus, ii. 5. 
The Persians had a curious method of communicating intelligence, particularly in 
time of war, by means of torches on watch-towers, which Polybius describes, 
x. 39. &c. 

f The Scythians sent in return to Darius, a bird, a mouse a frcg, and five ar- 
rows ; intimating, that unless the Persians could fly through the air like birds, go 
under the ground like mice, or plunge into the fens like frogs, they must perish by 
those arrows, Herodot. iv. 132. The ambassadors sent by Darius to Athens and Sparta 
to demand submission, were in the one place thrown into a deep ditch, and in the other 
into a well, that there they might find earth and water ; on which account Xerxes 
sent no ambassador before he made war on them, Id. vii. 133. The Lacedaemonians 
being afterwards alarmed by unfavourable omens, and imagining it was for this crime, 
sent two men, Sperthies and Btdis, who undertook to go voluntarily to Susa, to atone 
for it by their death ; but Xerxes generously declined exacting it, and dismissed them 
in safety, U. 1 36, 



expanse 



Manners and Customs of the Persians* 



expanse of heaven Jupiter, Herodot. i. 131. For this reason, at 
the instigation of the Magi, or priests, Xerxes is said to have 
burnt the temples of the Greeks *", Cic. legg. ii. 10. see p. 612. 

They worshipped chiefly the sun under the name of Mithras^ 
as an emblem of the deity, f 

* The chief doctrine of the Magi was, that there are two principles or supreme 
divinities at continual variance with each other; the one the cause of all good, and 
the other the cause of all evil. The former was represented by light, and called 
Tazdan or Ormusd, by the Greeks Oramasdes; the latter was represented by 
darkness, and called Ahraman, by the Greeks Arimanius. The author of this doctrine 
is said to have been ZOROASTER v. -stres, Pirn. xxx. I. Diogen. Laert, protem. 2. 
Justin.l. 'I. But others say that Zoroaster only reformed the niagian system, in the 
time of Darius Hystaspis, and taught that there was a principle superior to the other 
two, one supreme Being, who created both light and darkness, Hyde, de relig. vet. 
Pers. The time however when this philosopher flourished is uncertain, Plin. Iff 
Laert. ibid. Pliny says that Zoroaster was the only person that smiled the first day 
he was born, vii. 16. 

f Herodotus says that they called Venus Metra ; and that they also worshipped the 
moon and the earth, fire, water, and the winds. They prayed not only for themselves, 
but also for the whole Persian nation, and particularly for the king. Without a priest 
no legal sacrifice could be performed ; and after tarrying a little, he carried off the 
flesh, and used it for what purpose he pleased, lb. 13a. 

The Persians observed their birth day with particular solemnity. No one was 
allowed to vomit or make water publicly. What it was indecent to do, it was unlaw- 
ful to mention. The basest crime was to tell a lie, and next to that to contract debt, 
because this usually leads to falsehood. There was also an action for ingratitude. 
They consulted about matters of the greatest importance over their cups, and deter- 
mined them next day when sober, lb. 133. as the Germans, see p. 564. When 
equals met they kissed one another : if one of them was a little inferior, they kissed 
one another on the cheek ; if greatly inferior, he fell down and worshipped the other. 
Neighbourhood was considered as a strong bond of connection. They were however 
fond of foreign customs, and borrowed luxuries from all quarters. Xerxes even 
proposed a reward to the person who should invent a new pleasure, Cic. Tusi. v. 7. ; 
Fa I. Max. ix. 1. 3. 

Next to bravery in war, having a numerous offspring was most highly esteemed 
and to such the king annually sent presents, Herodot. i. 136. No one was punished 
for the first fault, or suffered capitally for one crime. The ancient Babylonians did 
not use physicians ; but the sick were carried into the forum or public place, and such 
as passed were obliged to stop and declare if they, or any of their acquaintances, had 
ever been affected with the same disease, and what had given them relief, Herodot. i. 
197. The bodies of the dead, after being bedaubed with wax, were interred. Those 
of the Magi were not buried till they had first been exposed to be torn by wild beasts, 
lb. 140. ; Cic. Tusc. i. 45. The Hyrcanians are said to have publicly maintained dogs 
for that purpose, lb. 

It was anciently the custom at Babylon, on a certain day, to assemble such virgins 
as were marriageable, and dispose of them in marriage for money ; first the most 
beautiful to the highest bidder, and then those who were less comely. The money 
thus collected was given to those who married the ill-favoured ; and each of these 
virgins was given to the man who agreed to take her with the smallest sum, Thus 
the rich had an opportunity of gratifying their fancy, and the more ordinary looking 
procured husbands ; which excellent custom Herodotus says did not exist in his time, 
Herodot. i. 196. Every married woman was obliged once in her life to prostitute 
herself in the temple of Venus, called by the Assyrians Mylitta, to a stranger, for 
whatever sum of money the stranger agreed to give, which was consecrated to the 
goddess, lb. 1 99. The same custom is said to have prevailed in Cyprus, Strab, 
xvi. 74J. 

BABYLON, 



624 



Description of Babylon* 



BABYLON, long the most celebrated city in the world, 
Plin. vii. 26. is said to have been built by Semiramis, Diodor. 
ii. 7. Strab. xvi. princ. Herodotus ascribes to her only the 
construction of a mound for confining the Euphrates, i. 184. 
Eusebius makes it to have been founded by Nimrod, increased 
by Belus, and adorned chiefly by Nebuchadnezzar *, Pr£par. 
ix. 41. 

The walls were built of large bricks, cemented with bitu- 
men, a pitchy substance, which issues out of the earth in 
that country, Strab. xvi. p. 743. and as Herodotus informs 
us, was found in great quantities on the banks of a small river 
called IS, which runs into the Euphrates. The walls were 
surrounded with a broad deep ditch, out of which the earth 
had been taken for making the bricks, Herodot. i. 179. This 
ditch was filled with water. — Babylon, as being defended by 
brick walls, is called by Juvenal, a figulis munita urbs y x. 171. 
The towers on the walls were only 250, several places being 
surrounded by marshes, and therefore, sufficiently secure with- 
out towers, Diodor. ib. There were an hundred gates, twenty- 
five on each side, all of solid brass, Herodot. ib. : Isaiah, xlv. 
2. from which straight streets ran, intersecting one another, 
through the whole city, and dividing it into a certain number 
of distinct squares. Round these squares, towards the streets, 
stood the houses, not contiguous, but separated by certain 
intervals, all built three or four stories high. The space in 
the middle of each square was void of houses, and laid out in 
gardens, or employed for other purposes, Curt. v. 4. s. 1. 26. 
The houses were not built close to the walls, but at the dis- 

* The circumference of the walls, according to Diodorus, was 360 stadia or 365, 
to answer to the days of the year; the breadth was sufficient to let six chariots ga 
abreast; the height he does not specify, but only says, it was incredibly great, ii. 7. 
He however remarks, that some made the height only 50 cubits, and the breadth a 
little more than sufficient to let two carriages pass one another. Herodotus says, that 
the form of the city was a square, the extent of each side 120 stadia, or 15 milcs>and 
the circumference of the whole, 480 stadia, or 60 miles ; the height 200 royal cubit?, 
and the thickness 50 cubits, i. 178. Pliny follows Herodotus, but makes the height 
200 feet, and the breadth 50 feet, instead of cubits; he adds, that each foot was three 
inches more than the Roman foot, vi. 26. as Herodotus obfeaves, that a royal cubit 
was three inches more than an ordinary one ; so that the cubit of Herodotus and the 
foot of Pliny are, in the opinion of the latter, supposed to be equivalent. Strabo 
makes the circumference 385 stadia, the thickness of the walls 32 feet ; the height 
between the towers 50 cubits, of the towers themselves, 60 cubits ; and the way on 
the top of the walls wide enough to let two carriages pass one another with ease, xvi. 
738, Curtius nearly agrees with Strabo, v. 4. s. i. 25. 



tance 



Descriptio?i of Babylon. 625 

iance of two plethra, Biodor. ii. *]. fa. (fere spatium unius jugeris, 
Curt* ibid ) about two hundred feet. 

The river Euphrates flowed through the middle of the city, 
from north to south \ over which there was a bridge, five sta- 
dia long and thirty feet broad *, Biodor. ib. There were two 
palaces, one at each end of the bridge, which commanded a 
view of the whole city, Biodor. ibid. That on the east side of 
the river was called the old Palace, thirty stadia or three miles 
and three quarters of a mile in compass ; and that on the west, 
the new Palace, sixty stadia or seven miles and a half in compass. 
These two palaces communicated with one^ another by a vault 
built under the channel of the river. f 

Adjoining 



* But the river here (according to Strabo, xvi. 738.) was only one stadium or fur- 
long broad; consequently the bridge could -hardly be so much longer. 

f Before the bridge and this vault could be built, it was necessary to divert the 
«ourse of the river, and leave its channel dry. Fortius purpose a vast lake was dug 
above Babylon west from the river, of a square form, 300 stadia or 37^ miles every 
way, and 35 feet deep, Diodor. ii. 9. Herodotus makes its circumference only 420 
stadia, or $%\ miles, i. 185. Into this lake the waters of the river were made to flow 
by an artificial canal, till the bridge and other works were finished ; which Diodorus 
informs us was effected in an incredibly short time, ib. Then the river was again per- 
mitted to flow in its usual channel. The lake however was still preserved, not only to 
prevent the city and adjoining country from being overflowed by the annual inundations 
of the river, but also to serve as a great reservoir for containing water through the 
whole year, which being let out by sluices, was conveyed through email canals over the 
circumjacent lands to a great extent : hence their amazing fertility, which is celebrated 
by many authors. They generally produced at least an hundred fold, sometimes three 
hundred fold. Herodot. i. 193. A branch of the Euphrates joined the Tigris, where 
Nineveh stood, ib. and afterwards Seleucia, Pirn. v. 24. It separated from th* main 
stream at a place called Zeugma, ib. As the Tigris ran in lower ground than the 
Euphrates, there were several canals from the latter to the former, Arrian. vii. and 
from each of these, numerous smaller canals were cut, Polyh. ix. 35. In this manner 
the corn fields were watered, for it rains very little in Assyria, Herodot. ibid. 

To secure the country round Babylon yet more from the danger of inundations, there 
were great banks raised on both sides of the river, Herodot. i. 185. Within the city 
on each side of the river, was a quay and an hi S h wall built of brick and bitumen, of 
the same thickness with the walls of the city. In these two opposite walls, at the end 
of every street, were gates of brass, and from them descents by steps down to the river. 
Jhese gates were open m the day-time and shut at night, Herodot i. 180. i8j.* 186. 

In the centre of the city, near the old palace, stood the temple of Belus, of a square 
torrn, two furlongs every way. In the middle of the temple was a solid tower built 
ot brick and bitumen, (supposed by some to have been the same with that of Babel, 
mentioned, Gen x. 4. ft .0.) a furlong in length and breadth at the foundation ; also 
a furlong or six hundred and sixty feet in height, Strab. Xvi. 738. It consisted of eight 
square towers, one above another, gradually decreasing in breadth, which with the 
winding of the stairs from the top to the bottom on the outside, gave it the resem. 
blance of a square pyramid, as Strabo calls it, ibid. On the top of this tower was an 
apartment, properly fitted up, for making astronomical observations. Here also were 
tturee statues of solid gold, one of them, namely that of Jupiter or Belus, forty feet 

* s ' high, 



626 



Description of Babylon. 



Adjoining to the new palace or the citadel, Diodor. \u 10. 
were the famous hanging gardens, (pensiles horti,) according to 
Pliny, xix. 4. s. jo. the work of Semiramis or Cyrus : accord- 
ing to Curtius, v. 5. s. v. 1. 35. and Diodorus Siculus, ib. the 
work of a Syrian king, who reigned at Babylon, to gratify his 
wile, who being a Persian by birth, regretted the want of those 
woods and groves to which she had been accustomed.* 

So great was the opulence of the country around Babylon, 
that it furnished one third of the contribution imposed on the 
whole empire for the maintenance of the king and his army, 
Herodot, i. 192. After Cyrus overturned the Assyrian empire, 
Ib. 191. Babylon sunk in its importance, as the Persian kings 
usually resided at Susa, Persepolis, or Ecbatana. ' When Da- 
rius reduced Babylon by the contrivance of Zopyrus he demo- 
lished its walls and gates, Id. Hi. 159. Alexander the Great 
proposed to restore it to its former greatness, by making it the 
seat of his empire. After his death it was neglected by the 



high, and weighing one thousand Babylonic talents, Diodor.ii.g. computed to have 
been worth three millions of our money. Herodotus represents this statue of 
Jupiter as_ not quite so large, i. 183. The whole value of the statues and decora- 
tions mentioned by Diodorus Siculus is estimated at above twenty-one millions Sterline. 
Xerxes, upon his return from his Grecian expedition, is said to have plundered and 
demolished this temple; Strab. ibid. Herodot.'u 183.; but JElian gives a different 
account of this matter, xiii. 3. Alexander attempted to repair it, but was prevented 
by death, Strab. ib. Pliny says that the temple of Belus was standing in his time, 
vi. 26. s. 30. 

* This king of Syria or Assyria, we are told by Josephus, on the authority of Be- 
rosus Ant. Jud. x. ii. & contra Apion. i. 19. p. 1044. was Nebuchadnezzar, who 
reared this structure to please his wife, who came from Media. The same account he 
says is confirmed by Megasthenes and Philostratus. 

These gardens are said to have contained a square, extending four plethra or four 
hundred feet on each side. Strabo says four Tkivpex. or jugcra, xvi. 738. They "con- 
sisted of terraces rising oi:e above another, like the seats of a theatre, and carried up to 
the heightof the walls of the city; the ascent from terrace to terrace being by steps 
ten feet wide. The terraces were supported on arches, strengthened by walls twenty- 
two feet thick. The arch which supported the highest terrace was fifty cubits high. 
This terrace lay next to the Euphrates, and had in it a reservoir, to which water was 
raised from the river by means of an engine, and whence the gardens in the lower ter- 
races were supplied. Over the arches which supported each terrace was first laid a 
flooring of large stones, sixteen feet long and four feet broad ; above this a layer of reeds 
mixed with a great quantity of bitumen; above this a double row of bricks cemented 
with plaster (gypsa) ; and over all these were thick sheets of lead, to prevent the 
moisture from sinking through. Above these was laid a sufficient depth of earth for 
the tallest trees to take root in. This ground being levelled, was planted with all sorts 
of trees ; so that these terraces rising gradually above one another towards the river, 
had at a distance the appearance of a woody mountain, intermixed with the most beau- 
tiful flowers and plants of all kinds. In the spaces between the arches were various 
magnificent apartments, commanding an extensive prospect, Diodor. iff Curt. ibid. The 
description of Strabo is somewhat different, xvi. 758. 

Mace- 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



627 



Macedonians; especially after Seleucus Nicator built Seleucia 
on the Tigris, at the distance only of three hundred stadia or 
thirty-seven miles and a half from Babylon, Pliny says ninety 
miles, vi. 26. where he and his successor fixed their residence: 
So that Strabo says in his time Babylon was in a great measure 
deserted, ibid. His contemporary Diodorus Siculus says, that 
only a small portion of it was then inhabited, and that most 
places within the walls were cultivated with the plough, ii. 9. 
To the same purpose, Pliny, vi. 26. and Pausanias, viii. 33. 
Scarcely any vestiges of Babylon now remain ; so that the pre- 
dictions concerning it recorded in scripture have literally been 
fulfilled, Isai. xiii. 19. &c. xiv. 22, Sec, 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 

ASIA may be divided into six parts : Turkey *, Arabia, Per- 
sia, India, China, and Tartary. 

I. TUR- 



* The government of Turkey is nothing but a pure military despotism. The so- 
vereign is called the SULTAN, the Grand Seignior, the Grand Turk, or Emperor of 
the Turks ; his prime minister, the Grand Vizier ; his chief secretary, Reis Effendi ; 
the principal judge, Cadi-el-askar, or Cadi Leskier, i. e. the judge of the army, who 
appoints the inferior Cadis or Judges ; the chief priest is called Mufti ; the governors 
of provinces, Pachas or Bashaws, who are appointed by the Vizier ; the commander 
in chief of the army, Captain Pacha, of the fleet, Captain Bassa. The council whose 
advice the Sultan usually follows in the administration of affairs, is called the Divan. 

The Sultan succeeds partly by inheritance, and partly by the nomination of his pre- 
decessor. He rules with the same absolute command as the general of an army, and 
delegates his whole power to the various officers whom he employs ; first to the Vizier, 
the Vizier to the Pacha, and he to his subdelegates, under the names of Matsallati, 
Kaiem-Makam, Aga, Delibashe, \zfc. The Sultan considers all his subjects as slaves, 
whose lives and properties are at his disposal. There is no diversity of rank, but what 
is derived from being employed in the service of the Sultan. The only checks to des- 
potism in Turkey arise from its own chief supports, the force of superstition and the 
terror of the army. 

The provinces are divided into a certain number of districts, each governed by 2 
Pacha or viceroy, who is invested with unlimited power. Thus Syria is divided into 
five governments or Pachalics, usually called from the city where the Pacha resides, the 
Pachalic of Aleppo, of Tripoli, of Saide, (anciently Sidon,) lately removed to Acre, 
(anciently Aco or Ptolemais,) of Damascus, and of Gaza, commonly called the Pa- 
chalic of Palestine. This division was first made by SELIM I. who took Syria from 
the Mamlouks; but the limits of these Pachalics have often varied, though their ge- 
neral extent has always been the same. 

ALEPPO is situate in the middle of an immense plain, which extends from the 
Orontes to the Euphrates; supposed to contain 200,000 inhabitants, but some make 

S s a the 



628 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



I. TURKEY in ASIA is about icoo miles long, and 800 
broad; between 28 and 45 deg. N. lat. and 27 and 46 deg. E. 
Ion. and contains the following countries : 

1. Na- 

the number only one half.— — ANTIOCH is now in a very ruinous state, consisting 
only of mud-walled houses, covered with straw. It now stands on the southern hank 
of the Orontes, about six leagues, or eighteen miles^from its mouth. It formerly 
stood on the north bank. This river is here about forty paces broad, and at Alepp» 
but a small stream. 

TRIPOLI is situate on the river Kadisha, about a mile from its mouth, at the foot 

of mount Lebanon. Among the mountains of Lebanon live a brave people called the 

Druses ; adjoining to them the Mar on ites, who are Christians in the communion of the 
church of Rome ; and north of these the Ansarians, whose religion is similar to that 
of the Druses, a mixture of Paganism and Mahometanism. These states pay an 
annual tribute to the Turks, but enjoy their own laws, not being subject to the 
Turkish Pachas. They are ruled by their own Shaiks or Emirs, i. e. noblemen or 
descendants from princes, who possess a limited authority, similar to that of chiefs 
in the patriarchal ages. Every one lives in perfect security of his life and property. 
The men cultivate their lands and vineyards, and the women perform all domestic 
offices. In cases of great importance, as concerning peace or war, the Emir or sove- 
reign must convoke a general assembly, and lay before it the state of his affairs. Here 
every Shaik, and every person who has any reputation for courage or understanding, is 
intitled to give his suffrage; so that this government may be considered as a well pro- 
portioned mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. The Turks have made 
repeated attempts to reduce these states to absolute subjection, but without success. 
Their courage and mountains have hitherto protected them. The Druses are remark- 
able for their hospitality. When they have once admitted a person to their house, and 
set before him bread and salt, nothing can make them violate this sacred pledge of 
friendship, 

SAIDE (anciently Sidon) extends along the sea-shore about 600 paces, in breadth 
150. It is a considerable trading town, being the chief emporium of Damascus, and the 
interior country. It has on the south side a small fort on an eminence, and on the 
north-west a castle, built in the sea, eighty paces from the main land, to which it is 
joined by arches. The inhabitants amount to 50CO, whose chief employment is the 

manufacture of cotton. Six leagues, or eighteen miles to the south of Saide, (two 

hundred stadia, Strab. xvi. 757.) is the village SOUR, (anciently TYRE,) contain- 
ing only fifty or sixty poor families which live on the produce of their little grounds, 
and a tiifling fishery ; situate on a peninsula, which projects from the shore into the 
sea, in the form of a mallet with an oval head. This head is a solid rock, covered 
with a brown cultivable earth, which forms a small plain of about 800 paces long, by 
4cc broad. The isthmus, which joins this plain to the continent, is of pure sea sand. 
This difference of soil renders the ancient insular state of the plain, before Alexander 
joined it to the shore by a mole, very visible. [See Strab. xvi. 756. ; Plin.v. 19. s. 17. ; 
Diodor. xvii. 4C. — 48. ; Curt. iv. a) The sea, by covering this mole with sand, has 
enlarged it with successive accumulations, and formed the present isthmus. From 
Tyre to Sidon the ground is very level. About four hundred stadia, Strab. xvi. 756. 
or fifty miles north of Saide, near the foot of mount Lebanon, is Bairout, (anciently 
Berytus, B'/ipvros,) the emporium of the Druses, and Maronites, where they export their 
cottons and silks, chiefly to Cairo ; whence they receive in return rice, tobacco, coffee, 

and specie. This commerce maintains near 6000 persons. —Nine leagues, or 

twenty-seven miles to the south of Sour, is the city of ACRE, (anciently Ace, Aco,v. 
Acco : called afterwards Ptolemais, Strab. xvi. 758. ; Plin. v. 19. ; Diodor. xix.93.) 
at the foot of the north extremity of mount CARMEL, which is a flattened cone and 
very rocky, about aoco feet high, in the country of ancient Galilee. Acre was a place 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



Chief Totvfis. 



r. 


Natolia, 


Smyrna, Trebizond 


2. 


Georgia, 


Teflis. 


3- 


TURCOMANIA, 


Erzerum. 


4- 


Syria, 


Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, 
Damascus, Jerusalem. 


5- 


DlARBEC, 


Diarbec, Mousul. 


6, 


CURDISTAN, 


Nineveh, Betlis. 


7- 


Eyraca, or Iraca Arabic, 


Bassora, Bagdat. 



II. ARA- 

of note in the time of the Crusaders ; but after their expulsion, it remained almost de- 
serted, till the year 1750, when it was fortified by DAHER, an Arabian Shnik; who 
having obtained possession of part of this country, revolted from the Porte, and main- 
tained his independence till 1775, when he was slain by the treachery of his chief con- 
fident. Acre has since been the seat of the Pacha of this district, and has become one 
of the principal towns on the coast.- — About eighteen miles east from Acre, is the vil- 
lage Nafra, anciently Nazareth ; and six miles south-east of it, mount TABOR, 
near 3000 feet high, from which is one of the finest views in Syria : to the south, a 
series of valiies and mountains, extending as far as Jerusalem ; to the east, the valley 
of Jordan and lake Tabaria, anciently Tiberias, which seems as if inclosed in the 
crater of a volcano ; and to the north, the fertile plains of Galilee. 

DAMASCUS is situate in the midst of an extensive plain, watered with numerous 
rivulets from the surrounding mountains, about four or five miles in circumference, 
containing about 8o,coo inhabitants, of whom about 15,000 are Christians. It is the 
rendezvous for all the pilgrims from the north of Asia, in their way to the Caaba. 
The CAABA is a square building in the temple of Mecca, which Mahomet enjoined 
all his followers to visit once in their lifetime ; and to preserve continually on their 
minds a sense of their obligation to perform this duty, he directed, that in all the mul- 
tiplied acts of devotion which his religion prescribes, true believers should always turn 
their faces towards that holy place. According to the tradition of the Arabs, it is the 
first spot on earth which was consecrated to the worship of the deity. The number of 
pilgrims who assemble at Damascus every year, amounts from thirty to fifty thousand, 
which forms a large caravan. So many camels are employed, that ten thousand of 
them are said to perish annually. By means of this caravan Damascus has become the 
centre of a very extensive commerce, views of profit usually mingling with those of 
religion. Among its exports, dried fruits constitute an important article. These were 
famous also in ancient times; hence Damascena, sc. prune, were cultivated in 
Italy, Plin. xv. 13. s. 12. A rich kind of silks, from having been first fabricated in 

this city, are called Damasks. The splendid ruins of Palmyra, or Tadmour in the 

desert, the celebrated emporium for Indian commodities in ancient times, said to have 
been built or fortified by Solomon, Josephus, viii. 6. were unknown in Europe, from 
the time of its destruction by Aurelian, a. 273, till the end of last century, when some 
English merchants of Aleppo visited them in 1691. Amid these magnificent monu- 
ments of a powerful and polished people, are now about thirty mud-walled huts, pos- 
sessed by Arab peasants, who exhibit every external mark of extreme poverty.—— 
JERUSALEM affords an example equally striking of the vicissitude of human things, 
containing only about twelve or fourteen thousand inhabitants. It is governed by a 
Motsallam, or deputy, appointed by the Pacha of Damascus, who derives considerable 
profits from the pilgrims who come to visit the holy sepulchre, or burial place of our 
Saviour. But the number of these is now greatly diminished, especially of Europeans. 
About eighteen miles north-east of Jerusalem, in a plain about twenty miles 
S s 3 long 



630 Modem Divisions of Asia. 



II. ARABIA, 1300 miles long, and 1200 broad j between 

12 and 30 deg. N. lat. and 35 and 60 deg. E. Ion. Mecca, 

Medina, Mocho. 

III. PER- 

long and nine broad, is a village called Raha, the ancient 'Jericho. About six miles 
south-east from Jerusalem, on an eminence, is Bait-el-lahm, anciently Bethlehem y 
which can furnish six hundred men capable of bearing arms, of whom about one hun- 
dred are Christians; twenty-one miles to the south of this village is Habroun or He- 
bron, at the foot of an eminence, the most considerable village in those parts, from the 
manufacture of cotton and glass. The inhabitants of Hebron are at continual variance 
■with those of Bethlehem. This whole country in general is hilly and rugged. The 
country to the south called Palestine, anciently the country of the Philistines, is en- 
tirely a level plain, and fertile. 

Palestine sometimes has a governor of its own, who resides at Gaza, but usually, 
as at present, it is divided into three Appenages, Tafa, (anciently Joppa,) Loudd 
{Lydda, v. Diosptilis,) and Gaza, farmed out to Agas. These are now very inconsi- 
derable places, having been frequently ravaged by hostile invasions. About a mile 
south of Loudd stands Ramla, the ancient Arimathea. Nine miles south of this on the 
road to Gaza is Tahna, anciently Jamnla ; beyond which are various ruins, the most 

considerable at Ezdoud, anciently Azotus. GAZA is said to have got its 

name from Cambyses, in his war against Egypt, placing there his military chest, {opes 
et pecunia, TAZA,) MeL i. II. It was anciently a place of importance, and strongly 
fortified, as being the frontier town of Palestine towards Egypt. Beyond Gaza are only 
deserts, part of which abound with barren mountains ; consisting of calcareous stone or 
granite, as Sinai and Horeb ; on the former of which is a convent of monks, whither 
many pilgrims resort to visit the relics of a St. Catherine, which are preserved there. 

Syria is much less populous than it was in ancient times. The tyranny of the 
Turkish government has reduced many parts to a mere waste wilderness. The terri- 
tories of Jamnia and Joppa in Palestine, which in the time of Strabo were able to bring 
into the field 40,000 armed men, Strab. xvi. 159. could not now furnish 3000. 
Judaea, which in the time of Titus is thought to have contained four millions of inha- 
bitants, daes not now contain the tenth part of that number. The whole population 
of Syria is supposed hardly to amount to two millions and a half. The country of the 
Druses and Maronites, although least fertile, is the most populous. The Pacha of 
each department is, like the Sultan, a mere despot. He possesses the most absolute 
power of life and death, which he exercises without formality and without appeal. 
Wherever he meets with an offence, he orders the criminal to be seized, and the exe- 
cutioner, by whom he is accompanied, strangles him, or cuts off his head on the spot ; 
nay sometimes the Pacha himself does not disdain this office. The Pacha frequently 
strolls about disguised, and woe to the man whom he surprises in a fault. But as he 
cannot be present every where, he commits this duty to a deputy, called the Wait, 
who patroles night and day, and, like the Pacha, judges and condemns without appeal. 
The criminal bends his neck, the executioner strikes, the head falls, and the body is 
carried off in a leathern sack. The Wali has a multitude of spies, by whose means 
he knows every thing. He inspects the markets, and punishes with the greatest 
severity any deficiency in weights and measures. Little or no attention is paid in 
Turkish cities to the cleanliness of the streers, which are never paved, swept or 
wate- ed, either in Syria or Egypt. They are narrow and winding, and almost always 
encumbered with rubbish. Strangers are, above all, shocked at the sight of great 
numbers of hideous dogs, roaming about, without an owner. The Turks, who shed the 
blood of man so readily, never kill these animals, though they avoid touching them 
as unclean. They, in like manner, refrain from either hurting or touching kites or 
turtle-doves. It is remarkable, that canine madness is unknown both in Syria and 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



631 



III. PERSIA, 1300 miles long, 1100 broad j between 25 

and 44 deg. N. lat. and 45 and 70 deg. E. Ion Ispahan or 

Spahawn, Shiraz, Tauris or Tebris. 

IV. IN 

The great aim of the Pachas is to amass money ; and for that purpose they employ 
«very method of extortion. This however often proves fatal to them. Eor when an 
accusation is brought against any one of them, for which his riches afford a pretext, 
an officer is dispatched, called a Capidji, with a secret order or kat-sherife, to cut off 
his head. The Pacha in common tamely submits, and his fortune devolves to the 
Sultan ; but sometimes he prevents his fate by dispatching the officer sent to destroy 
him. There are frequent instances of Pachas rebelling against the Porte, but none of 
them have hitherto succeeded in establishing their independence. 

The only part of authority withheld from the Pachas is the administration of justice 
in civil affairs, which is exercised by persons called Cadis, independent of the Pacha. 
These Cadis or Judges depend on the grand Cadi, who resides at Constantinople, called 
Cadi-el-askar, or Cadi Leskier, i. e. Judge of the army. He names the Judges of the 
capital cities, as Aleppo, Damascus, &c. and they name others in the places within 
their dependency. But all these employments are sold to the highest bidder ; 
hence the administration of justice is as venal and corrupt as that of the executive 
power. 

The religion of Mahomet, called Islamism, instead of correcting the abuses of go- 
vernment, serves to confirm them. The Koran, or Bible of the Mahometans, con- 
tains nothing concerning the relative duties of the governors and governed. It only 
inculcates implicit faith and servile obedience. 

Christians in Turkey are exposed to the greatest indignities. The Mahometans or 
Mussulmans usually address them by the name of infidel, impious, dog, or the like; and 
to mortify them, often practise before them the ceremonies of their worship. A 
Christian cannot strike a Mahometan, without risk of his life; but if a Mahometan 
kill a Christian, he escapes for a stipulated price. Christians must not mount on 
horseback in towns; they are prohibited the use of yellow slippers, white shawls, and 
every sort of green colour. Red for the feet, and blue for the dress, are the colours 
assigned them. 

The inhabitants of Syria have no property, either real or personal. The Sultan ar- 
rogates to himself the property of all the lands by right of conquest. When a father 
«lies, the inheritance reverts to the Sultan, or his delegate; and the children can only 
redeem the succession by a considerable sum of money. Hence arises an indifference 
to landed estates, which proves fatal to agriculture. The only method of securing a 
perpetual usus fruetus, is by making what is called a Wakf, that is, an endowment or 
donation of an estate to a Mosque. 

The tribute imposed on the land by Selim, when he conquered Syria from the Mam- 
louks, called miri, still remains, and is very moderate ; but it is rendered oppressive 
and intolerable by the exactions of the Pachas. Hence the condition of the peasants 
in Syria is most wretched, especially where they are exposed to the incursions of the 
Arabs. Here the husbandman must sow with his musket in his hand, as in Palestine. 
In the tributary countries, such as those of the Druses, the Maronites, &c property is 
more secure, and the condition of the peasants more comfortable. Those who reside 
in towns, such as traders and artisans, are in more easy circumstances ; hence the popu- 
lousness of cities. 

The arts are very little cultivated in Syria, and the sciences in a manner unknown. 
Books are extremely scarce, and the instruction of youih almost entirely neglected. 
There was not a printing press in all Syria, till the year 1 733, when one was established 
at a convent in the mountains of the Drises ; called Mar Hanna, by one AB- 
DALLAH, whose ardour to promote the diffusion oi knowledge at Aleppo, excited 
against him the resentment of the priests, who procured a Kat-sherife, or warrant of the 

S s 4 Sultan, 



632 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



IV. INDIA is a country of immense extent, about 240& 
miles long, and 2000 broad 5 between 1 and 40 deg. N. lat. 

and 



Sultan, for cutting off his head. Fortunately Abdallah received timely warning, arid: 
escaped into Lebanon, where his life was in safety. 

The manners of the Syrians, and of the eastern nations in general, are very differ- 
ent from ours. We wear short and close dresses ; theirs are long and ample. We 
suffer our hair to grow, and shave the beard ; they let the beard grow, and shave the 
head. With us, to uncover the head is a mark of respect ; with them a nsked head 
is a sign of folly. We salute in an inciined posture : they upright. V/ e pass our lives 
erect; they are almost continually seated. They sit and eat upon the ground; we 
upon raised seats. With respect to their language, likewise, their manner of writing 
is directly contrary to ours, and, the greatest number of masculine noun; in French for 
instance, are feminine with them. The Turks express in their countenances, words, 
and gestures, an appearance of devotion, which proceeds not from true religion, but 
from ignorance and a fanatic superstition, and is the source of innumerable disorders. 
Instead of that open and chearful countenance, which we either naturally possess or 
assume, their behaviour is serious, austere, and melancholy ; they rarely laugh, 
and the gaiety of some Europeans appears to them a fit of delirium. When they 
speak, it is with deliberation, without gestures, and without passion ; they listen 
without interrupting you; they are silent for whole days together, and have no desire 
to support a conversation. If they walk, it is always leisurely, and on business ; they 
have no idea of walking backwards and forwards for amusement. Continually seated, 
they pass whole days musing, with their legs crossed^ their pipes in their mouths, and 
almost without changing their attitude. It should seem as if motion were a punish- 
ment to them, and that, like the Indians, they regard inaction as essential tc* 
happiness. 

The indolence of the oriental and southern nations, and the despotism to which 
they have been usually subjected, are generally ascribed to the heat of the climate, 
which enervates the vigour both of mind and body. But this does not hold univer- 
sally. The charavter of nations depends not merely on the climate, but also on the 
nature of their government and religion, their progress in refinement, and improve- 
ments in knowledge, and on various other circumstances- Hence the character of 
the inhabitants of the same country has been found to be very different at different 
times. The immoderate use of opium is thought to increase the indolence of the 
Turks. 

Syria has undergone various revolutions, which have confounded the different 
races of its inhabitants. They at present may be divided into three classes; the 
posterity of the Greeks, the Arabs, and Turks. The Turks did not exterminate 
the former inhabitants, but having embraced their religion, incorporated with 
them. 

There are several wandering tribes, which inhabit part of Syria and the ad- 
joining countries, very different in their manners from those who possess fixed 
settlements and cultivate the ground. The wandering or shepherd tribes, are 
the Turkmen, the Curds, and Arabs. — The TURKMEN are of the number of 
those Tartar hordes, who, on' the great revolution of the empire of the Caliphs, 
emigrated from the eastward of the Caspian sea, and spread themselves over the 
vast plains of Armenia and Asia Minor. The CURDS are descended from 
the Card ucbi, mentioned by Xenophon in his Anabasis, who inhabited the 
mountains of Armenia, and opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand; and who, 
though shut in on all sides by the Persian empire, had constantly braved the 
power of the Great King, and the arm's of his Satraps. The ARABS, called 
Bedouins , or Bedouin Arabs, i. e. inhabitants of the desert, possess an immense extent 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



ess 



and 66 and 109 deg. E. Ion. containing above 100 millions of 
inhabitants. 

India is commonly divided into India within or on this side 
the Ganges, called also Indostan, or Hindoostan y or the empire of 
the Great Mogul ; and India beyond the Ganges. 

I- IN- 



«f country, extending from Aleppo to the- Arabian sea, and from Egypt to the Persian 
gulf, nearly one thousand eight hundred miles in length, and nine, hundred in 
breadth. They with reason boast of being the purest or the Arab tribes, as having 
never been conquered, nor having mixed with any other people by making conquests. 
The Arabs, who rendered themselves so illustrious under Mahomet and his successors, 
dwelt along the Red Sea, were cultivators of land, possessed cities, and were subject 
to regular governments. The Arabs in the interior or desert had no concern in the 
great revolutions which the former produced. The Bedouin Arabs retain the same 
customs, manners, language, and even religious Opinions, with their ancestors in the 
most remote ages. 

The Arabs seem to be condemned to a wandering life from the very nature of 
their deserts; covered with a sky, almost perpetually inflamed, and without clouds; 
consisting of immense and boundless plains, without houses, trees, rivulets, or hills ; 
where the eye frequently meets nothing but an extensive and uniform horizon, like 
the sea ; though in some places the ground is uneven and stony. Almost 'nvariably 
naked on every side, the earth presents nothing but a few wild plants, thinly scat- 
tered ; and thickets, whose solitude is rarely disturbed but by antelopes, hares, locusts, 
and rats. 

The Turkmen, Curds, and Arabs, although they agree on the whole, in their 
manner of life, as being pastors and wanderers, and subsisting chiefly on the produce 
of their herds, yet differ in several particulars. They all profess the Mahometan 
religion, but pay little regard to its ceremonies. They have neither priests, temples, 
nor regular w orship. In this respect every one acts and thinks as he pleases. The 
Turkmen and Arabs give their daughters a marriage-dowry; the Curds receive a 
premium for them. The Turkmen pav no respect to that antiquity of extraction 
which we call nobility ; the Curds and Arabs honour it greatly. The tribes of the 
Arabs are distinguished from each other, by the name of their respective chiefs, or 
by that of the ruling family ; and when they speak of any of the individuals who 
compose them, they call them the children of such a chief, though they may not be 
all really of his blood, and the chief himself may have been long since dead ; as the 
poets in ancient times: See Homer, Virgil, Ovid, &c. passim ; also the Poems of 
Ossian. The Arabs apply this mode of expression even to the names of countries. 
The Turkmen do not steal or plunder. The Curds and Arabs are noted plunderers; 
but excuse their depredations, as being exercised on those whom they consider as 
enemies. 

The government of these tribes, particularly of the Arabs, is at once republican, 
aristocratical, and evi n despotic. Nothing can be transacted without the consent 
of the majority of the people; but the shaiks or chiefs have great influence ; and 
the principal shaik has an indefinite and almost absolute authority, which however 
he cannot very much abuse. The manners of the Arabs agree precisely with the 
descriptions in Homer, and the history of Abraham and the other patriarchs in 
Genesis. They are remarkable for their generosity and hospitality. If an Arab 
consent to eat bread and salt with a guest, nothing in the world can induce him to 
betray him. To observe how they conduct themselves to one another, one would 
imagine that they possessed all their goods in common. Nevertheless they are no 
strangers to property. But it has none of that selfishness, which the increase of the 
imaginary wants of luxury has given it among polished nations. The Arabs have 
no books : and few even of their shaiks can read. All their literature consists in 

reciting 



t 



634 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



I. INDIA within the Ganges*, or Indostan, is about 2ooe 
miles long, and 1500 broad between 7 and 40 deg. N. lat. and 
66 and 92 deg. £. Ion. 

It is divided into two parts, the Continent and Peninsula. 

1 . On the CONTINENT, towards the mouth of the Ganges, 
is the rich province of BENGAL, belonging to the English. 
Their chief city, where the Governor-General of India resides, 
is CALCUTTA, 22 c 33' N. lat. 88° 28' E. long, from Green- 
wich ; situate on the western arm of the Ganges, about one 
hundred miles from the sea, where about ninety years ago there 
was only the village of Govindpour s supposed at present to contain 
at least five hundred thousand inhabitants. Its citadel is called 
Fort-William, which was begun to be built immediately 
after the victory at Plassey. It is superior in point of strength 

and 



reciting tales and histories in the manner of the Arabian Nights Entertainments, of 
which they are remarkably fond, 

The same similarity and diversity is observable in the descriptions given of the wan- 
dering Scythians, [Errantes, prcfugi. et campestres Scytba,) by ancient authors. Some 
of them, ss of the modern Tartars and Arabs, were cultivators of the ground, and 
others of them shepherds. Herodet. iv. 16. — 83. Strab. vii. 30*. &c Justin, ii. 2. 
Horai, od. hi. 249, &c. Mela, hi. 5. Curt. vii. 8. Sec. 



* Historical Account of the Principal Revolutions end Trade c/India. 

The geography, as well as the history of India, was very imperfectly known, before 
the modern conquests of the Europeans in that part of the world. The first foreign 
prince we read of, that made himself master of any part of India, was DARIUS, the 
son of Hystaspes, king of Persia, who extended his conquests to the Indus; and derived 
from that country a tribute nearly equal to the third part of the revenue of his other 
dominions. Herodot.m. 90. — 96. — It deserves remark, that the Indians paid Darius 
their tribute in gold, and the other Satrapies in silver. The account of the invasion 
of India by Semiramis, Biodor. ii. 74. appears fabulous. 

Darius, before he undertook his expedition, appointed one SCYLAX of Caryandr3 
to sail down the Indus till he should reach the ocean, with some shiys which had been 
fitted out at Ccspa:yrus, in the country of Pssry.i, now Pebkely, towards the upper 
part of the navigable course of that river. This Scylax performed, though, it 
should seem, with much difficulty, and notwithstanding many obstacles; for he spent 
no less than two years and six months in conducting his squadron from the place 
where he embarked to the Arabian Gulf, Herodot. iv. 42. 45. See p. 610. The 
account which Scylax gave of his voyage was so mingled with fable, that little regard 
was paid to it. 

The next who invaded India was ALEXANDER the Great, who having crushed 
Bessus, the murderer of Darius, set out from Esctria, and having passed mount 
Imaus, or the stony girdle, as it is called by the Oriental geographers, crossed the 
Indus at Taxila, now Attack, the only place where the rapidity of that river permits 
an army to be conveniently transported. It is remarkable, that in after ages Timur 
cr Tamerlane, and Nadir Sbab or Thomas KoAi Khan, entered India by the same route 
with Alexander. On the banks of the HyJaspes, now Betah or Chelum, Alexander 
was opposed by PORUS ; and he had advanced to the Hypbasis t now Bey ah, in his 

way 



Modern Divisions oj Asia. 



635 



and correctness of design to any fort in India, but too extensive. 
It is thought to have cost two millions sterling. — Indian cities 
are generally built on one plan •, having very narrow, confined, 
and crooked streets, with an incredible number of reservoirs 
and ponds, and a great many gardens interspersed. A few of 
the streets are paved with brick. The houses are variously 
built : some of brick, others with mud, and a still greater pro- 
portion with bamboos and mats : and these different kinds of 
fabrics standing intermixed with each other, form a motley 
appearance. Those of the latter kinds are invariably of one 
story, and covered with thatch: those of brick seldom exceed two 
floors, and have flat, terraced roofs. The two former classes far 

OUt- 



way to the GANGES, when his army refused to go farther ; seep. 471. on account 
of the hardships which they had sustained in the rainy season, Strab. xv. 697. and 
not without just cause ; for it had rained incessantly on them for seventy days, 
Diodor. xvii. 94. Alexander, it seems, was ignorant of the periodical heavy rains, 
which fall in this country during great part of the S. W. monsoon, at least in the 
months of July, August, and part of September : For he entered India in the spring, 
Arrian, iv. 2Z. when the rains were already begun in the mountains ; and passed the 
Hydapses at Midsummer, about the height of the rainy season. This circumstance 
appears to have prevented him from completing the conquest of India. Tamerlane 
and Nadir Shah conducted their military operations during the dry season. A 
description of the periodical rains and inundations in India is given by Arrian, v. 9. 
and Strabo, xv. 691. Strabo, on the authority of Aristobulus, mentions a curious 
fact, that though heavy rains and snow fell in the mountains and the country along 
the foot of them, yet not so much as a shower fell in the plains below, ib. & 693. 
The same thing has been observed by the moderns ; see Major Rennet's Memoir % 
p. a83. 

Alexander ordered ships to be built on the Hydaspes to carry part of his army 
down the Indus to the ocean. The distance is supposed to have been about 

a thousand miles. The manners and customs of the Indians in the time of 

x^lexander, as described by Arrian, were much the same with those of the modern 
Hindoos. 

Arrian mentions, among other particulars, the slender and delicate make of their 
bodies, their dark complexion, their black uncurled hair; their garments of cotton, 
of an extraordinary whiteness; their living entirely on vegetable food; their dis- 
tribution into separate sects or classes, and the perpetuation of trades in families; 
the marriages of women at seven years of age, and the prohibition of marriages 
between different classes; the custom of wives burning themselves with their de- 
ceased husbands ; the men wearing ear-rings, parti- coloured shoes, and veils co- 
vering the head and great part of the shoulders ; daubing their faces with colours ; 
only the principal people having umbrellas carried over them ; their using two handed 
swords,, and bows drawn by the feet: &c. de reb. Indie. Strabo mentions most of 
these, and many other particulars, xv. 704. &c. The origin of the custom of 
burning the favourite wife with her husband is traced by Diodorus, xix. 33. & 34. 

Such as declined it were held infamous, Strab. xv. 714. The account of 

Herodotus concerning India, though more imperfect and fabulous than those of hter 
writers, yet contains several particulars, perfectly descriptive of the present Hindoos ; 
that they killed no animals, but contented themselves with the produce of the 
earth ; that they exposed those whose recovery they despaired of ; that they lived 

chiefly 



6 56 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



out-number the last, which are often so thinly scattered, that 
fires, which frequently happen, do not, sometimes, meet with 
the obstruction of a brick house through a whole street. — The 
quarter of Calcutta inhabited by the English, is composed en- 
' tirely of brick buildings; many of which have more the ap- 
pearance of palaces than of private houses ; but by far the 
greatest part is built in the same manner with other Indian cities. 
Calcutta is not fortunate in its local situation ; for it has some 
extensive muddy lakes, and a vast forest, close to it # . The 
greatest attention however has been used, by draining the streets 
and filling up the ponds, to render it healthful. 

About twenty-six miles above Calcutta, on the same river, 

though 

* The trees have been lately cut down around Calcutta. 



chiefly on rice ; hr.d horses of a smaller breed than their western neighbours ; and ma- 
nufactured their fine cotton wool into clothing, iii. 98. — 107. 

SELEUCUS, after the death of Alexander, became possessed of the principal 
provinces of the Persian empire, and, among the rest, the conquests in India, 
which he considerably enlarged. He concluded a treaty with SANuR ACOT i US, 
king of the Prasii or Gandaridat, a powerful prince, wht>se capital was PAL ; BO- 
THRA, supposed by some to be the modern Allahabad, at the confluence of the two 
great rivers "Jumna and Ganges. With a view of cultivating a friendly intercourse 
with this monarch, Seleucus sent to him MEGASTHENES, as ambassador, who re- 
sided at Palibothra for several years, and upon his return published an account of his 
travels; whence subsequent writers derived most of their knowledge concerning the 
interior state of India. But the credit of Megasthenes was impaired bv his marvellous 
Stories of men with ears so large that they could wrap themselves up in them ; of 
others with a single eye, without noses, with long feet, and toes turned backwards ; 
of people only three spans in height (called Pigmies, Plin. vi. 19 s. 22.) ; of ants 
as large as foxes, that dug up gold, &c. Strab. ii. 70. xv. 702 706. & 711. See 
Mela, iii. 7. His account, however, of the dimensions and geography cf India is 
found to be accurate ; and his description of the power and opulence of the Prasii 
perfectly resembles that given of some of the greater states of modern Indostan, before 
the. establishment of the Mahometan and European power in India, and is consonant 
to the accounts which Alexander had received concerning that people, that they were 
ready to oppose him on the banks of the Ganges with 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 
infantry, 2000 chariots, and 4000 elephants, Diodor. xvii. 93. Curt.'ix.. 2. Me- 
gasthenes mentions his having visited Sandracottus when encamped with an army 
of 400,000 men. Strab. xv. 709. Palibothra, he says, was ten miles in length 
and two in breadth; surrounded with walls in which were 570 toivers and 64 gates, 
ib. 702. Several Indian cities in modern times have had much larger dimensions. 
RenneVs Memoir, p. 50. 

Soon after the death of Seleucus, the Syrian monarchs lost their possessions in India ; 
but how, or for what cause, we are not told. Some years after, these Indian provinces 
became subject to the kingdom of Bactria; which had been originally subject to 
Seleucus, but under his son or grandson had bt-come independent ; and after having 
flourished 130 years, was overturned by an irruption of a powerful horde of Tartars. 

After this, for many ages, no attempt appears to have been made by any foreign 
power to establish itself in India. The kings of Egypt and Syria, and after them the 

Romans, 



Modem Divisions of Asia, 



637 



though on the opposite side, is Hoogly, a small, but ancient 
city. The French, Dutch, Danes, and Portuguese, have each 
of them a town and factory on this part of the river. The 
French settlement of Chandernagore, and the Dutch one of 
Chinsura, are both very neat, and pretty large towns ; and 
each of them on a better site than Calcutta. 

About one hundred and twenty miles above Calcutta stands 
Moorshedabad, also on the western arm of the Ganges, 
which is there very low in the dry season. It was the capital 
of the Bengal provinces before the establishment of the British 
power, but is now much decayed. — The ancient capital of 
Bengal was Gour, supposed to be the Gangia Regia of 

Ptolemy ; 

Romans, aimed at nothing more than to secure an intercourse by trade with that 
opulent country ; see p. 127. But neither the Greeks nor Romans seem to have visited 
the more eastern parts of it. They procured the productions of those countries only 
at second hand. 

Commerce was extinguished in the western part of the Roman empire, by the 
irruption of the barbarous nations ; and the communication of the eastern empire 
with India by the Red-Sea and the Persian Gulf, was cut off by the conquests of the 
Arabs. The Arabs, howeve: still continued to carry on the same trade with India, 
and, with that ardour which characterises all the early efforts of Mahomet's fol- 
lowers, advancing far beyond the boundaries of ancient navigation, brought many of 
the most precious commodities of the east from the countries which produced them. 
In order to engross the profits of this trade, the Caliph OMAR founded the city of 
BASSORA, on the western banks of the great stream formed by the junction of 
the Euphrates and the Tigris; which soon became an emporium not inferior to 
Alexandria itself. 

The merchants of Constantinople, excluded from their accustomed channel of 
trading with India, had recourse to the ancient way of communication, over land to 
the banks of the Oxus, and down that river to the Caspian sea, see p. izj. By this 
mode of conveyance, perilous and difficult as it was, Europe was supplied with the 
commodities of the east for more than two centuries. During that period, the 
Christians and Mahomedans were engaged in almost uninterrupted hostilities; which, 
added to the antipathy caused by their different religions, excited the keenest animosity 
and hatred against each other. This was encreased and perpetuated by the crusades, 
ieep.ZSS- which, however, by their consequences, served again to open the usual 
channel of Indian commerce, ib. During the space of fifty-seven years, that the 
Latins were in possession of Constantinople, see p. 479. the Venetians, who had greatly 
contributed to the taking of that city, engrossed a considerable part of its trade, 
particularly of that to India. When the Latins were expelled from Constantinople, 
partly by the assistance of the Genoese, the rivals of the Venetians, among the other 
donations bestowed on the Genoese for their services, thev obtained PERA, the chief 
suburb of Constantinople, with such exemptions from the accustomed duties on goods 
imported and exported, as gave them a decided superiority over every competitor in 
trade. With the vigilant attention of merchants, the Genoese availed themselves of 
this favourable situation. They surrounded their new settlement in Pera with 
fortifications They rendered their factories on the adjacent coasts places of strength. 
They were masters ot the harbour of Constantinople more than the Greeks themselves. 
The whole trade of the Black Sea came into their hands; and, not satisfied with this, 
they took possession of the Chersonesus Taurica, the modern Crimaa, and made 
CAFFA, its principal city, the chief seat of their trade with the east. In consequence 



038 



Modem Divisions of Asia. 



Ptolemy ; extending along the north bank of the Ganges, twelve 
miles in length, and two or three in breadth. It now can only 
be traced from its ruins. Near its site stands the modern 
Mauldah. 

The chief city in the east quarter of Bengal is DACCA, be- 
yond the principal stream of the Ganges, although a very large 
branch of that river runs past it. Dacca is most commodiously 
situate for trade, having a communication with all the inland 
navigations. It is one hundred miles above the mouth of the 
Ganges, and one hundred and eighty by the road from Cal- 
cutta. 

About 



of this revolution, Genoa became the greatest commercial power in Europe; and 
h?.d the wisdom of its government been equal to the enterprising industry and courage 
of its citizens, it might have long held that rank. But in this respect it was greatly- 
inferior to Venice. 

The Venetians, to counterbalance the advantages recently acquired by their rivals, 
resorted to the ancient staples of Indian commodities, chiefly to Alexandria: and 
having concluded a treaty of commerce with the Soldans of Egypt, or Princes of the 
Mamalukes, who were then in possession also of Syria, they made settlements at 
Alexandria and Damascus, appointing a consul to reside at each place, in a public 
character, and to exercise a mercantile jurisdiction, under the authority of the 
Soldans. To sanction this intercourse with Infidels, they obtained a dispensation from 
the Pope ; a thir.g indispensably necessary in that age, to silence the scruples of the 
people. The Venetians derived much useful information concerning Indian com- 
merce, from the successful enterprise of one of their own citizens, MARCO POLO; 
who having penetrated to the court of the Great Khan of Tartary, on the frontier of 
Cathay or China, and having gained the favour of that prince, during the course of 
twenty-six years, partly employed in mercantile transactions, and partly in conducting 
negociations with which the Great Khan entrusted him, explored many regions of the 
east, which no European had ever visited. 

In the mean time the Genoese, deprived of their Indian commerce upon the capture 
of Constantinople by the Turks, a. 1453, an< ^ weakened by domestic dissensions, left 
the Venetians in the entire possession of the trade to India, which raised that people 
to the highest pitch of power and opulence. The merchants of Florence also 
obtained a share, though inconsiderable, in this commerce.' The Venetians are 
thought to have carried on their trade to India with greater advantage than any other 
nation ever did ; as they had no direct intercourse with that country, but purchased 
the commodities of the east, imported by the Mahomedans into Egypt and Syria, 
more frequently by barter for their own manufactures, than with ready money. —— 
Concerning the subsequent changes which have taken place in this trade, see p. 254. 
489. & 519- 

The first conqueror of India in modern times was MAHMOOD, Emperor or 
Sultan of Gbizni, anciently Bactriana ; whose capital city was Gbizni or Ghazna, 
situate among the western sources of the Indus. He entered Indostan or Hindoosian 
A. D. 1000; but in the course of eight years made no farther progress than MOUL- 
TAN, the modern capital of the country of the ancient Mailt, at the conflux of the 
Jenaub or Chunaub with the Indus ,(which river is called by the natives Sinde or Sindeb) f 
about 8co miles from the sea. He afterwards conquered most of the country 
eastwards to the Ganges, destroying in his way all the Pagodas or temples of the 
Hindoos, whom he treated with the most savage cruelty, and, from his furious zeal 
for Tslamism, wished to exterminate. Tn the year 11 84, his posterity weie expelled 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



About five hundred miles from the mouth of the Ganges is 
PATNA, the capital of Bahar, built along the south bank of 
the river ; a very extensive and populous city ; supposed to be 
the ancient Palibothra. Having been often the seat of war, it 
is fortified in the Indian manner, with a wall and a small cita- 
del. It is a place of very considerable trade. Most of the 
saltpetre imported by the East-India Company is manufactured 

within the province of Bahar. About sixty miles above 

Patna is BENARES, the chief city of the district or Zemin- 
dary of that name, (including also the Circars of Jianpour, 
Guzar> and Gazypour,) the ancient seat of Braminical learning; 
a very rich and populous city, compactly built along the north 
bank of the Ganges. 

North- 



by the family of the Gaurides, so called from Gaur or Ghor, a country beyond the 
Indian Caucasus, who fixed their residence at LAHORE, the capital of Panjab, or 
the country of the jive rivers, so called from its being contained between the five 
eastern branches of the Indus. Their prince MAHOMED GORI extended his 
dominion eastward, and having taken the city of BENARES, on the north bank of 
the Ganges, the ancient seat of Braminical learning, perpetrated there the most 
shocking cruelties. About this period, as it is thought, the original language of the 
country, called the Senscrit or Sanskreet language, began to decline in its purity, by 
the admixture of words from that of the conquerors : Thus being gradually changed, 
it has now become a dead language, as the Saxon in England, and is only preserved 
in ancient writings, which are understood by none but the most learned Brahmins. 

After the death of Mahomed Gcri, a. 1205, his empire was divided. The 
Indian part fell to CUTTUB, one of his generals, who founded the Patan or Asghan 
dynasty in Hindoostan; so called from the Asghans, who originally inhabited that 
mountainous tract lying between India and Persia, or the ancient Parcpamisus. Cuttub 
removed the Imperial residence to DELHI or Behly, where, with a few interruptions, 
it has since remained. 

The Patan dynasty continued to possess the throne of Delhi till the time of 
Mahmood HI. in whose reign, a. 1398, TIMUR or Tamerlane over-ran India, 
where he acted with such inhuman cruelty, that he got the title of the destroying 
Prince. He did not, however, change the order of succession, but left Mahmood in 
possession of the throne. He staid only five months in the country, being bent on 
his expedition against the Turks; sec p. 481. and carried very little plunder out of 
India. He died, a. 1405. 

After the death of Mahmood, a. 1413, the crown of Delhi devolved on Chizier, 
a SEID, that is, one of the race of the Prophet; whose posterity continued to enjoy 
it till the year 1450, when BELLOLI, an Asghan of the tribe of LODI, obtained it. 
His son transferred the seat of empire to AGRA (a. 1502). — In this reign the Por- 
tuguese first arrived in India. Under the family of Lodi the empire was torn by dread- 
ful convulsions, which occasioned their expulsion. 

BABER, a descendant of Tamerlane and Gengiz Khan, Sultan of the MOGUL 
Tartars possessing the provinces between the Indus and Samarcand, being dispossessed 
of the northern part of his dominions by the Usbec Tartars, determined to try his 
fortune in Hindoostan, where the distracted state of the country flattered him with 
the hopes of conquest. After repeated attempts he at last succeeded in defeating 
Ibrahim II. the emperor of Delhi, and thus put an end to the dynasty of Lodi, a. 1525. 
The countries which he and his successors subdued were called the MOGUL 

EMPIRE. 



#40 



Modern Divisions oj Asia. 



North-west from this is the province of OUDE. The chief 
city, where the Nabob now resides, is LUCKNOW, on a 
small river, named the Goomty, which communicates with the 
Ganges at forty-five miles south-west of Lucknow. This city 
is six hundred and fifty miles, by the nearest road, from Cal- 
cutta. All from Lucknow to the mouth of the Ganges is one 

vast plain. About eighty miles to the eastward of Luck-* 

now is FYZABAD, five hundred and sixty miles from Cal- 
cutta ; a very large city ; the residence of the Nabob, till 
within these few years •, situate on the Gogra, a very large 
river from Thibet. Nearly adjoining to it is the ancient city 

of Oude or Adjudiah. At the confluence of the two great 

rivers 



EMPIRE.-— Balier dying in 1530, his son HUMAIOON succeeded, who, although 
a prince of ability and virtue, was expelled from the throne by the intrigues of his 
brothers, and the art of SHEER KAN, who usurped the empire, a. 1541. But 
Sheer being slain at the siege of Cheitore, a. 1545, Hurnaiocn, who had suffered great 
distress in his exile, was recalled, a. 1554; and dying the following year, transmitted 
the crown to ACBAR or Akber his son, who proved one Of the most illustrious princes 
that ever reigned in Indostan ; being equally distinguished for his humanity, and to- 
leration to the Hindoos or Gentoos, as for his wisdom and courage. Acbar died, 
a. 1605. The reign of this prince has been celebrated by his vizier or prime minister, 
the famous ABUL FAZEL, in a book called the Acbar-namwa, or history of 

Acbar. This emperor divided his dominions into eleven soubahs, or provinces, some 

of which were equal in extent to large European kingdoms ; each soubah he subdivided 
into a certain number of circars or counties; and these into so many purgunnahs or 
hundreds. The population, revenue, produce, religion, arts, and commerce of each 
district were ascertained. Many of these particulars were collected by Abul F?zel into 
a book called Ayin Acharee, or Institutes cf Acbar, which, to this day, forms an 
authentic register of these matters. This curious book was some years ago translated 
by Mr. Gladwin, and published in Bengal, under the patronage of Mr. Hastings, 
Governor-General of the English dominions in India. JOHANG JURE, the son 
©f Acbar, succeeded, in whose reign Sir Thomas Roe was sent as the first English am- 
bassador to the Emperor of Hindoostan, 1615. The latter part of this Emperor's life 
was embittered by the rebellion of his son, SHAW JEHAN, who upon his father's 
death succeeded, a. 1627. He, quarrelling with the Portuguese, expelled them from 
Hoogly on the Ganges. 

In the year 1658 began the civil wars between Jehan and his sons, as also between 
the sons themselves, which terminated in the elevation of AURUNGZEBE, the 
youngest ; after he had deposed his father, and murdered or expelled his three brothers, 
a. 1660. This prince, having finished the conquest of the Deccan, and subdued 
several other countries, raised the Mogul empire to the highest pitch of splendour. 
He died in 1707, in the ninetieth year of his age, at Amednagar in the Deccan,, 
which he had fixed on as his residence, while in winter-quarters. His authority ex- 
tended from the 10th to the 35th degree of latitude, and nearly as much in longi- 
tude; containing at least sixty four millions cf inhabitants; and his revenue exceeded 
thirty-two millions of pounds sterling, in a country where the products of the earth 
are about four times as cheap as in England. But the feeble princes who succeeded, 
being unable to wield so mighty a sceptre, this vast empire was in the course of 
fifty years reduced to nothing. 

Aurungaebe 



Indostan. 



641 



rivers Ganges and Jumna, is seated ALLAHABAD, in a very- 
important situation, belonging to the Nabob of Oude, about 
eight hundred and twenty miles above the mouth of the 
Ganges, thought by some to be the Palibothra of the ancients. 

About three hundred miles above Allahabad is situate AGRA, 
on the south bank of the Jumna river, which is very seldom 
fordable. In 1566, the Emperor Acbar, liking the situation of 
this citv, made it his capital ; whence it is often called Ackba- 
rabad. During the 1 7th century, and the beginning of the 1 8th 
it was one of the most splendid cities in India. But as it quickly 
rose to eminence, so it as suddenly declined. It now exhibits 
the most magnificent ruins. 

About one hundred and nineteen miles north of Agra stands 
DELHI, or Dehly, on the right or western bank of the Jumna, 
28°37' N. L. and 77 40' E. L. the nominal capital of the 
Mogul empire. It anciently stood on the opposite bank. Du- 
ring the latter part of the 17th century, and the beginning of the 
1 8th, it was said to contain two millions of inhabitants : but it is 
now greatly reduced. The fertile tract of country be- 
tween the Jumna and Ganges is called Dooab, which name is 

applied 



Auvungzebe left four sons. The two eldest contended about the empire. Each 
brought into the field about 300,000 men. The contest was determined near Agra, 
in favour of the oldest, who took the name of BAHADER SHAH, but is usually- 
called SHAH AULUM. His competitor fell in the battle. The youngest brother 
next revolted, and was also crushed. The other brother, thirty years before, had 
rebelled against his father, and fled into Persia. In thii reign the SEIKS, a new sect 
of religionists, from the foot of the eastern mountains, attacked the province of 
Lahore. Bahader, having with difficulty reduced them, took up his residence at 
Lahore, that he might be near at hand to keep them in subjection. Here he died, 
a. 1712. 

Bahader also left four sons, who likewise contended together about the succession. 
Three of them fell at different times in the struggle ; and the fourth was soon after de- 
throned, to make way for his nephew FEROKSERE, who was set up by the Seids, or 
Syeds, two brothers, and Omrahs or chiefs of great power. In this reign the English 
East-India company received the famous FIRMAN or Grant, by which their goods of 
import and export were exempted from duties or customs; which was regarded as the 
company's Commercial Charter in India, while they stood in need of protection 
from the princes of the country. 

In the year 171 7 Ferokstre was deposed and deprived of sight by the Seids, who 
raised to the throne a son of Bahader Shah. But he was soon deposed, and also hfs 
brother, in the course of a year ; and both of them put to death by the Seids, who 
now disposed of every thing at pleasure. They next placed on the throne MA- 
HOMED SHAH, grandson of Bahader Shah, who, warned by the fate of his pre- 
decessors, got rid of the Seids, but not without a rebellion and a battle. In this 
reign, the MAHRATTAS became troublesome, so called from MARHAT, a 
prince in the Deccan, their original country ; and NlZAMkAL-MULUCK, Vice- 
roy of the Deccan, aspired at independence. To promote his views, he invited 

Tt NADIR 



642 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



applied to any tract of land formed by the approximation of two 
rivers. 

About three hundred and eighty-six miles north-west from 
Delhi is LAHORE, on the Rauvee, anciently Hydrotes, a na- 
vigable river, which communicates with the Indus and all its 
branches. Lahore was the residence of the first Mahomedan 
conquerors of Indostan, and is now the capital of the Seiks. 
At this city began the famous avenue of shady trees, so much 
spoken of by the early Indian travellers, which extended all 
the way to Agra, about five hundred English miles. Near 
midway between Delhi and Lahore is SIRHIND or Serinde, a 
city of great antiquity, whence the art of weaving silk was 
brought back to Constantinople by some monks in the sixteenth 
century. For although the art was brought into Europe under 
the Roman Emperors, it had again been lost during the confu- 
sions that attended the subversion of the western empire. Proco- 
pius takes notice that silk was brought from Serinda, a country 
in India, in the time of Justinian, see p, 476. Pliny, and more 
ancient writers, supposed it to be brought from Serica> a coun- 
try of Upper Asia, bordering on the north-west part of the 

Chinese 



NADIR SHAH, commonly called Thomas Kouli Khan, the usurper of the Persian 
throne, to invade Indostan, and h.-id the address to prevail on the weak emperor to 
throw himself oil the mercy of the invader. Nadir having entered Delhi, massacred 
above 100,000 of the inhabitants, and carried off plunder to the amount of sixty-two 
millions sterling. Some say, much more. He however left Mshomed in possession 
of the throne, and returned to Persia, after obtaining the cession of all the countries 

subject to Hindoostan west of the Indus. NIZAM now became independent in the 

Deccan ; and other governors of provinces followed his example. The ROHILLAS, 
a tribe from the mountains between India and Persia, erected an independent state on 
the east of the Ganges, within eighty miles of Delhi. The MAHRATTAS were 
become so powerful, that they forced the emperor to grant them a tribute t© check 
their depredations. They demanded the fourth part of the net revenues of certain pro- 
vinces ; which proportion being denominated in the language of Hindoostan, a Chout, 
occasioned this name to be applied to any. demands whatever of that people. Mahomed 
died, a. 1 747, the same year that Nadir Shah, on account of his frantic cruelty, was 
assassinated by his principal officers. 

AHMED SHAH, the son of Mahomed, succeeded. In his reign, which lasted 
only about six years, what remained of the Mogul empire was totally dissolved ; and 
the succeeding emperors retained little else but the name, nothing remaining to the 
house of Timor but a small territory round Delhi, now no longer a capital, but in a 
manner depopulated by repeated depredations, massacres, and famines The last army 
that might be reckoned imperial, was defeated by the Rohillas in 1749. The IATES 
or lais, a Hindoo tribe, established themselves in the province of AGRA ; BENGAL 
was seized by its viceroy Aliverdy; OUDE, by Seisdar Jung, father to the late 
Suju Dozvlab\ Allahabad, by Mahomed Kooli, &c« ; but the most considerable part 
by the M AHRATTAS, who had of late greatly augmented their power. In afl- 
iitk>n to their former possessions, they obtained the greatest part of Guzerat, Berar,avd 

Otuta. 



Indostan, 



643 



Chinese wall, whence its Latin name. Between Delhi and 
Serhind are very extensive plains, within which are situate the 
towns of Panniput and Carxaw?, famous for great battles, both 
in ancient and modern times. These plains lie at the mouth 
of the pass through the mountains from Tartary and Persia, the 
original countries of the conquerors of Hindoostan. The coun- 
try is called, from its capital, Lahore, or more frequently, the 
PANJAB, or the country of five rivers, because it is contained 
between the^v* eastern branches of the Indus. Four of these 
are mentioned in the conquests of Alexander ; the Hydaspes, 
now Behut or Chelum s Acesines, now Jenaub or Chunaub ; 
Hydraotes, now Rauvee ; Hyphasis or Huphasis, now Be- 
yah : the fifth, is the Setlege, Suttuluz, or Sutluj, supposed to 
be that called by Pliny Hesudrus, by Ptolemy, Zaradrus, and 
by Arrian, Sara?tges. The three first successively unite with 
each other at some distance above the city MOULTAN, 
(thought to be the capital of the ancient Malli, 29 52' N. lat. 
and 70 40' E. long.) and form a stream equal to the Indus 
itself, at the place of confluence, which is about twenty miles 
on the west of Moultan. It is remarkable' that these three 

streams 

Orissa.'— The name and person, however, of the Emperor were still held in venera- 
tion, and the various usurpers endeavoured to sanction what they had forcibly seized, 
by a real or pretended grant from the Emperor. Some of them having obtained pos- 
session of his peison attempted to make their acts pass for his. Such is the force of 
popular opinion, that to this day, through the whole Mogul empire, the coin is struck in 
the name of the nominal Emperor. Thus the long possession of power, though at first 
obtained by violence, and afterwards exercised with cruelty, appears in the eyes of 
the vulgar, to establish a right to it. 

The NIZAM died at the age of one hundred and four, a. 1 748. The contests 
which took pLice between his sons for the throne of the Deccan, and between two 
other families for the Nabcbship of Arcot, brought the English and French to engage 
as auxiliaries. After much bloodshed, Mahomed Ally was made Nabob of Ar- 
cot ; and Salabi Jung, third son of the late Nizam-al-Mtiluck, was made Soubch or 
prince of the Deccan, the original disputants having been assassinated or slain in battle. 
In consequence of this, the English established their security and influence in the 
Carnatic. 

^ n x 753> Ahmed was deposed by GAZI, his vizier or chief minister, who 
placed on the nominal throne ALLUMGUiRE, grandson of Bahader Shah. He, 
to get rid of Gazi, invited to Delhi ABD ALLA, the successor of Nadir Shah in the 
eastern part of Persia, snd in the Indian provinces ceded to Nadir, known at present 
by the name of the kingdom of CANDAHAR, anciently the Paropamisan Alexan- 
dria ; called also the kingdom of Abdalli, from Abda!, an Afghan tribe, of which 
Ahmed Abdalla was originally the Prince or Chief; and being stripped of his country 
by Nadir Shah, was forced to join the Persian army in 1739. On the death of 
Nadir, Abdalla erected for himself a considerable kingdom in the eastern part of 
Persia, comprising nearly the same extent of territory with the ancient kingdom 
of Cbizni. Abdalla, who visited Hindoostan no less than six times, exer- 
cised At Delhi the most dreadful depredations: so that this unfortunate city, 

T t 2, which, 



644- 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



streams united are now called Jenaub, as they were Acesines in 
the time of Alexander. The two other rivers unite, and join 
the Indus a great way to the south of Moultaru. 

About two hundred and twenty-five miles north of Lahore 
is CASHMERE, on the river Chelum or Hydaspes, the capital 
of a country of the same name, which is celebrated for its 
romantic beauties, for the fertility of its soil, and for the tempe- 
rature of its atmosphere. It is an elevated and extensive valley, 
of an oval form, about eighty miles long and forty in breadth, 
surrounded by steep mountains. Its soil is thought to be com- 
posed of the mud deposited by the river Chelum, which origin- 
ally formed its waters into a lake that covered the whole valley, 
until it opened itself a passage through the mountains, as is said 
to have been the case with the Peneus in Thessaly, see p. 319. 
Here are manufactured the shards which are so much worn in 
different parts of Asia, and also in Egypt •, of late likewise in 
Britain. They are made of the delicate wool produced by a 
species of goat, either of this country or of the adjoining one 
of Thibet. Cashmere is the frontier province of Hindoos tan 
towards Tart ary and Thibet. It is very subject to earthquakes, 
and therefore the houses are all built of wood. The inhabit- 
ants 

which, in the time of Aurungzebe, was supposed to contain two millions of souls, was 
row almost depopulated. 

Amidst these confusions and revolutions, the MAHRATTAS, who for a long 
time had been gathering strength, formed the plan of expelling Abdalla, and restoring 
the Hindoo government throughout the empire, or in other words, of m;iking them- 
selves masters of all Hindoostan. They were joined by the Iats and other Hindoo 
st£tes. Abdalla was joined by Sujah Doivloh, the Roh'dlas, and other JVLahomeda* 
states of less note- The Hindoos were arranged on one side, to the number of two 
hundred thousand, and the Mahomedans on the other, to the number of one hundred, 
and fifty thousand. A bloody battle was fought on the plains of Carnanil and Pan- 
niput, a. 1 761, in which, alter a most obstinate resistance, the Mahrattas were de- 
feated with prodigious slaughter. Before the battle they had been deserted by the Iats, 
which considerably influenced the fortune of the "day. Since this period, phe power of 
the Mahrattas has been sensibly on the decline. 

Abdalla, whose influence at Delhi was now unlimited, invited thither SHAH 
AULUM, the son of Allumguire, who had been deposed the foregoing year, and mur- 
dered by Gazi, promising to seat him on the throne of his ancestors. He however did 
not venture to trusc himself in the hands of Abdalla ; who therefore set up 'Jetvan 
Bught, the son of Shaw Aulum, under the tuition and protection of Nidjib Daivlah, 
from whom he exacied an annual tribute. Thus in fact Abdalla became Emperor of 
Delhi.; and if he had inclined to establish himself in Hindoostan, might have begun a 
new dynasty of kings. He meant, probably at some future time, to pursue his designs, 
whatever they were, either for himself or for the heir of the house of Timur, to which 
he had allied himself, by a match with one of the princesses. His son and successor, 
TIMUR SHAH, married another princess of the same line. But apprehendtng 
an attack from the Seiks, Abdalla withdrew his troops from Delhi and returned to 
Lahore. 

The legal Emperor Shah Allum y after various adventures, threw himself on the 

14 pro- 



Indostan. 



64r5 



ants are remarkable for their superstition. — — About two 
hundred miles north-west from Cashmere is CABUL, near the 
foot of the Indian Caucasus, called also Paropamisus or Imaus, 
now Hindoo-Ko, or the Stony Girdle, on the river Attock, a 
branch of the Indus, near its source ; the capital of a province 
of the same name, which is beautifully diversified by hills and 
valiies. The city stands in the most delightful situation, arfd 
is considered as the gate of India towards Tartary. It is at 

present the capital of Timur Shah, king of Candahar. . 

The city of CANDAHAR is about one hundred and thirty- 
eight miles south-west from Cabul. It is allowed to have been 
first built by Alexander, who called it after his own name 
Alexandria, Arrian. iii. 28. It is named by way of dis- 
tinction, the Paropamisan Alexandria, lb. iv. 22. While the 
Persian and Mogul empires were undivided, Candahar was the 
frontier city and fortress of Hindoostan towards Persia, and 

therefore not unfrequently changed masters. About two 

hundred miles south from'Cabul is ATTOCK, lat. 3 2° 27' N., 
Ion. 70 36', on the east bank of the Indus, which, down- 
wards to the conflux of the Chunaub or Jenaub, near Moultan, 

is 

prelection of the English, who employed his authority avid name to sanction their right 
to the conquests which they made by the able conduct of Colonel afterwards Lord 
CL1VE, in the province of Bengal. The British power in India is chiefly owing to 
the splendid victory of that successful commander over Sujah Doivlah, and other powers, 
at the famous battle of Plassey, June 1757. Another great victory was gained, by 
Colonel afterwards Sir Hector Munro, over Sujah Doivlah, Nabob of Qude, and Cossim 
Ally, Nabob of Bengal, at Buxar, a 1764. The great inferiority of numbers with which 
these victories were obtained, may serve to diminish our incredulity with respect to 
the conquests of Alexander. At the battle of Buxar the whole British forces did not 
exceed 7000, of whom only about 1200 were Europeans; the baule of Plassey was 
gained with an army of about 3000 men, and of these only 900 were Europeans. Shah 
Allum, the nominal Emperor, weary of his dependence, and wishing to better his cir- 
cumstances, threw himself into the hands of the Mahrattas of Poonah, who promised 
to restore him to his throne. He was afterwards confined at Delhi, as a state prisoner, 
by S1NDIA, the most powerful Jaghiredar or chief of the Poonah or western Mahratta 
nation. 

The chief powers in Hindoostan at present are the Mahratta states, the Nizam or 
Prince of the Deccan, the Seiis, and the British. 

The British possess, in full sovereignty, the whole Soubah or province of Bengal^ 
and the greatest part of Bahar ; which, with the district of Benares, contain 162,000 
square British miles of land, that Is, near 30,000 more than are contained in Great 
Britain and Ireland ; and near eleven millions of inhabitants. The gross revenue, in- 
cluding the subsidy paid by the nabob of Oude, amounted, in 1788, to £4,210,000; 
and the neat revenue, after deducting the military charges, civil establishments, &c. to 
£1,670,000. The territory of Madrass in the Carnatic is in comparison inconsider- 
able. Its gross revenue amounted to £1,070,000; but the neat revenue only to 
£85,000. At Bombay the disbursements exceeded the receipts by about £300,000. 

The gross revenue of the British dominions in India amounted, in 1792-3, to no less 

a sum than £8,245,560. In 1799 — 1800, the total revenues of Bengal, Madrass, 

arid Bombay, amounted to £9,742,937. Large sums of money are usually com- 

T t 3 puted 



646 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



is called the river of Attock, i. e. forbidden, as being the ori- 
ginal boundary of Hindoostan on the north-west, and which it 
was unlawful for the subjects of that empire to pass without 
special permission. Attock is about two hundred miles north- 
west from Lahore, and also belongs to the Seiks. It is remarkable 
that this part of India, which was first known to Europeans, is 
now less known to us than almost any other. 

The springs of the Indus are commonly placed on the south 
side of the mountains which separate Indostan from Tartary, 
anciently called Imaus, or the Indian Caucasus ; but some sup- 
pose them to be far more remote. About one hundred and 

seventy miles from the sea, by the course of the river, the Indus 
divides into two branches, and forms a delta or a triangle, like 
the Nile. One of these branches again divides into two more, 
and forms another delta. About five miles below this second 
separation stands TATTA, the capital of the province of 
Sindy, supposed to be near the site of the ancient Pattala. The 
lower part of this delta is intersected by rivers and creeks, like 
the delta of the Ganges ; but, unlike that, it has no trees on 
it, the dry parts of it being covered with brush wood •, and the 

remainder, 

puted in India, by what are called Lacks of Rupees, each Lack amounting to about 
ten thousand pounds sterling. 

The British nation, with their allies and tributaries, occupy the whole navigable 
course of the Ganges, from its entry on the plains to the sea; which, by its winding 
course, is more than 1350 British miles. The Indians measure by Cosses or Crores, 
each coss being equal to nearly two English miles. 

Manners and Customs of the Indians. 

The Indians were considered by the ancient Greeks and Romans as an indigenous 
race, and therefore called Autochthones, or Aborigines, that is, natives of the soil, whose 
origin could not be traced, DioJor.'n. 38. From the earliest accounts, they appear to 
have made great progress in industry, arts, and elegance. The wisdom of the east is 
celebrated, 1 Kings, iv. 31. The whole body of the people was divided, as it still is, 
into four orders or casts. The first consists of philosophers and priests called Brahmins, 
and the more learned of them Pundits ; the second of magistrates and soldiers ; the 
third, of husbandmen and merchants ; and the fourth of artisans, labourers, and 
servants. None of these can ever quit his own cast, or be admitted into another. The 
members of each cast also adhere invariably to the profession of their fore-fathers. 
From generation to generation, the same families have followed, and will always con- 
tinue to follow, one uniform way of life. Nor is it lawful for any one to marry into 
another cast, Diodor. ii. 41. Whoever violates the rules or institutions of his cast, is 
sunk to the lowest state of degradation. No person of any cast will have the least 
communication with him, as was the case with those excommunicated by the Druids 
among the ancient Gauls and Britons, see p. 494. Such person is called a Pariar or 
Chandola ; and it is almost impossible for words to express the sensation of vileness 
which this name conveys to the mind of a Hindoo. The division of the people into 
casts is supposed to have proceeded from BRAHMA, who created the world 
under the direction of the Supreme Being ; and is therefore established not only by 

15 civil 



Indostan, 



647 



remainder, by much the greatest part, being noisome swamps, 
or muddy lakes. In the dry part a great many camels are 
reared, who feed on the brushwood. The upper part of the 
delta is well cultivated, and yields abundance of rice. It is 
remarkablej that the tide should not be visible in the Indus at a 
greater distance than sixty or sixty-five miles from the sea. In 
the Ganges, the tides are perceptible at two hundred and forty 
miles from its mouth ; and in the river of the Amazons, at 
six hundred miles. The bore, or sudden influx of the tide in 
the mouth of the Indus, is high and dangerous i hence the 
mischief it did to the fleet of Alexander. The river Indus, 
and its branches, admit of an uninterrupted navigation from 
Tatta to Moultan, Lahore, and Cashmere, for vessels of near 
two hundred tons. 

The country along the Indus, for three hundred miles from 
its mouth, is called SINDY. Its breadth is different; in the 
widest part it is about one hundred and sixty miles. Sindy, 
in many particulars of soil and climate, and in the general 
appearance of its surface, resembles Egypt ; the lower part of 
it being composed of rich vegetable mould, and extended into a 

wide 



civil authority, but confirmed and sanctioned by religion. This institution, though it 
lays a restraint on the natural liberty of man, and must necessarily sometimes check 
the exertions of genius, has brought the Indian manufactures to a degree of perfec- 
tion superior to that of any other country, and has always preserved the trade of India 
with other nations nearly in the same state. India continues still to supply nearly the 
same articles as in the time of Pliny, Plin. xii. and xiii. and to drain those countries 

with which it trades of their gold and silver, as it did in ancient times; see p. 12%. 

Some mention an additional cast, called Burrun Sunker^ composed of such as are pro- 
duced by an unlawful union between persons of different casts. These are mostly 
dealers in petty articles of retail trade. . 

Although it be impossible for a person of a lower cast to rise to a higher, yet in cer- 
tain cases, persons of a higher class may exercise the occupations of a lower without 
losing their cast by doing so. Accordingly Brahmins are sometimes employed, not only 

as ministers of state, but as soldiers. Ancient authors represent the Indians as 

divided into seven kinds or orders, Strab. xv. 703.; Diodor. ii. 4c; Arrian. Indie, lc. 
misled, as it is thought, by considering some of the subdivisions of the casts as distinct 
orders. They remark, that there were no slaves in India, lb.' 

There is a number of devotees or religionists in India, called Faquirs, who volun- 
tarily subject themselves to singular mortifications, and undergo the severest penances; 
on which account they are held in the highest veneration by the people. These Strabo 
calls Germane* or Hylobiu xv. 713. and mentions one of them who stood a whole day 
on one leg, supporting a large piece of wood with his hands, lb. 714. Pliny calls 
them GYMNOSOPHISTiE, (quod in India, qui habentur SAP1F.NTES nudi ataiem 
agunt, Cic Tusc, v. 27.) and remarks that some of them used to look at the sun for a 
wiiole day without moving their eyes, and others to stand from morning to night on 
the scorching sands on one foot, vii. 2. 

The government in all the countries of India was monarchical; but limited and 
controlled by the fixed and inviolable privileges of the different casts, particularly by 

T 1 4 ' the 



648 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



wide delta while the upper part of it is a narrow slip of coun- 
try, confined on one side by a ridge or ridges of mountains, and 
on the other by a sandy desert ; the river Indus, equal at least 
to the Nile, winding through the midst of this level valley, and 
annually overflowing it. During the months of July, August, 
and parr of September, which is the rainy seasori^in most other 
parts of India, the atmosphere is here generally clouded, but 
no rain falls, except very near to the sea. Indeed very few 
showers fall during the whole year. The prince of Sindy is 
tributary to the king of Candahar. He is a Mahomedan, and 
usually resides at the fort of Hydrabad, situate on the Indus, 
a little above the head of the delta, and near the city Nusser- 
POUR. The Hindoos are here treated with great rigour by 
their Mahomedan governors, which drives numbers of them 
into other countries. 

On the north-east of Sindy lie the territories of the Seiks 5 
on the north, those of the king of Candahar •, on the west is 
Jddkrati) anciently Gedrosia, a province of Persia, whose prince 
is tributary to the king of Candahar. A sandy desert bounds 
Sindy on the east, extending near five hundred and fifty miles 



the sanctity and pre-eminence of the BRAHMINS, who would deem it degradation 
and pollution, if they were to eat of the same food with their sovereign. Their per- 
sons are sacred, and even for the most heinous crimes they cannot be capitally punished ; 
their blood must never be shed. On important occasions, it is the duty of sovereigns 
to consult them, and to be directed by their advice. In ancient times, at a solemn 
assembly, called the great Synod, (Ms^aAjj Jwshos,) which used to be held at the 
beginning of every year, all the Brahmins assembling at the palace of the king, gave 
their opinion about the administration of public affairs; concerning the state of agri- 
culture and pasturage, Etrab. xv. 703. f. and whatever else they judged of advantage 
to those who were present, Diodor. ii. 40. The government of the Mahrattas at 
present is mo -try aristocratical. 

The monarchs of India were considered as the great proprietors of the land, as is 
still the case in the great empires of the east, see p. 631. The husbandmen, now 
called RYOTS, paid as rent usually the fourth of the produce of their farms, Strab. & 
Diodor. ibid. As long as the husbandman paid the established rent, he retained pos- 
session of the farm which descended like property from father to son. Before the 
original institutions of India were subverted by foreign invaders, the industry of the 
husbandman, on which every member of the community depended for subsistence, 
was as secure as the tenure by which he held his lands was equitable. It was not un- 
common, as we learn from Strabo, xv. 704. for two hostile armies to be fighting in one 
field, while the peasants were ploughing or digging with perfect safety in the next. 
The greatest attention was paid to render the condition of those who cultivated 
the ground comfortable. Various officers were appointed for this purpose. One 
class of them had the charge of the Tanks or public reservoirs of water, with- 
out a regular distribution of which, fields in a torrid climate cannot be rendered fer- 
tile. Those who collect the rents from the Jiyots, and parcel out the lands 
among them, are called Zemindars; who, it is supposed, were at first appointed 
oijly during pleasure, but afterwards became hereditary. On this subject, how- 
ever, 



Indostan, 64,9 

in length, and from one hundred to one hundred and fifty in 
breadth, mentioned by Herodotus, iii. 98. Owing to the want 
of rain in Sindy, and its vicinity to this desert, the heats in 
summer are so violent, and the winds which blow from the 
desert so pernicious, that the houses are contrived go as to be 
occasionally ventilated by means of apertures on the tops of 
them, resembling the funnels of small chimnies. When the 
hot winds prevail, the windows are closely shut, by which 
means the hottest of the current of air (that nearest the sur- 
face of the earth, of course) is excluded ; and a cooler part, 
because more elevated, descends into the house through the 
funnels. By this means also vast clouds of dust are excluded, 
the entry of which alone would be sufficient to render the 
houses uninhabitable. The roofs are composed of thick layers 
of earth instead of terraces. Few countries are more un- 
wholesome to European constitutions, particularly the lower 
part of the delta. Along the banks of the Indus, the fisher- 
men and graziers form moveable villages or towns, because 
they are continually changing their positions like a camp ; as 
Arrian informs us, was observed by Nearchus, the admiral of 

Alexander's 

ever, there are different opinions. In the time of ACBAR, the lands were va- 
lued, and the rent of each inhabitant and of each village ascertained. The annual 
amount of revenue then fixed, and the mode of levying it, continued with little va- 
riation in the province of Bengal to the year 1757, when Jaffeer Alt Kazvn, being 
created. Nabob of Arcot by the English, after the battle of Plassey, was ob- 
liged to depart from the wise arrangements of Acbar, and introduce new modes 
of assessment, that be might raise the sum which he had stipulated to pay on his 
elevation. 

There were various other officers who had different tasks assigned them, which are 
described, Strab. xv. 707. &c. Diodor. ii. 41. Among the rest, some took care to 
provide accommodation and lodgings for strangers, lb. Such houses are now called 
Choultries, and are frequent in every part of the country. The greatest attention was 
paid to the making of highways; and stones were erected at the end of every ten 
stadia, to mark the distances, and direct travellers, lb. 

The ancient Indians lived mostly on rice, as the Hindoos do still, Strab. xv. 709. 
They had no written laws ; and suits were determined according to the principles 
of equity, lb. The first who published a compendium of Indian jurisprudence 
was Acbar, by the assistance of his Vizier Abel Fazel, in the code called Ay&en 

A.lbery. 

All buildings of whatever kind, consecrated to the offices of religion, are 
called PAGODAS. Of these the most ancient is thought to be that in the 
island of Elephania, at no great distance from Bombay; which is an excavation 
hewn out of a solid rock, about half way up a high mountain, and formed Into a 
spacious area, nearly 120 feet square; with human figures, in high relief, 
of gigantic size and singular forms, on the inside. There are various pagodas 
of this kind in the island of Sa/sette, still nearer to Bombay. Instead of ca- 
verns, apparently the original places of worship, temples came to be raised 
by the Indians in honour of their deities ; at first in the form of a large py- 
ramid, with no other light but what came from a small door, as at JDoegitr, 

near 



650 



Modern Divisions of Asia. 



Alexander's £eet. These people are supposed to be descended 
from the Scythian Nomades, or wandering Tartars, , as this cus- 
tom does not prevail in any other part of India. 

The country on the south-east of Sindy is called CUTCH, 
extending from the eastmost branch of the Indus to the Pudder 
river, which separates it from Gttzerat, one of the provinces of 
the Mahrattas. On the south coast of the gulf of Cutch, is a 
district inhabited by a piratical tribe, named Sangarians y who 
cruise for merchant ships, as far to the west as the entrance of 
the gulf of Persia ; supposed to be the same with what is called 
Sangada by Arrian. 

The province of GUZERAT is a kind of peninsula, two 
hundred miles long, and one hundred and forty wide, formed 
by the Arabian sea, (called by the Asiatics, the sea of Omman,) 
and the gulfs* of Cambay and Catchy which penetrate a great 
way into the continent. The capital is AMEDABAD, taken 
by General Goddard in the war with the Mahrattas, a. 1780. 
It was restored on the peace of 1783. It stands in a level 
country, on a small navigable river, named Sabermatty, which, 
with other confluent streams, falls into the head of the gulf of 

CAM- 

near Tanjore, in the Carnatic; hut afterwards splendid buildings were erected, of im- 
mense extent, and highly ornamented : some of them several miles in circumference ; 
as that in the island of Seringham, which is formed by the division of the great river 
Caveri or Cauvery into two channels on the Corcmandel coast. The multitude of 
pilgrims that resort to this pagcda to obtain absolution is incredible ; and none of 
them come without an offering of money. The number of Brahmins supported 
in this temple by the liberality of superstition, together wirh their families, 
formerly amounted to no less than 40,000. " Here, as in all the other great 
pagodas of India, the Brahmins live in a subordination which knows no resistance, 
and slumber in a voluptuousness which knows no wants." Ortnes hist. vol. i. 

The religious rites celebrated in these pagodas are numerous and splendid. 
The Indians worship a multiplicity of deities, who in their character and func- 
tions resemble those of the Greeks and Romans. What was supposed to be per- 
formed by the power of Jupiter, Neptune, JEolus, Mars, Venus, &C. is by the 
Indians ascribed to the agency of Agnee, the god of fire; Karoon, the god of 
oceans; Vayoo, the god of wind; Cama, the god of love, &c. According to 
the notions entertained by the Indians of their deities, the same licentiousness 
prevailed in their worship, as anciently among the Greeks, Strab. viii. 378. xii. 
559. and also the same cruelty. Repugnant as it is to the feelings of a Hindoo 
to shed the blood of any creature that has life, many different anim.ils, even the most 
useful, the horse and the cow, were offered up as victims upon the altars of some 
of their gods; and what is still more strange, the pagodas of the east were 
polluted with human sacrifices, as well as the temples of the west. The at- 
tachment of the Hindoos to the tenets and rites of their religion, however 
absurd to us they may appear, is inconceivably great. All the cruelties employed 
by their Mahomedan conquerors to conveit them, proved ineffectual. Every 
precaution is used to foster their superstition. The lower casts aic prohibited, 
under the severest penalties, from reading any portion of the sacred books; and 

even 



Indo$ta?i. 



651 



GAMBAY, near to the city of that name, which is indeed the 
port of Amedabad, and distant from it about fifty-six miles. 

On the east of the sandy desert, and north of Guzerat, is 
AG1MERE or Marvuar, the country of the Rajpoots, or war- 
rior tribe among the Hindoos, hence called Rajpootana^ sup- 
posed to be the Gagasmua of Ptolemy *, three hundred and 
twenty miles from east to west, and two hundred and eighty- 
five from north to south, consibting generally of high moun- 
tains divided by narrow vallies, or of plains environed by 
mountains accessible only by narrow passes and defiles ; hence 
it is one of the strongest countries in the world, and the inha- 
bitants have always preserved their independence. They have 
been repeatedly defeated, but never subdued. Part of the 
country was reduced by Aurungzebe, and is at present tribu- 
tary to the Mahrattas, but the nation in general is free. Raj- 
pootana borders on the provinces of Delhi and Agra on the 
east. It was formerly divided into three great principalities, 
under the names of Oudipour, Joodpour, and Ambeer or Amere> 
now called Joinagur or Jyenagur. The ancient capital was 
Cheitore, but the present is Oudipour. The city Aglmere is 

built 



even the higher casts can receive no instruction, but what the Brahmins chuse to com- 
municate to them. Norhing can remove the errors and bigotry of superstition, or the 
fury of fanaticism, but the light of knowledge universally diffused, as much as possible, 
through all ranks. 

The Brahmins, though, to serve their own purposes, they have kept the people in 
ignorance, are said themselves to entertain just notions concerning the unity and per- 
fections of the Deity, and the worship most acceptable to him. In their opinions how- 
ever there is found the same mixture of ignorance and error, as in those of the ancient 
philosophers. 

They hold, that the universe was not only created by divine power and wisdom, but 
that every event is brought about by the immediate interposition of the Deity, whom 
they conceive to be a s;>irit, which pervades and animates the whole creation. So 
Strabo informs us, xv. 713. " The souls of men they believe to be portions separated 
from this great spirit, to which, after fulfilling their destiny on earth, and attaining 
a proper degree of purity, they will be agaiti re-united. In order to efface the stains 
with which a soul, during its residence on earth, has been defiled, by the indulgence of 
sensual and corrupt appetites, they teach that it must pass, in a long succession of 
transmigrations through the bodies of different animals, until by what it suffers, 
and what it learns, in the various forms of its existence, it shall be thoiouehly re- 
fined from all pollution, as to be rendered meet for being absorbed into the divine es- 
sence, and return like n drop into that unbounded ocean, from which it originally 
issued." Dr. Robertson s Disquisition concerning Ancient India, p. 330. The opinions 
of the Brahmins are wonderfully similar fo those entertained by Pythagoras, see p. 14. 
whence that philosopher is supposed to have derived his doctrines from India, Strab. 
xv. 716. Some sects of Brahmins entertained sentiments of morality as exalted .is 
those of the ancient Stoics : That man is formed not for speculation or indolence, but 
for action : that he is born not for himself alone, but for his fellow men ; that there- 
fore the happiness of the society of which he is a member, and the good of mankind, 

are 



652 



Modem Divisions of Asia, 



built at the foot of a very high mountain, on the top of which 
is a fortress of great strength, two hundred and thirty miles 
from Delhi. 

South of Agimere is the province Mahva, its capital OU- 
GEIN, the residence of Sindia, the chief of the Poonah Mah- 
rattas j four hundred and thirty-five miles south of Delhi, 
lat. 23 26', Ion. 75 56', thought to be the Ozene of Ptolemy ; 
about thirty-six miles south-west of it stood Mundu or Mundoo^ 
in the time of Acbar a prodigious city, twenty-two miles in cir- 
cuit, situate on the top of a very large and high mountain. 

Malwa evidently contains the highest ground in Indostan, be- 
cause from it rivers rise which run both into the bay of Cambay, 
and the Ganges. From the same lake flow the NERBUDDA, 
which runs into the gulf of Cambay north of Surat, and the 
SOANE or Soane-budda, which joins the Ganges twenty-two 
miles above Patna, running in opposite directions one thousand 
five hundred miles, and making the southern part of Indostan 
completely an island. 

II. In the PENINSULA of INDOSTAN, the chief places 
are, on the west side, usually called the MALABAR coast, 
SURAT , near the mouth of the Tapty river, lat. 22° 11 , 
Ion. 77 48' 15". East from this, and north of the same 

are his ultimate and highest objects ; that the motives, and not the events of his ac- 
tions, ought to be attended to : and that, whether the events, which are not in his 
own power, be prosperous or adverse, as long as he is satisfied with the purity of his 
intentions, he can enjoy that approbation of his own mind, which alone constitutes 
genuine happiness, independent of the power of fortune, or the opinions of other 
men. 

A new source of information has lately been introduced into Britain by translations 
from the Sanscreet language. The chief of these are part of the Mahabarat, a volu- 
minous epic poem, consisting of upwards of 400,000 lines, translated by Mr. Wilkins ; 
and the Sacontala, a dramatic poem, by Sir William Jones. The former of these is 
said to have been written by Kreeshna Divypaen Veia an eminent Brahmin, above 
3000 years before the Christian ara ; and the latter, a century before that period. 
Mr. Wilkins has also translated a book of fables, called Heeto-pades or Amiable In- 
structing commonly named Pilpays Fables, which kind of instruction, Strabo informs 

us, was used by the Brahmins, xv. 713. The skill of the ancient Brahmins ia 

astronomy, is thought, by some, to have surpassed that of any other ancient nation ; 
see p. 23. & 24. 

The Indians have always been distinguished, not only for the fineness of their ma- 
nufactures, but also for the number and excellence of their colours, Strab.xv. 694. 
699. Fine linen is supposed to have been called Sindon from the name of the river 
Indus or Sindus, near which it was wrought in the highest perfection ; and the deep 
blue colour in highest estimation among the Romans was termed Indicum, Plin. 
xxxv. 6. s. 27. thought to be the same with the modern Indigo. The ancient Indians 
were also remarkable for their ingenious workmanship in metals and ivory, ib. 717. 

river. 



Indostan. 



653 



river, is BURANPOUR, a city of the Mahrattas, formerly the 
capital of the Soubah of Candeish, situate in the middle of a 
delightful country, lat. 21° 19', Ion. 76 19', By this place 
General Goddard passed with his army in his celebrated march 
across the continent of India in 1780, from CALPI, on the 
south bank of the Jumna river, lat. 26° 7' 5", Ion. 8o° 4', to 
Surat. The other principal places at which he touched were 
Cbatterpour> Strong or Sironge, Bopal or Bopaltol, and Hurdah. 

About one hundred and seventy-seven miles south of Surat 
is BOMBAY, the chief port and settlement of the English on 
the coast, lat. 18 58', Ion. 72 40', in an island little more 
than seven miles in length, and very narrow, about twenty 
miles in circumference, containing a very strong and capacious 
fortress, a large city, a dock-yard, and marine arsenal, ceded 
to the English in 1662 by the Portuguese, as part of the dower 
of the Queen of Charles II. On the north-east it is separated 
by a narrow strait from Salsette, a fine island of about fifteen 
miles square, taken from the Mahrattas in 1773. In this bay 
are several other islands, particularly Caranjah and Elephanta y 
both of them acquisitions from the Mahrattas. Opposite the 
north end of Salsette is Basseen, a strong fort of the Mahrattas, 
taken by the English after a smart siege, but restored at the 
peace. 

About one hundred miles east from Bombay, and about 
seventy-five from the nearest sea-coast, is POONAH, the 
capital of the western Mahrattas, whose empire extends a great 
way from south to north in the inland part of Indostan. Poonah 
is meanly built, and not large, and lies quite open and defence- 
less. In case of an invasion the place of refuge is Pooroonder, 
a fortress on a mountain, about eighteen miles south-east of 
Poonah, where the archives of government are deposited. 
About fifty miles south-east from Poonah is SATTARAH, the 
former capital of the Mahrattas, near the source of the river 
Kistna or Kishna, which rises on the east side of the Gauts or 
Indian Appenine. About one hundred and thirty-six miles 
south of Poonah is VISIAPOUR or Bajapour y formerly the 
capital of the kingdom of that name, now belonging to the 
Mahrattas. 

The foundation of the Mahratta greatness was first laid by 
SEVAJEE, an officer in the army of the king of Visiapour, 
who, taking advantage of the distractions which prevailed in that 
kingdom, put himself at the head of a body of military adven- 
turers, of which kind of people there are great numbers in In- 
dostan ; and prosecuted his conquests with such success, that at 

his 



65* 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



his death, which happened in 1680, his domains extended from 
the northern part of Baglana near Surat, to a considerable way 
south of Bombay. His son Sambojee, who was a person of 
merit, fell by the treachery of Aurungzebe in 1680. But his 
grandson SAJOOJEE, during the convulsions which followed 
after the death of Aurungzebe, extended the dominions of the 
Mahrattas from the western sea to the confines of Bengal, and 
as far north as Agra; he died in 1740. His successor, Ram 
Rajah, being a weak prince, the two principal officers of the 
state, the prime minister, called Paishwah, and the commander 
in chief, or Buski> agreed to divide between them the domi- 
nions of their master •, the former assuming the government of 
the western provinces, and continuing at Poonah, the other 
the eastern provinces, and fixing his residence at Nagpour in 
Berar. This violent partition of the empire made by its mini- 
sters, encouraged the usurpation of others, according to the 
different degrees of power and influence which they possessed ; 
so that in a few years the state became, from an absolute mo- 
narchy, a mere confederacy of chiefs, and the loosest example of 
feudal government in the world. The Mahrattas, however, still 
continued to enlarge their dominions, till the dreadful overthrow 
they sustained from Abdalla at the battle of Panniput, in 1761. 

About 200 miles south of Bombay is the city of GOA, in 
an island of the same name, the capital of the Portuguese settle- 
ments in India, lat. i5°28'2o'', Ion. 72° 45', first taken pos- 
session of by ALBUQUERQUE, in 15 10. The coast be- 
tween Bombay and Goa is little known. About 180 miles east 
from Goa, and 398 miles from Bombay, is BISNAGAR or 
Bijinagur, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Narswga, near 
the western bank of the Tungebadra river, and north-east from it 

is Adoni About 220 miles south of Goa is MANGA- 

LORE, lat. 1 2 50', Ion. 74 44'; south of it, TELLICHERR Y, 
lat. ii° 48', then CALICUT, the first Indian port where the 
Portuguese landed under Vasco de Gama. in 1498, lat. ii° 1 8'. 
It was then the capital of the Zamorin, or Emperor of that coun- 
try, and the most flourishing city on the Malabar coast ; it 
is now greatly decayed. South of Calicut is Paniany, at 
the mouth of a river of the same name. The principal settle- 
ment of the Dutch on this coast is COCHIN, lat. 9 58', Ion. 
76 2'. There is a remarkable promontory, called mount 
DILLA, or Dilly, in lat. 12° 1', Ion. '75° 2'. Near Cochin 
is a large lake, south from which to Anjenga and the lake of Tra- 
vancore, not far from Cape Comorin, the country is almost en- 
tirely covered with wood, and little inhabited* 



Indostan, 



65B 



Cape COMORIN is the southernmost point of the peninsula, 
lat. 8° 12', Ion. 77 32' 30", from which a ridge of moun- 
tains, called the GAUTS, Gattes, or Indian Apennine, 
running north to the Surat or Tapty river, divides the peninsula 
into two parts. Cn the opposite sides of the cape, the winds 
are constantly at variance, being easterly on the one side, and 
westerly on the opposite, alternately ; and the climates are con- 
sequently various. 

The principal places on the east side of the peninsula, com- 
monly called the COROMANDEL COAST, are, Palamcotta, 
or Titmevelly, lat. 8° 42', Ion. 77° 49' 15", Ramanad, Madura^ 
lat. 9 32', Ion. 78 12', Negapatam, at the mouth of the 
Cauvery river, or more properly, at the middle of three mouths, 
a city and fortress of the English, taken from the Dutch in the 
late war, lat. io° 20', Ion. 79° 54', west from it is TAN- 
JORE, which gives name to the country, and TRICHINO- 
POLY, lat. io° 49', north of it; Tranouebar, a settlement 

of the Danes. About 65 miles north of this is PONDI- 

CHERRY, the capital of the French settlements in India, 

lat. ii° 56', Ion. 8o°. About 100 miles north of it, is 

MADRASS, or Fort St. George, the principal settlement of 
the English on this coast, first possessed by them about the 
year 1640, now one of the strongest fortresses belonging to the 
British nation, lat. 13° 5', Ion. 8o° 25'. Madrass, in common 
with all the European settlements on this coast, has no port 
for shipping, rhe coast forming nearly a straight line, and it 
is also incommoded with a high and dangerous surf or wave 
that breaks upon it, so that it can only be approached in boats 
of a particular construction, which are made without ribs or 
keel, with flat bottoms, and having their planks sewed together, 
altogether without iron. Thus they are rendered so flexible, 
as to elude the effects of the violent shocks which they receive, 
by the dashing of the waves or surf on the beach, which either 
oversets or breaks to pieces a boat of European make. There 
is no port for large vessels between Trinkamaly, in the island of 
Ceylon, and the Ganges. The territory (or Jaghire) belonging 
to Madrass extends about 1 08 miles along the shore, and 47 in- 
land, in the widest part. 

About 70 miles south-west of Madrass is ARCOT, the an- 
cient capital of the whole country; supposed to be the Sora* 
mandalum of Ptolemy ; whence corruptly Goro-mandel. — » 
West from this is MYSORE or Messur, the country of the 
celebrated HYDER ALLY, who by his great abilities raised 
himself from a subordinate rank to be a powerful prince. He 

was 



656 



Modem Divisions 6f Asia. 



was a soldier of fortune, the son of a person who served in 
quality of Killadar or governor of a small fortress, to one of the 
kings of Mysore. Hyder first distinguished himself as an auxili- 
ary of the French, a. 1753, in whose camp he is said to have 
acquired the rudiments of war. About ten years afterwards, 
being put at the head of the Mysore army, he dethroned his 
sovereign and governed under the title of Regent. He quickly 
extended his dominions on every side*, and after various turns 
of fortune died in possession of a state equal in extent to Great 
Britain, and yielding an annual revenue of four millions, in 
1782. The power of Tippoo Saib or Tippoo Sultan, his son, 
Was greatly abridged by the English under Lord Cornwallis, 
and a confederacy of the native princes*. — The capital of 
Mysore is SERINGAPATAM, situate in an island of the 
Cauvery river, lat. 12 31% Ion. 76 46' ; north of it is the 
fortress of BANGALORE. North-west from these is the fine 
province of BEDNORE or Biddannore, one of the first con- 
quests of Hyder. — About 120 miles north from Madrass is 
Nellore, a strong fortress near the mouth of the river 
Pennar. Gandicotta, on the south bank of this river, is 
remarkable both as a strong fortress, and for having a diamond 
mine near it. 

All that part of the Peninsula south of the Kistnah river was 
anciently called the CARNATIG •, but that name is now com- 
monly restricted to the eastern side, about 570 miles in length, 
from north to south, but no where more than 120 wide, com- 
monly no more than 75. The Carnatic contains an incredible 
number of forts and fortresses of various kinds, which render 
its geography important. 

North of the mouth of the Kistnah river is a long tract of 
country, called the four northern CIRCARS, Cicacole> Raja- 
mundry> Ellore 9 and Candapilly, extending about 350 miles along 
the sea to the Chilka lake on the confines of Cattack, and from 
25 to 75 miles wide •, secured on the west by a chain of steep 
mountains, and only accessible at the two ends ; but wholly 
detached from the other British settlements : the northern extre- 
mity being 350 miles from Bengal, and the southern 250 from 
Madrass. — Near the mouth of the Kistnah river is Masulipa- 
tam, a city and port of trade, in the district called by Ptolemy 

Mesolia. North of the Kistnah is the GOD AVERY river, 

the most considerable from the Ganges to cape Comorin. It 

* The empire of Tippoo Saib is now entirely extinguished, his capital having been 
taken by storm, and himself slain, by the British forces under General Harris, 4th May 
> 799-— • His dominions have been divided among the British and their confederates. 

has 



Iridostan. 



6B7 



has ks source about 70 miles to the north-east of* Bombay ; 
90 that it traverses almost the whole breadth of the peninsula, 
through the Dowlatabad Soubah, and the country of Tellinghana* 
About ninety miles above the sea it is joined by Bain Gonga ; 
at Rajamundry it separates into two principal channels ; and 
those subdividing again, form several tide-harbours for vessels 
of moderate burden, namely, Ingeram 3 Coringa, Tanam, Bandar- 
malanka and Narsapour. Extensive forests of teek trees border 
on its banks within the mountains, which supply timber for the 
use of these ports. European-built ships seldom last five years 
m the Indian seas, but those built of the native teek timber are 
found to last forty years and upwards. North of this, on the 
coast, are Fisagapatam, lat. 7o°42 / , Ion. 84 23'j Ganjam, &c. 

West from the Circars are the territories of the NIZAM, or 
successor to the famous Nizam al Muluch, comprising the pro-? 
vince of Golconda, called anciently Tellingana> or Tilling, situate 
between the lower parts of the courses of the Kistna and 
Godavery rivers, and the principal part of Dowlatabad ; to- 
gether with the western part of Berar, subject to a tribute of 
a chouty or fourth part of its net revenue, to the Berar Mahrat- 
tas. His capital is HYDERABAD or Bagnagur on the 
Maussi river, lat. 17 12', Ion. 7 8° 51'. About five or six 
- miles north-west of it, is the famous fortress of GOLCONDA, 
on the summit of a hill of a conical form, which is deemed 
impregnable, and joined to Hyderabad by a wall of communi- 
cation. When Aurungzebe conquered the kingdom of Gol- 
conda in 1687, this fortress was taken by treachery. Aurung- 
zebe made Aurungabad the capital, north of the river Goda- 
very, lat. i9°45', Ion. 76 2", which he called after his own 
name. The old capital was DOWLATABAD or Deo&ire, 
near a fortress of the same name built on the top of a mountain, 
about nine or ten miles north-west of Aurungabad. The Em- 
peror Mahomed, when he conquered this part of the country, 
in the fourteenth century, attempted to establish the seat of his 
empire at Dowlatabad ; and with that view almost ruined Delhi, 
by forcing the inhabitants to remove about 750 miles from their 
ancient habitations to his new capital. — Near Dowlatabad are 
the pagodas of ELORN, mo«£ of which are cut out of the 
natural rock. 

North of the territories of the Nizam and the Circars are the 
territories of the Berar, or Eastern Mahrattas ; possessing the 
provinces of BERAR and ORISSA or Orixa. Their present 
chief or Rajah is MOODAJEE Boonsla or Bonsola* a de- 
scendant of Sevajee, the founder of the Mahratta empire, 

U u The 



658 



Modem Divisions of Asia, 



The capital of Berar, and the residence of the Rajah, is NAG- 
POUR, a very large and populous city, though meanly built, 
and in a manner defenceless ; situate nearly in the centre of 
India, where a great number of the great roads through that 
country meet, and therefore an important point or station in the 
geography of it, lat. 2i° 8' 30", Ion. 79 46', 722 miles from 
Calcutta, 631 from Delhi, 552 from Bombay, and 673 from 

Madrass. Moodajee's principal fortress, the depository of 

his treasures and valuables, is Gyalgur, or Gawile, situate 
on a steep mountain, above 100 miles north-west of Nagpour. 
Each of the native princes in India has a depository of this 
kind, and commonly at a distance from his place of residency ; 

the unsettled state of the country making this necessary. 

North-east from Nagpour is RUTTUNPOUR, lat. 22 e 16', 
Ion. 8 2° 36', the capital and residence of Bambajee, who 
holds the eastern part of the Nagpour territories, under his 
brother Moodagee. The capital of Orissa is C ATTACK or 
Cuttack, on the river Mahamuddy, no less than 480 miles almost 
straight east from Nagpour. It lies on the only road between 
Bengal and the Northern Circars, and therefore is a place of 
importance to Britain. We know less of the interior parts of 
Berar than of most other countries in Hindoostan. That part 
of the Berar dominions which borders on Bengal, is generally 
woody and uninhabited ; so that the usual cause of jealousy 
between contiguous states, the desire of enlarging their fron- 
tier, is thereby removed. 

The northern provinces of the peninsula are called the 
DECCAN, that is south , because they lay south of the original 
territories of the Delhi empire. This name anciently compre- 
hended the whole peninsula. Some limit the name of peninsula 
to that part of it south of the Kistna river, see Introduction to 
Major Rentiers Memoir, p. xix. 

II. INDIA beyond the GANGES *, forms a great peninsula, 
between the Bay of Bengal on the west, and the Chinese sea 

on 

* The GANGES (called by the natives Pudda or Padda; also Burra Garrga, 
the Great River; or by way of eminence, Ganga, the River,) rises among 
the vast mountains of Thibet; and, after wandering through those rugged re- 
gions about 800 miles, as it is thought, gushes forth at an opening in the 
mountains called Aimmahgb^ the Himaus or Jmaus of the ancients; whence it pre- 
cipitates itself into a vast bason, which it has worn in the rock. Superstition 
has given to the mouth of this cavern the form of the head of a cow, an animal 
held nearly in the same veneration by the Hindoos, as the god Apis was by the 
ancient Egyptians; whence this supposed source of the Ganges has gotten the 
name of Gangotri, or the Cow's mouth. The fabulous account of the origin 
of the Ganges is, that it flows out of the foot of Beschan, (the same with 

14 FisiHOu)* 



India. 



659 



on the east. It is about 2000 miles long, and 1000 broad; 
between 1 and 30 deg. N. lat. and 92 and 109 deg. E. Ion. 
and contains the following kingdoms : Achem> Ava, Aracan^ 

Ptgu, 

V'tsinou), the Preserving Deity; whence, say the Brahmins, it has its name 
Pudda, that word signifying foot in the Sanscrit language; and that, in its 
course to the plains of Indostan, it passes through an immense rock shaped like a 
cow's head. This allegory is highly expressive both of the veneration which the 
Hindoos have for that famous stream, and of their gratitude to the Supreme Being 
for the blessing it confers. 

From Hurdivar or Hurdoar, in lat. 30, where the Ganges enters the plains of 
Indostan, it flows with a smooth navigable stream through delightful plains during 
the remainder of its course to the sea, (which is about 1350 miles,) diffusing plenty 
through the adjacent country, both by its living productions and annual inundations. 
In its course through the plains it receives eleven rivers, some of which are equal to 
the Rhine, and none smaller than the Thames, besides as many others of lesser note. 
Its bed* is very unequal in point of breadth, From its first arrival in the plains at 
Hurdwar to the conflux of the Jumna, the first river of note that joins it, its bed 
is generally from a mile to a mile and a quarter wide, and, compared with the 
latter part of its course, tolerably straight. From hence downward its course be- 
comes more winding, and its bed consequently wider ; half a mile where narrowest, 
and three miles in the widest part, and that in places where no islands intervene. 
The stream is always encreasing or decreasing, according to the season. It is rising 
from the latter end of April to the middle of August, and falling during the rest of 
the year. When at the lowest, it is about three quarters of a mile broad. The 
Ganges is fordable in some places above the conflux of the Jumna, hut the naviga- 
tion is never interrupted. Below that, the channel is of considerable depth ; for the 
additional streams bring a greater accession of depth than width. At 500 miles from 
the sea, the channel is thirty feet deep when the river is at the lowest; and it 
continues at least this depth to the sea, where the sudden expansion of the stream 
deprives it of the force necessary to sweep away the bars of sand and mud thrown 
across it by the strong southerly winds ; so that the principal branch of the Ganges 
cannot be entered by large vessels. About 220 miles from the sea, (but 
300 reckoning the windings of the river,) commences the head of the delta 
ef the Ganges, which is considerably more than twice the area of that of the Nile. 
The two westernmost branches, named the Cossimbuzar and Jell'mgy rivers, unite, 
and form what is afterwards named the Hoogly river, which is the port of Calcutta, 
and the only branch of the Ganges that is commonly navigated by ships. The 
numerous canals cut from the different branches of the Ganges form one of the most 
extensive inland navigations in the world, which is said to afford constant employment 
to 30,000 boatmen. 

The chief danger attending this inland navigation arises from sudden and violent 
squalls, called Northwesters, from the quarter whence they usually blow. They begin 
about the middle of March in the eastern parts of Bengal, and somewhat later in the 
western. They recur every three or four days, till the commencement of the rainy 
season ; and though of no long duration at each time, yet they often produce fatal 
effects, if not carefully guarded against, whole fleets of trading boats having been sunk 
by them almost instantaneously. They are more frequent in the eastern than 
western parts of Bengal, and happen oftener towards the close of the day than at any 
other time. As they are indicated some hours before they arrive by the rising and 
very singular appearance of the clouds, there is commonly time enough for seeking 
a place of shelter. It is only in very broad ,parts of the river that they are so truly 
formidable. < ' r ' ; 

That part of the delta bordering on the sea, is composed of a labyrinth of 
rivers and creeks, all of which are salt, except those that immediately com- 
municate with the principal arm of the Ganges. This tract, known by the 

Uu j name 



Modern Divisions of Asia, 



Eegu, Siam, Malacca, Cambodia, Cochin-China, Laos, Tonquin; 
all of which have capitals of the same name, except the firs! 
and the three last. The capital of Achem is Chamdara : of 
Cochin-China, Thoanon ; of Laos, Lanchang ; and of Tonquin, 

Cachao 

name of the Woods or Sunderbunds> is in extent equal to the principality of Wales % 
and is enveloped in woods, and infested with tygers. Here salt in quantities, equal 
to the consumption of Bengal and its dependencies, is made and transported with 
equal facility: snd here also is found an inexhaustible store of timber for boat- 
building. But the salt-makers and wood- cutters exercise their trade at the constant 
hazard of their lives; for the tygers not only appear on the margin in quest 
of prey, but often, in the night-time, swim to the boats that lie at anchor 
in the middle of the river. The breadth of the lower part of the delta is upwards 
of 1 80 miles; to which if we add that of the two branches of the river that 
bound it, we shall have about 200 miles for the distance to which the Ganges ex- 
pands its branches, at its junction with the sea. The declivity of the plain from 
Hurdwar to the sea, although not perceptible to the eye, is about nine inches a mile \ 
but the windings of the river reduce the declivity on which the water runs, to less 
than four inches a-mile. The motion of the stream at a medium is less than three 
miles an hour in the dry months. There is commonly on one side of the river an 
almost perpendicular bank, more or less elevated above the stream, according to the 
season, with deep water near it, and on the opposite side a bank, shelving away so 
gradually, as to occasion shallow water at some distance from the margin. 
This is occasioned by the winding course of the stream; and the winding is 
caused by the nature of the soil through which it runs. Some of the Ben- 
gal rivers have entirely changed their course, and the bed of the Ganges 
is supposed to have been formerly in a different track from what it is in at 
present. 

The swelling and overflowing of the Ganges is owing partly to the rains which fall 
in the mountains near its source, and partly to those which fall in the plains. The 
former begin in April : and the Ganges rises fifteen feet and a half out of thirty- 
two feet, the sum total of its rising, by the latter end of June, when the rainy season 
in most of the flat countries only begins. As the ground adjacent to the river-bank, 
to the extent of some miles, is considerably higher than the rest of the country, 
owing to the successive accumulation of mud deposited by the waters of the river 
when it overflows ; the lands in general are overflowed to a considerable height, long 
before the bed of the river is filled. Thus the waters of the inundation are separated 
from those of the river, until it overflows; and even then the river still shews itself, 
as well by the grass and reeds on its banks, as by its rapid and muddy stream. For 
the water of the inundation has a blackish hue, which it acquires by having been 
so long stagnant among grass and other vegetables ; and moves at a slow rate, (not 
above half a mile an hour,) in comparison of the stream of the river, which at this 
season runs at the rate of five or six miles an hour. The inundation is nearly at a 
stand for some days preceding'the middle of August ; and after that gradually dimi- 
nishes, owing to the cessation of the rains in the mountains, although it continues t» 
rain in the low grounds, during the months of August and September. After the 
beginning of October, when the rain has nearly ceased, the remainder of the in- 
undation goes off quickly by evaporation, leaving the lands highly manured, and 
in a state fit to receive the seed by the simple operation of ploughing. The inun- 
dation of the Ganges rises to different heights in different parts of its course, and 
in its different branches ; thus at Jellinghy it rises 32 feet, but at Dacca only about 
14 feet. — -—In certain tracks large dikes or dams have been raised at an enor- 
mous expence, to prevent the inundation from rising to its usual height in par- 
ticular grounds, which would be hurt by too much moisture. During the swoln 
state of the river, the tide totally loses its effect of counteracting the stream ; and in a 
glial racasuste that of ebbing and flowing, except very uear the sea. Sometimes a strong 

wind 



12 



Modern Division^ of Asia, §§\ 

Cachao or Kcccio. But the Europeans are very little acquainted 
with the most of these countries. 

A ridge of mountains, running from north to south, divider 
this peninsula in the same manner as the former. 

V. CHINA is about 1440 miles long, and 1260 broad ; be- 
tween 20 and 42 deg. N. lat. and 98 and 123 deg. E. Ion. 
It is supposed to contain 50 millions of inhabitants % It is a 
level country, except towards the north ; and has numerous 
canals of great depth, some of them 1000 miles long. The 
great wall which separates China from Tartary is said to be 
1500 miles long; from 20 to 25 feet high; so broad that five 
or six horsemen may ride abreast ; defended by towers at small 
distances; carried over mountains and vallies. It is said to 
have stood 1800 years. 

The principal cities are, PEKIN, the capital, said to contain 
two millions of inhabitants ; NANKIN, thought to be still 
larger; and Canton. f 

VI. TARTARY comprehends more than one half of Asia. 
It is said to be 4000 miles long, and 2400 broad ; between 50 
and 150 deg. E. Ion. and 30 and 70 deg. N. lat. It is divided 
into three parts. 

1. Chinese Tartary. —Its capital, Chynian* 

2. Russian Tartary or Siberia. Its capital, To~ 

bolski. This division comprehends the country of the 

Samoedes and Ostiaks along the frozen ocean ; Kamschatha and 
Jakutshiy on the north-east, &c. 

wind blowing against the current of the river makes the periodical flood rise to an un- 
common height. By this accident, the inhabitants of a considerable district at Lucki- 
pour, about 50 miles from the sea, were, with their houses and cattle, totally swept 
away in 1763. 

There is a river equal if not superior to the Ganges, called BURRAMPOOTER., 
which joins the eastern branch of the Ganges below the Luckipour, about 40 miles from 
the sea, and produces one of the largest bodies of running water in the world. The 
Burrampooter, till the year 1765, was unknown in Europe. It has its source from the 
eastern side of the same mountains that give rise to the Ganges. During a course of 
400 miles through Bengal, it is so similar to the Ganges, that the same description 
nearly answers both ; only the Burrampooter, for the last 60 miles before its junction 
with the Ganges, is regularly from four to five miles wide. After its junction with 
the Ganges, they both assume the name of MEGNA, although the Megna be a lpuch 
smaller river. In Thibet it is called Sanpoo or Zanchi, which there has the same mean- 
ing with Ganga in Indostan, The River. Where it first changes its name to Bur- 
rampooter^ is uncertain. 



* In the account of the British embassy to China, the number of inhabitants issaie! 
lp be above a hundred millions. 

f Canton is said to contain above a million of inhabitants. The number of those 
who are obliged to live on the water in boats amounts to near three hundred thousand. 
Couignys V*yg» to Ganton, 

U u 3 The 



662 



Islands of Asia* 



The Calmuck Tartars, north of the Caspian sea, and the CzV- 
cassian Tartars, whose capital is Astracan, on the Wolga, also 
acknowledge themselves subject to Russia. 

3. Independent Tartary, or the nations which are go* 
verned by chiefs or chans of their own, and acknowledge no 
superior. These are now but few ; the Mogul or Mongul 
Tartars, on the confines of China ; the kingdom of Thibet, 
its capital Patala, near which, on the top of a high mountain, 
their Dalai-Lama, or high priest, resides the Usbec Tartars, 
whose capital is SAMARCAND, the city of Tamerlane-, but 
part of them are tributary to Persia : the Turkinstan Tar- 
Tars, north of the Caspian Sea. 

The limits of these countries are very uncertain. The Tar- 
tars in general lead a wandering life, attending their flocks and 
herds, like their ancestors the Scythians. 

The ISLANDS of Asia. 

The LadrONE islands, E. Ion. 140. deg., N. lat. 14. deg. ; 
about 12 in number. The chief are, Guam, and Tinian, on 
which Anson landed. 

The islands of JAPAN, which form an empire. The Ja- 
panese suffer no nation to trade with them but the Chinese and 
Dutch ; and even these under hard restrictions. 

The PHILIPPINE islands, about 1200 in number, belonging 
to Spain, first discovered by Magellan, who was slain in a skir- 
mish with the natives, 1521. The chief of them is Manila or 
Luconid. 

Formosa, on the east of China ; and Ainan, in the gulf 
of Cochin-China, both belonging to the Chinese. 

The Molucca or Spige islands, five in number, subject to 
the Dutch. 

The Banda or Nutmeg islands, south of the former, like- 
wise belonging to the Dutch. 

The islands betwixt Borneo and the Spice islands, Celebes 
or Macassar, Amboyna, &c. also subject to the Dutch* 

The Sunda islands 1. Borneo, one of the largest islands 
in the world, said to be 800 miles long, and 700 broad 5 in the 
possession of the natives who trade with all nations. 2. Suma- 
tra,, 1000 miles long, and 100 broad ; abounding in gold and 
emeralds, and therefore supposed by some to be the Ophir men- 
tioned in Scripture. The English have settlements here at Ben- 
coolen and Fort Marlborough j the Dutch at Achen and Palamban. 
3. Java. — » T he chief towns are, Bantaot, and BATAVIA, 
the capital of the Dutch settlements in India* 

The 



Africa. 



The Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal, 

CEYLON, near Cape Comorin, thought to be the richest 
island in the world. The chief towns are, Candy, Columbo, 
and Trinquimale, belonging to Britain. 

The Maldives or Maldivia islands reckoned in number 
12,000 j but many of them are nothing- but barren rocks. 

To these may be added New Holland, discovered by the 
Dutch about the middle of the last century, and lately ascer- 
tained to be an island by Captain Cook, the largest in the 
world, above 2000 miles long, and in some places near as 
broad : New Guinea ; New Zealand ; and the newly dis- 
covered islands, Otaheite, New Britain, New Ireland, &c. 



AFRICA. 

AFRICA is a great peninsula, joined to Asia by the Isthmus 
of Suez about 60 miles over; Herodotus says, 1000 
stadia, ii. 58. Strabo, 900 stadia, xvii. 803. 

Its length from Cape Bona in the Mediterranean, N. lat. 
37 deg. to the Cape of Good Hope, S. lat. 34 — 7, is 4300 miles- ; 
and its greatest breadth, from Cape Verd in the Atlantic, W. 
Ion. 17 — 20, to Cape Guarda-fui, near the straits of Babelman- 
del, is 3500 miles. 

The equator divides it almost in the middle. 
The two largest rivers in Africa are, the NILE and the 
NIGER, which both annually overflow their banks, and fer- 
tilise the adjacent country. The Nile rises in Abyssinia, and 
after a prodigious course almost strait north, falls into the 
Mediterranean, dividing Egypt into two parts. The Niger 
runs for an immense way from west to east; and without 
reaching the sea 7 , is^ supposed to fall into a great lake ; or being 
divided into several branches, to be lost in the ground ; vid. 
Index. The Gambia and Senegal are large streams, which 
run west into the Atlantic. 

The most considerable mountains in Africa are, the Moun- 
tains of the Moon in Abyssinia ; and ATLAS, which gives 
name to the Atlantic Ocean, and extends from Mauritania to 
Egypt. 

The Peek of TENERIFF, in an island of that name, one of 
the Canaries, is thought to be the highest single mountain in 
the world, rising in the form of a sugar-loaf, about three miles 
perpendicular height; some make it only one half of that 

U u 4 height. 



664 



Ancient Africa, 



height. This mountain is also a volcano, and occasions frequent 
earthquakes. 

The northern parts of Africa were known to the ancients 5 
and the moderns are acquainted only with the countries near 
the sea-coast, on the south. The interior parts are still in a 
great measure unknown. 



AFRICA ANTIQUA. 

THE principal divisions of Ancient Africa were, JEgyptus / 
Cyrenaica, including Marmarica, now Barca : Regio Syr- 
tica, or the country between the two Syrtes, afterwards called 
Triptilis or Tripolitana, from its three cities, now Tripoli } 
Africa Propria, or the territories of Carthage, now Tunis; 
Numidia, now Algiers ; Mauritania, now Morocco and Fez ; 
Getulia. The interior parts of Africa were called Libya, and 
the south JEthiopia; which name was by the ancients applied 
to all southern regions. 

iEGYPTUS, Egypt *, was divided into Superior and 
Inferior. 

The 

* Historical Account of EGYPT. 

EGYPT was esteemed in ancient times the school of learning; and therefore tha 
most illustrious men in Greece repaired to it for instruction; as Horner^ Pytbagoras t 
Lycurgus, Solon, Herodotus, Plato, &c. Diodor. 1. 96. The early history of this coun- 
try is involved in obscurity. Its own historians gave out, that it had been governed t 
first by gods and heroes, and then by men, for above 30,000 years, Diodor.'x. 44. 
Herodotus makes the space of time from the heroic ages, 10,340 years, it. 14a. The 
magni6cent works of the ancient Egyptian kings, prove their power and opulence ; 
but their history, as related by Herodotus, ii. 99. ad Jin. is so mingled with fable, that 
great part of it merits little attention. One of the most useful of these works was 
that of MCERIS, who dug the lake called by his name, ib. 149. Herodotus makes 
the circumference of this lake 3600 stadia, or 450 miles, ib. Mela, 500 miles, 1. 9. 
Pliny, 250 miles, v. 9. But these dimensions exceed belief. The time when this 
king flourished is uncertain. The first king of Egypt is said to have been MENES, 
who built Memphis, Herodot.n. 99. The pyramids were built by different kings, 
ib. 101. 124. 125, &c « *34> &c. 

The most illustrious of the Egyptian monarchs was SESOSTRIS, b. C. 1491, 
who is said to have subdued Arabia, JEthiopia, Lybia, and all Asia from the river 
Tanais to the eastern ocean beyond the Ganges, ib. 55. Herodotus mentions his 
having also conquered the Scythians and Thracians in Europe, ii. 103. Several pillars 
were standing in the time of that historian, on which were inscribed these words, 
Sesostris, King of Kings and Lord or Lords, subdued this coun- 
try by his arms, ib. 106.; Diodor.i.55. Strabo mentions some monuments of 
Sesostris in ^Ethiopia still extant in his time, xvii. 790. The vanquished kings and 
leaders, he is reported in general to have treated with humanity; but when he went 
to the temple or entered his capital, he caused them to be harnessed to his chariot, 

four 



Egypt* 



The chief cities In Upper Egypt were MEMPHIS, the an- 
cient capital, on the Nile, about 100 miles from its mouth, and 
1 5 miles above its division into different streams, near the place 
where GRAND CAIRO, the present capital, stands ; THEBJE, 
Thebes, famous for its hundred gates, near 200 miles above 
Memphis ; and below it Coptos> the emporium of Indian and 
Arabian commodities, BUfi. v. 9. s. 11. which were brought 
from various parts of the east to Berenice or Myos-Hortnos, two 
ports on the Arabian gulf, and transported from thence on ca- 
mels in twelve days to Coptos, Id. 6. 23. s. 26. et 29. 33. f. 

Near Memphis' stood the famous PYRAMIDS, the most 
stupendous buildings in the world, supposed to be the burial 
place of the ancient kings of Egypt j the largest of which, at 
the base, covers about 10 acres of ground, and is above 500 
feet perpendicular height, and 700, if measured obliquely. 
Near the pyramids are the mummy-pits, or subterraneous 
vaults of prodigious extent, with nitches in the sides for con- 
taining the dead embalmed bodies of the ancient Egyptians, 
commonly called mummies. Some of these are said to be per- 
fectly 

four abreast, instead of horses, ib. 58. Sesostris becoming blind in his old age, dis- 
patched himself after having reigned 33 years, ib. The empire soon after his death 
fell to pieces; but the monuments of its greatness are said to have existed in the time 
of Tiberius. Tacit. Annal.n. 60. 

Egypt at one time was governed by twelve kings, chosen by the people, who are 
said to have built the Labyrinth. They, for some time, lived in great harmony ; 
but at last, differing among themselves, they were either slain or expelled by PSAM- 
MITICHUS, one of their number, with the assistance of a body of Ionians and Cari- 
ans who had been driven on the Egyptian coast by force of weather. Psammitichus s 
for this service, granted settlements in Egypt to these auxiliaries ; who, according to 
Herodotus, were the first foreigners permitted to reside in that country, ii. 1^4. For 
formerly all strangers, particularly the Greeks, were prohibited from entering an 
Egyptian harbour, Strabo, xvii. 79 a.; see p. 127. The gratitude of Psammitichus, 
to his Grecian auxiliaries produced a connection between the Egyptians and Greeks 5 
and from that period the Egyptian history became more authentic, Herodat, ii. 154. 
A number of Egyptian boys were committed to the charge of the Ionians to be taught 
the Greek language, ib. The Egyptians, before this time, used to call all these 
BARBARIANS, who spoke a language different from their own, ib. 158. as the 
Greeks did afterwards ; for the division of mankind into Greeks and Barbarians, as 
Strabo observes, on the authority of Thucydides, was unknown to the Greeks in the 
time of Homer, \\\up. 370. See also xiv. 661. & 66a. 

Psammitichus reigned 54 years. He spent 29 of these in besieging Azotus, a 
frontier city of Syria, before he took it ; which Herodotus says, was the longest siege 
he had ever heard of t ii. 157. 

NECUS, the sou of Psammitichus, was the first who attempted to dig a canal from 
the Nile to the Red Sea, which was afterwards completed by Darius, the Persian ; sd 
broad, that two vessels (rgingus, triremes) could easily sail on it together. It extended 
from a little above JBubastis, not far from the modern Grand Cairo, on the Nile, te 
Patumos, a city of Arabia, on the Red Sea, near the present Suez, about four days 
sail, ib. 157. Strabo says this canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan 
war, and that it terminated at the city Arsino'e or Clcopatris y xvii, 804. He makes it 

100 



666 



Africa Antiqua. 



fectly entire, although kept above two or three thousand 
years. The art of embalming dead bodies in this manner is 
now lost. 

The different canals which separated Memphis from the py- 
ramids and other burial places are thought by some to have fur- 
nished the Greeks with the idea of their infernal rivers, Styx, 
Acheron^ Cocytus, Lethe, Diodor. i. 92. & 96. 

Above Memphis, on the west or Lybian side of the river, 
were the cities Acanthus and ARSINOE, or the city of the cro- 
codiles, which gave name to a district, in which was the lake 
of MGERIS, of immense extent, Strab. xvii. 809. ; Pliti. v. 9. 
dug by order of an Egyptian king, to contain the waters of the 
Nile when it rose too high, and communicate with it by canals 
and ditches, one of which still subsists. 

Near this lake was the famous LABYRINTH, the work of 
Psammitichus, or of the twelve joint kings ; according to Hero- 
dotus- 

IOO cubits broad, ib. 805. Pliny makes it 100 feet broad, and 30 feet deep, vi. 29. 
Both these authors say, that Darius was prevented from finishing this canal, from an 
apprehension, that the Red R.ea, being- higher than the land of Egypt, (as he was made 
to believe,) if let in would inundate the country, and spoil the waters of the Nile, 
almost the only drink of the inhabitants, as there were no fountains of fresh water in 
the country, ib. This canal was finished, or renewed by the Ptolemies, Strabo, ib. 
It was cleaned by Trajan, and afterwards restored by the Arabs in the time of Omar. 
It is now choaked up ; and the trade between Cairo and Suez is carried on by 
caravans. 

Herodotus says, that I2o,ogo men perished in digging this canal under Necus. 
That king being hindered from finishing it by an oracle, built a number of ships, 
partly on the Mediterranean, which Herodotus calls the North Sea, and partly on 
the" Arabian gulf, ii. 159. Some of these he ordered to sail round Africa, which 
voyage they performed, Id. iv. 42. Necus, after having reigned seventeen years, 
was succeeded by his son Sam mis, who died in the sixth year of his reign. APRIES, 
his son, after reigning fortunately twenty-five years, was dethroned by AMASIS, 
who being sent by Apries to quell an insurrection of the people, was by them 
declared king, Id. ii. 162. A battle was afterwards fought, in which Apries 
was defeated. AmSsis treated him with kindness ; but the Egyptians having 
prevailed on Amasis to give him up to their disposal, cruelly put him to death, 
tb. 169. 

Under AMASIS, against whom Cambyses undertook war, see p. 603. Egypt is 
said to have been most happy. It then contained 10,020 cities, Herodot. ii. 177, 
Pliny says, 20,000, v. 9. s. 11.; so Mela, 1. 9. This prince was sprung from a 
mean family at Sais : ou which account being treated by his subjects with disrespect, 
he ordered a statue of the deity to be made of a golden bason in which he and his guests 
used to wash their feet; and when the people came in great numbers to worship this 
golden image, having called an assembly, he told them to what vile uses the gold of 
it had been formerly put. Then making the application to himself he turned the con- 
tempt of the Egyptians into veneration, ib. 172. Amasis used to devote the former 

part of the day to business, and the evening to amusement, when he made very free 
with his guests. His friends, thinking he carried his merriment too far, represented to 
him, that such conduct was unbecoming the dignity of a king. He answered that 
as a bow kept always bent would soon break, so the mind kept constantly intent on 
serious business would soon be impaired, ib. 173.7- Amasis made a law that every 

one 



Egypt* 



667 



dotus and others, consisting of 12 palaces and 3000 houses, 
4>uilt of marble, all under ground, or covered over, communi- 
cating with one another by innumerable winding passages, the 
intricacies of which occasioned its name, Strabo, xvii. p. 811. *, 
Herodot. ii. 148.; Mela. i. 9. Pliny says, the labyrinth was 
built in the lake of Mceris, v. 9. s. ir. 

Different opinions are entertained about the situation of the 
lake of Mceris. M. Savary supposes it to have been on the side . 
of Lybia, where is now the lake called Birket Caroun, above 
150 miles in circumference; near which are certain ruins, 
which he takes to be those of the labyrinth. The great canal, 
120 miles in length, and 300 feet wide, which conducted 
thither the waters of the Nile, and still subsists entire, is now 
known under the name of Bahr-Jauseph, Joseph's river. See 
Savar/s letters on Egypt, vol. i. letter 28. p. 487. 

The frontier cities of Egypt towards ^Ethiopia were Syene, 
situate nearly under the tropic ; where the time of the summer 

solstice 

one should annually Intimate to the magistrate of the place, how he lived ; ant* 
that whoever failed to do so, or did not give a just account of the means of his 
subsistence, should be put to death. This Solon inserted among the laws of 
Athens, ib. 178. Diodor. i. 77. ; see p. 299. Amasis built many magnificent tem- 
ples, especially at Sais, the place of his birth. At the entrance of one of these 
temples, there was a chapel, which Herodotus particularly admired ; it was made 
of a single stone, 21 cubits long, 14 broad, and 8 high : in the inside it was 18 
cubits long, 12 broad, and 5 high. It was brought from the island Ele- 
fhantina ; and aooo choice men, all pilots, were employed for three years in 
conveying it along the Nile, ib. 175. In the time of Amasis, Pythagoras visited 
Egypt. 

The kings of Egypt were not invested with absolute power, but limited by law. 
Rules were prescribed in the sacred books for regulating their conduct, not only in the 
administration of public affairs, but even in private life, Diodor. i. 70. and 71. After 
the death of a king, a solemn trial was instituted of his actions before a numerous as- 
sembly of his subjects, where any one that chose was permitted to accuse him. The 
priests acted as his applauders. If the multitude approved, they signified their assent 
by acclamations, and the king's funeral was celebrated with the greatest splendour. 
If the contrary, they signified their disapprobation by murmurs, and the usual fune- 
ral honors were withheld, Ib. 72. This custom is supposed to have been imitated 
by the Israelites, among whom bad kings were not interred in the sepulchres of their 
ancestors. 

Ancient Egypt was very populous. Under the Ptolemies, the number of inha- 
bitants amounted to 7,000,000, lb. 31. Under Vespasian, Josephus com- 
putes them at 7,700,0000, B. J. ii. 16. 4. exclusive of the inhabitants of Alex- 
andria, Ib. whom Diodorus in his time computes at above 300,000 free persons, be- 
sides slaves, xvii. 52. ; so that the whole amount exceeded 8,000,000, greatly above 
double of the present population, which M. Volney calculates at 2,300,000, vol. I. 
238. Under the ancient kings of Egypt, the population must have been still 
greater. 

Egypt was divided into a certain number of districts, (vopoi,) each of which had 
its proper ruler, (ve^a^*??,) Diodor. ib. The districts were subdivided into smaller sec- 
tions, and these into still smaller : the smallest were fields (d^ui). This minute 
division was necessary on accoxmt of the frequent confusion of boundaries by the over- 

■J flowing 



Africa Antiqua* 



solstice is said to have been ascertained by a well, Strab, ii. 91 . 
Xvii. 817. 5 Plin. ii. 73. and then the index of a dial has no shade; 
whence Lucan says, Umbras nusquam Jlectente Syene, ii. 587. 
Elephantine, v. -a, in an island of the Nile ; Tacit. AnnaU 
ii. 61. and Phiue, which Lucan makes the frontier of Arabia, 
x. 3 1 2. Below Syene flood Ombi and Tentyra 9 between the in- 
habitants of which two towns happened the bloody contest on a 
religious account, described by Juvenal, xv. 33. &c* About 
four miles above Elephantina (vel elephantis insula^) is the lowest 
cataract of the Nile ; (nav'tgationis JEgyptiaca? finish) Plin. v. 9. ; 
Strab. ib. Above this there are several other cataracts, (cataract a, 
Catadupiy Plin. ib. vel Catadiipa> Cic. Somn. Scip. 5.) 

The principal part of Lower Egypt was included between 
tne eastern and western branches of the Nile. It was called by 

the 



flowing of the Nile, which could not be ascertained without now and then measuring 
them anew. Hence geometry is said to have been invented by the Egyptians, as arith- 
metic and accounts, or book-keeping, were by the Phoenicians, to adjust their com- 
mercial transactions, Strab. xvii. 787. 

The whole territory was divided into three parts. The first part was allotted to the 
maintenance of priests, whose office was hereditary, and who were held in the highest 
respect, on account of their piety and learning. The second part was allotted to the 
king for his own revenue, and the exigencies of the state. The third part was allotted 
to the military, (fAu%ip,ot xuXovptvoi), whose office was also hereditary, and who were 

trained to arms from their infancy, Diodor.x. 73. The body of the people was 

likewise divided into three classes, shepherds, husbandmen, and artisans, whose em- 
ployments also were transmitted from father to son, as among the Indians, see p. 646.; 
and thus, by adding their own experience to that of their ancestors, they were enabled 
to carry their arts to the highest degree of perfection. A method was contrived of 
hatching eggs without the hen sitting on them, Ib. 74. by means of ovens gently 
heated, Plin. x. 55. s. 76. which is still practised in that country. But this was done 

also in dunghills, Ib. 54. s. 75. Arisiotel. H.A.\\.2. Herodotus, who is very 

full on Egypt, as being the most celebrated country then in the world, ii. 35. &c. 
gives a different account of the division of its inhabitants and territory, ii. 164, &c. 
The account of Strabo, xvii. 787. is nearly the same with that of Diodorus. But 
though they differ from Herodotus in lesser particulars, yet in the most important 
points they agree. 

The chief court of judicature consisted of thirty-one members chosen from the 
three chief cities, Heliopolis, or the city of the sun, Thebes and Memphis ten from 
each ; who, when met, chose one of their number for president, and the city from 
whence he came sent another judge in his room. They all received salaries from the 
king, and the president a much greater one than the rest. He wore as a badge round 
his neck an image of truth or justice, set with precious stones, and suspended by a 
golden chain, Diodor. i. 75. So .ffilian, xiv. 34. Anciently the priests acted as 
judges, Ib. as among the Jews, Judges; 1 Samuel, iv. 18.; the Germans, Tacit. 
M. G. 7. ; and the Romans, Liv. ix. 46. Pompon, de origine juris, § 6. Some have 
supposed that the Ur'tm and Thummim, (i. e. S>jX<u<r/j xat aXnSttx, Manifestation and 
Truth), on the breast of the Jewish High Priest, Exodus, xxviii. 15. — 30. xxix. 8.— 

21.; 



* It happened near the walls of Coptos on the Nile, called by Juvenal Calida, a 
being in the torrid zdne, ib. 



Egypt* 



669 



the Greeks Delta, from its resemblance to the pyramidicat 
figure of that letter in their alphabet A. 

Near the mouth of the eastern channel stood Pelusium, now 
Damietta, the ancient key of Egypt ; and at the mouth of the 
western channel, about 100 miles from the former, Canopus, near 
which is now Rosetta. The capital of the Delta in ancient 
times was SAIS ; and near it, Naucratis, Strabo, xvii. 802. 

About 30 miles west from this stood the celebrated city of 
ALEXANDRIA, now Scanderoon, opposite to the island Pha- 
ros, which was joined to the continent by a mole or causeway, 
near a mile long, with a bridge at each end, or, according to 
some, in the middle. On this island stood the famous light 
tower, one of the wonders of the world, so high as to be seen 
100 miles off. The island Pharos is said by Homer to have 
been a day's sail distant from Egypt, Odyss. iv. 354. Noctis et 
diet cur sum, Plin. ii. 85. s. 87. 

Egypt is called, from its capital Memphis, Terra Memphitis, 
-ttdis, Juvenal, xv. 122. or Memphitica tellus, Martial, xiv. 

38. 

%£.; Levit. viii. 8. resembled the badge of the chief judge of the Egyptians; and 
that the one was borrowed from the other. The description, however, given of them 
is very different, Diodor. 16.— Orators were not permitted to plead before this court ; 
but the parties represented the merits of their cause in writing, and on these the 
judges decided. This court was as distinguished for the justice of their decisions as 
the Areopagus at Athens, or the senate of Laceda;mon, ib. 75. 

By the laws of the Egyptians, perjury was punished in the same manner as the 
murder of a free man or a slave, ib. 77. Desertion or disobedience in a soldier was 
not punished with death, but with infamy. Those who revealed secrets to the enemy, 
had their tongues cut out ; and such as adulterated the coin, or were guilty of for- 
gery, had both their hands cut off, ib. 78. No one was allowed to borrow money 
without depositing the embalmed body of his parent; which it was esteemed the 
greatest infamy not to redeem. Diodor. i. 93. He who did not ransom it, was him- 
self debarred from burial, Herodot. ii. 136. Polygamy was allowed, except to the 
priests. Whatever was the condition of the woman, whether free or a slave, the 
children were deemed free and legitimate, Diodor. i. 80. The youth were brought up 
very frugally and hardily, ib. As soon as they could read, they were taught arith- 
metic and geometry with the greatest care. As the lands were ..annually overflowed by 
the Nile, geometry was necessary to adjust their limits, ib. 81. hence the origin of that 
science, which is said to have passed from Egypt into Greece, Herodot. ii. 109. — The 
priests not only performed sacred things, but also acted as the instructors of youth. 
They had two kinds of letters; the one appropriated to the sacred books, and known 
only to their own order ; the other common to all, Diodor. i. 81. Herodot. ii. 36. 
The sacred letters were called Hieroglyphics, because they expressed thought by the 
figures of certain animals, of the members of the human body, &c. thus a batuk was 
put for velocity ; a hare, for lively attention ; a crocodile, for all kind of malice ; the 
right-band with the fingers extended, for liberality ; and the left-band with the fingers 
compressed, for stinginess, &c. ib. iii. 4. Old age was highly respected in Egypt, as 
at Lacedaimon. The younger went out of the way when they met the aged, and rose 
from their seat when the aged came into any place, Herodot. ii. 80.-— There was a great 
number of physicians in Egypt; who were restricted each to the cure of one disease, or 
«f those of one part of the body, ib. 84. 



670 Africa Antiqua. 

3~8. and the god Apis, Memphites Bos, Tibull. i. 7. 28 — 
from the Nile, Tellus Nilotica, Martial, vi. 80. ; the cities 
of Egypt, Urbes Niliacje, Lucan. x. 91. the goddess Isis, Ni- 
LIGENA JuVENCA, Ovid. Art. Am. i. 77. and from the island 
Pharos, Juvenca Pharia, ib. iii. 635. JEquor Pharium, the 
Egyptian sea, Lucan. iv. 257. Turba Pharia y the people of 
Egypt, Tibull i. 3. 32. 

South of Alexandria was the lake Mareotis, near which 
was produced excellent wine, called Vinum Mareoticum, 
Strabo, xvii. 799. ; Virg. G. ii. 9. ; Horat. od. i. 37. 14. 

In the east of Lower Egypt lay the land of Goshen, where 
the Israelites dwelt. 

Egypt was the great granary of the Roman Empire. Its fer- 
tility is not owing to rain, as very little falls in this country, 
but to the annual overflowing of the Nile, which is occasioned 
by the periodical rains which fall when the sun is vertical in 

^Ethiopia 



No nation was more superstitious than the Egyptians ; who worshipped not only 
a multiplicity of deities, as, his, Osiris, Anubis, Serapis, &c. Plutarch, de hide & 
Osiride; but also a variety of animals; as, the ox, the dog, the cat, the bawi, the 
ibis or Egyptian stork, the wolf, the crocodile, Sec. and even certain vegetables ; as 
leeks and onions', whence Juvenal exclaims, sanctas gentes, quibus bese nascantur in 
hortis numina, xv. io. It was reckoned unlawful to kill any of these animals, or to 
eat any of these vegetables, although they reared them with the greatest care : Nefas 
illic fatum jugulare capella ; Carnibus bumanis uesei licet, ib. 1%. ; Cic. Tusc. V. 27. 
Nat. D. i. 29. To slay any of the sacred animals by design, was capital; and to kill 
a cat or an ibis (Herodotus adds the hawk, ii. 65.) whether by design or accident, was 
certain death; not even the king's intercession could procure a pardon, Diodor. 1. 83. 
In the most dreadful famine, when the people were compelled sometimes to eat one 
another, they never touched these deified animals, ib. 84. When a cat or dog died in 
any house, there was a great mourning. The neighbours shaved their eye-brows, and 
those in the house, the head and whole body, ib. 66. Some of the Egyptians did not 
hold the crocodile as sacred, but by all means sought its destruction, ib. 69. — Hero- 
dotus mentions a sacred bird called PHCENIX, which appeared only once every 300 
years, hence called rar a avis in terris, Juvenal, vi. 164.; Pets. i. 46. 73. It 
was said to have appeared under Tiberius, Tacit, annal. vi. 18. and at other times, ib. 
Many fabulous things are told concerning it, ib. Iff Plin. x. 1.; Ovid. Met. xv. 393. — 
Fanaticism, as usual, was joined to superstition. One city or district worshipped one 
species of animals as gods, whilst their neighbours held the same animal in abomina- 
tion; which was the source of continual wars and bloodshed. This madness Juvenal, 
who resided some time in Egypt as prsefect of a cohort, strongly satirises, xv. 27. &c — 
Various causes are assigned by Diodorus, for the Egyptians worshipping certain animals, 
i. 84. — 91. The chief is their utility; which is the only cause mentioned by Cicero, 
Nat. D. i. 36. Thus the ibis was worshipped, because it destroyed serpents, ib. the 
crocodile, because it defended Egypt from the incursions of the wild Arabs, Diodor. 1. 
89. the ichneumon, because it prevented the too great increase of crocodiles, Cic. ib. 
Strabo, xvii. 812. &c. Concerning the worship of the Bull Apis, see p. 605. 

The different animals worshipped by particular cities are recounted by Strabo, xvii. 
812. The inhabitants of Tentyra held the crocodile in just detestation, and prosecuted 
him with unceasing hostility. They were said to possess a certain power over the cro- 
codile, 



Egypt. 



671 



iEthiopia or Abyssinia, from the latter end of May to September, 
and sometimes October. The usual height to which the Nile 
rises is sixteen cubits. 

On 



codile, to prevent him from hurting them, as some people in Cyrenaica, called 
PSYLLI, had over serpents, lb. 814. The only gods, in worshipping whom all the 
Egyptians agreed, were ISIS and OSIRIS, Herodot, \\. 42. Some abstained from 
goats' flesh, others from mutton, lb. They all entertained the greatest abhorrence of 
I swine, and would hold no communication with swine-herds. They however sacrificed 
i swine to Luna and Bacchus at full moon, and then ate of their flesh, lb. 47. — The 
bean was reckoned an impure vegetable, and therefore never eaten. The priests would 
not even look at it, lb. 37. All the Egyptians used circumcision, and wore linen 
cloaths, which they frequently washed. They were remarkably attentive to cleanliness. 
The priests bathed thrice every day and twice every night. Every third day they 
shaved their whole body, lb. When they offered a victim, they always cut off the 
head, which they carried to the market-place, and sold to strangers, if any were there: 
if not, they threw it into the river, praying, that if any evil threatened themselves, or 
Egypt in general, it might be turned on that head ; hence no Egyptian would taste 
the head of any animal, lb. 39. They never sacrificed a cow, as being sacred to /r/x, 
for she was always represented in that form, lb. 41. 

The Egyptians embalmed the dead bodies of their friends, many of which still re- 
main entire, commonly called Mummies, as it is thought, from amomum, a rich per- 
fume, with which they were anointed. The manner of embalming is described by 
Herodotus, ii. 85. — 89. and Diodorus Siculus, i. 91. but is now unknown. — Before 
the dead body was deposited in the sepulchre, the character and conduct of the de- 
ceased were solemnly tried before a set number of judges; and if they condemned him, 
his body was excluded from the accustomed place of burial, and deposited in his own 
house, lb. 9a. 

The Egyptian priests taught the transmigration of souls, and from them Pytha- 
goras is said to have derived that doctrine, lb. 98. — The knowledge of the Egyptians 
in astronomy was particularly remarkable. They divided their year into twelve 
months, each consisting of thirty days, and added five intercalary days at the end of 
the year, and every fourth year six days. The year began with September, Herodot.iu 
4.; Dio. xliii. z6. ; Strabo, xvii. 816. This arrangement, Herodotus observes, was 
much wiser than that of the Greeks, lb. And Strabo says, that the Greeks were ig- 
norant of the precise length of the year, as of many other things, till they derived the 
knowledge of them from the Egyptians and Chaldeans, xvii. 806. By the assistance 
of Sosigenesy a celebrated astronomer of Alexandria, Csesar adjusted what is called the 
Julian year or Old Style, Dio. ib. The Egyptian division of the year has lately been 
adopted, with little or no variation, by the French. 

Egypt continued a Roman province, subject to the Emperors of Canstantinople, 
till it was conquered by the Arabs, under OMROW, the general of Omar, the se- 
cond Caliph of the Saracens or Mahomedans ; who took its capital, Alexandria, by 
fitorm, a. 64a. after a siege of fourteen months, and with the loss of 23,000 men; 
Ate p. 23. Egypt remained in subjection to the Caliphs of Bagdad, who ruled it by 
viceroys, till the year 969, or 982; when the vast empire of the Caliphs being dis- 
membered through the incapacity of its sovereigns, Egpyt became an independent state, 
under a race of princes, called the Fatmite Caliphs, who possessed it till the year 1171; 
when Adbad-el-din, the last of them, was dethroned by Selah~el-din, or Salah-addin^ 
commonly called Saladin, general of the Turkmans, whose assistance he had implored 
against the Crusaders. SALADIN established a new dynasty of princes, called 
Aioubites, under whom Egypt flourished more than it has ever done since. 

In the year 1418, Djenkiz or Gengis Kan, after having conquered the greatest 
part of the south of Asia, turned his arms towards the north ; see p. 480. where 
his soldiers, the Mogols, or Mogul Tartars, exercised one of the most dreadful de- 
vastations 



Africa Antiqua. 



On the banks of the Nile grows the rush Papyrus, of whicfx 
paper was first made and thence got the name. This river 
also produces the Hippopotamus or river horse, and the crocodile, 

amphibious 

vastations recorded in history; pillaging, burning, and murdering, without disinction 
©f age, or sex. not only through the provinces south of the Caspian sea, but also north 
of it all the way to Russia. At last, weary of massacring, they carried off a prodi- 
gious number of young slaves of both sexes, whom they exposed to sale in all the 
markets of Asia. Nejim Eddin, one of the successors of Saladin, thinking he had 
now an opportunity of forming, at a cheap rate, a body of soldiers of remarkable 
beauty and courage, in 1230, bought iz,ooo of these young men from Circassia, 
Georgia, Mingrelia, &c. who were carefully trained to all kind of military exercises. 
These proved excellent soldiers ; but, like the Pratorian cohorts of Rome, soon be- 
came mutinous, and prescribed laws to their master. In 1250, they deposed and slew 
Touran Cbab, the son of Nejim Eddin, their benefactor, the last prince of the Aiou- 
bites, and substituted one of their own number in his stead, with the title of SULTAN, 
Soldan, or Soudan, i. e. absolute sovereign or prince ; retaining to themselves the name 
of Mamaluket, or MAMLOUKS, i.e. possessed by, or the property of another; as 
being military slaves; who, it is to be observed, are different from domestic slaves, 
called Abd. The first Soldan of the Mamalukes also conquered Syria ; and his suc- 
cessors continued to possess both countries for near three centuries. 

The government of the Mamlouks was one of the most singular institutions re- 
corded in history. It was a pure military aristocracy. The Soldan had considerable 
power ; but was controuled by a council or divan of twenty -four officers called Beys , 
They were succeeded, not by any of their own descendants, but always by military 
slaves, purchased from the same countries, and educated in the same manner as they 
themselves had been. The Mamlouks ruled with the most despotic sway. Few of 
their Soldans died a natural death. No less than 47 of these tyrants displaced or de- 
stroyed one another in the space of 257 years. 

SELIM, emperor of the Turks, having vanquished the Mamlouks, a. 1517, put 
an end to their dominion ; but instead of exterminating, left them in possession of a 
considerable share of their former power. They acknowledged submission to the 
Porte, and paid obedience to the orders of a Pacha sent from Constantinople, paying 
him a certain tribute which they levied from the people. In this transaction, (for 
certain conditions were formerly prescribed by the victor,) the body of the inhabitants 
were considered only as mere passive agents : and accordingly remained in subjection, 
as formerly, to all the rigours of a military despotism. Egypt was divided into 24 
departments, governed by 24 chiefs or Beys, who chose one of their number, called 
Sbaik El-beled, or Scbeik Elbalad, who resided at Cairo, as governor of the city. 
These Beys were to receive the commands of the Pacha, and his divan or council,* 
appointed by the Porte : but if the Pacha appeared to abuse his power, they might 
suspend him from his office, and represent their grievances to the Porte. Each Bey 
maintained a certain number of soldiers, or Janisaries, and also of Mamlouks, who 
were always recruited from among the young slaves that were purchased, and rose by 
gradation, or according to their merit, to succeed their masters. Of late years the 
Mamlouks have increased their influence to such a degree as to reduce the power 
of the Pacha to a mere shadow. In the year 1766, ALT BEY, one of then- 
chiefs, threw off altogether his allegiance to the Porte : and might have succeeded 
in establishing an independent government in Egypt, had he not been betrayed 
by MOHAMMAD, his principal confidant, by whom he was defeated, April 
177a, and next year treacherously slain. Mohammad pretended he had acted 
from attachment to the Sublime Porte, remitted to Constantinople the tribute 
which had been interrupted for the last six years, and took the customary oath 
of unlimited obedience. As a further proof of his loyalty, he demanded per- 
mission to make war on DAHER, the prince of Acre, and friend of Ali Bey, 



Egypt. 



673 



amphibious animals of great size. The latter, although ex- 
tremely destructive, was esteemed sacred by the ancient 
Egyptians, who also worshipped other animals, as the ox, the 

dog, 

who had likewise thrown off all dependence on the Porre. The request of Mahom- 
mad was readily granted, and in token of respect he was dignified with the title of 
Pacha of Cairo. Mahommad succeeded in crushing Daher, by means of the same 
treachery, which he had employed against his master Ali Bey. But he did not long 
enjoy the fruits of his good fortune, being suddenly cut off by a malignant fever, 
June 1776. After his death bloody contests ensued about the possession of his 
pcwer. In March 1785, two Beys, Ibrahim and Morad agreed to share it 
between them. But whatever discord may prevail among the Beys themselves, they 
always unite against the restoration of the Turkish power. Every thing however 
continues to be done in name of the Sultan; the customary tribute is paid, although 
with many deductions; and a Pacha is sent to Cairo, a new one usually every third 
year, but his authority is merely nominal. Confined and watched in the castle of 
Cairo, he is rather the prisoner of the Mamlouks, than the representative of the 
Sultan. He is deposed, exiled, or expelled at pleasure. Some Pachas indeed have 
attempted to recover the power formerly annexed to their title, but the Beys have 
rendered all such attempts so dangerous, that they now submit quietly to their three 
years' captivity, and confine themselves to the peaceable enjoyment of their salary 
and emoluments. 

The frequent revolutions and convulsions which have happened in Egypt, and 
the wretched government to which it has been long subjected, have rendered this 
country quite a desert, in comparison to what it was in ancient times. It is now in- 
habited chiefly by four kinds of people : 1. the ARABS, who are the most numerous, 
and employed as husbandmen, shepherds, and artisans: 2. the COPTS or Coptu, 
(called in Arabic el Kobt,) supposed to be descended from the ancient Egyptians, and 
to have their name formed by abbreviation from the Greek Aiyuvrrtot, Egyptii ; who 
profess Christianity, being of the sect called Eutychians y and are employed by the 
rulers of the country, as writers, secretaries, intendants, and collectors of the taxes : 
3. TURKS, who were formerly masters of the country, but now are rarely to be 
met with, except at Cairo, where they exercise the arts and occupy the religious and 
military employments : and, 4. the Mamelukes or MAMLOUKS, who now possess 

almost the whole power. Egypt now merits attention chiefly on account of its 

natural curiosities, and the wonderful monuments of antiquity which it contains. 
But such is the savage ignorance and cruelty of its present rulers, that Europeans are 
not permitted to examine them minutely : Hence the different accounts of travellers 
concerning them. 

Among the natural curiosities of Egypt the most remarkable is the river NILE, 
on which the very existence of Egypt depends. The whole of the Delta, and the 
narrow tract of country called the Thebais or Said, is thought by Herodotus to 
have been formed by the earth brought down from -/Ethiopia or Abyssinia and the 
interior parts of Africa, by the Nile. This appears to be the case from the nature 
of the soil of Egypt, which is a black and fat mud, and quite different from the 
red sandy soil of Lybia on the one side, and the clayey and stony soil of Arabia 
on the other, Herodot. ii. 12. 16. Pliit. ii. 85. From the shells found in the de- 
sert, Herodotus conjectures the whole of this country to have been an acquisition 
from the sea, lb. The Nile is said anciently to have run through the sands of Lybia, 
and to have been confined to its present course by Jlfenes, the first king of Egypt. 
The old channel was to be seen in the days of Herodotus, who says, that the mound, 
which barred its entrance, was preserved by the Persians with the greatest care. 

Ib. 99. The vestiges of it are still said to be visible, Savary, -vol. i. p. 14. To 

describe Egypt in a few words, says M. Volney, " Let the reader imagine, on one 
side, a narrow sea and rocks, {t. e. the Red Sea and deserts of Arabia ;) on the other, 

X x immense 



Egypt. 



dog, the cat, the hawk, &c. likewise onions and other vegeta- 
bles. An ox of a certain form, called APIS, was an object of 
particular veneration, Strabo> xviii. 812. & 817. 

The 



immense plains of sand, (7. e. the desert of Lybia) ; and in the middle, a river (the 
Nile) flowing through a valley 450 miles in length and from 9 to 20 or 30 miles broad, 
which, at the distance of 90 miles from the sea, separates into two arms, the branches 
of which wander over a soil tree from obstacles, and almost without declivity, so that 
the water does not flow faster than three miles an hour." The breadth of the Delia 
at the base is about 160 miles. 

The lower cataract of the Nile is still the same as described by Strabo, xvii. 
817. The rock which bars the middle of the river is bare for six months, of the 
year. Then boats mount and descend by the sides. During the inundation, the 
waters heaped up between the mountains form one great sheet, and breaking down 
every obstacle, spring from eleven feet height. The boats can no longer as- 
cend the stream, and merchandise must be conveyed six miles over land, above 
the cataract ; they however descend, as usual, and suffer themselves to be plunged 
into the gulf. They precipitate into it with the rapidity of an arrow, and in an in- 
stant are out of sight. They rise again at some distance, when the water becomes 
calm, to the astonishment of beholders unacquainted with the spectacle ; as Seneca 
beautifully describes it, Nat. Quast. iv. 2. It is necessary for the boats to be 
moderately laden, and for the boatmen, who hold by the stern, to be in exact 
equilibrium, otherwise they would infallibly be swallowed up in the abyss. Savary, 
•v. ii. p. 87. 

The Nile begins every year to rise about the middle of June, and continues rising 
about 40 or jo days ; it then fills by degrees, till in the end of May, next year, it is 
at the lowest. It does not rise alike high through all Egypt. At Cairo, where it 
ts confined to one channel between high banks, the full height is at least 24 feet above 
its ordinary level. At Rosetta and Damietta, it is only four feet. 

As soon as the Nile begins to rise, all the canals which have been made to convey 
water through the country, are shut and cleansed. When the river rises to a certain 
height, which is measured on a column called Mikkias or Ni/ometer, erected in the 
middle of a bason communicating with the Nile, in a mosque on the island of Rhodda, 
at a small distance from Cairo, then the canals are permitted to be unlocked or opened, 
and the usual tax for the waters is paid to the Sultan. Under the Romans the taxes 
were proportioned to the height of the inundation, Strab. xvii. 817. and at present, 
unless the Nile rise to a certain height, Egypt pays no tribute to the Grand Seignior. 
The breadth of the Nile near Cairo is 2946 feet. The branch upon which Rosetta 
stands is only 650 feet broad ; and that by Damietta, not more than ico, Niebabrs 
Travels. Neither the ancients nor moderns agree about the precise height to which 
the waters of the Nile rise. Pliny makes the just height 16 cubits, or 24 feet : 12 
cubits and below, or 18 cubits and above, he says, produced a famine, v. 9. s. 10. 
— In the years 1783 and 1784, Egypt was afflicted with a dreadful famine, by the 
Nile not having risen to the favourable height ; as it had been during the former 
season by a plague, so destructive that 1500 dead bodies were reckoned to be carried 
out of Cairo in a day. 

During the inundation nothing is to be seen but cities and villages, which 
are all built on eminences, either natural or artificial. When the waters sub- 
side, and the ground is thoroughly dried, the labour of the husbandman is 
easy. He has nothing to do but turn up the soil, and temper it with a little 
sand to lessen its rankness; then he throws in the seed ; and in a short time after, 
the whole country is covered with the richest verdure. The same field pro- 
duces two, three, and sometimes four difFerent crops. Vegetation is so strong, that 
some plants, in twenty-four hours, send out shoots near four inches long. But all 
foreign plants degenerate in this soil very rapidly ; hence tlw*e who cultivate them 

are 



Africa Antiqua, 



675 



The country from Egypt to the Atlantic, now called the coast 
of Barbary, for the space of near 2000 miles, borders all the 
way on a barren desert, called Zaara or Sahara, which some- 
times 



are obliged to renew the seed every year It should seem, that the climate of 

Egypt is as unfavourable to the perpetuation of any foreign species of animals, as to 
the propagation of exotic plants. It is a remarkable fact, that though there have 
been Mamlouks in Egvpt now for 550 years, yet not one of them has left subsisting 
issue; there dots not exist one single family of them in the second generation; all 
their children perish in the first or second descent. Almost the same thing happens 
to the Turks ; and it is observed, that tbey can only secure the continuance of their 
families, by marrying women who are natives, which the Mamlouks have always 
disdained, constantly connecting themselves with female slaves from their own coun- 
tries, from Cii cassia, Georgia, Mingrelia, &c. 

Certain winds blow in Egypt at certain seasons. In the spring, the north and 
north- e^st winds carry a prodigious quantity of clouds from the Mediterranean into 
Abyssinia. They are seen in Egypt ascending towards the south, and sometimes 
seem to threaten rain. But it never rains in the Delta in summer; and but rarely, 
and in small quantities, during the whole course of the year. It rains still less in 
Upper Egypt, as is the case in Sindy. See p 649. Dews, however, fall when the 
north or west winds blow, and like the rains, are more or less copious, as places are 
more or less distant from the sea, but differ from the rains in being more abundant in 
summer »han in winter A wind sometimes blows from the south south west, so in- 
tolerably hot, that it frequently proves fatal to such as are exposed to it. Tfatse are 
called Winds of ffty days, because they prevail most frequently in the fifty days 
preceding and following the equinox; or Hot winds of the desert, because they blow 

over th> deserts of Lybia. See p. 649. The Egyptians, either from the nature of 

their dim <te, 01 the qualities of their food, are very liable to a defect or total want of 
sight. The small pox too, either from an improper regimen, or the neglect of inocu- 
lation, makes dreadful ravages among them. 

The pe pie of Egypt are kept in the grossest ignorance, which prevents all kinds 
of improvem nt. The language universally spoken is the Arabic. There is the same 
insecurity of property as in Syria; and consequently agriculture and the arts are 
equally neglected. 

The monuments of antiquity in Egypt are numerous and splendid, chiefly in the 
neighbouiho d of Alexandria and Cairo. ALEXANDRIA now scarcely contains 
6000 inhabitants. It is a small town, built on the spot which was formerly the old 
harbour, left uncovered by the retreating of the sea. The mole which joined the 
continent to the isle of Pharos is enlarged, and is now become a part of the main 
land. The lak<- Marea or Mareotis, which bathed the walls of the ancient city on 
the south, oes not now exist, its place being occupied by the sands of Lybia. 
Alexandria is now supplied with water by a canal from the Nile, called the Canal of 
Faoiie or Kalidj, the canal of twelve leagues, which is only filled at the time of the 
inundation ; and from the cisterns or reservoirs built under the ancient city, which 
are then rilled, the Alexandrians are supplied with water till the return of the inun- 
dation next year. 

The mo,t remarkable antiquities near Alexandria are two obelisks commonly 
called Cleopatra' 's Needles, of Thebaic stone, and covered with hieroglyphics; the 
one of them ov rturned, broken, and lying under the sand, the other on its 
pedestal ; ea< h of them of a s ngle stone, about 66 feet high, by seven feet 
square at. the base But v« hat most engages the atcention of travellers, is the pillar of 
red granite, commonly called Pompeys Pillar^ although, as it is thought, it should 
rather be called the Pillar of Severus. The capital is Corinthian with palm leaves, 
and not indented ; about nine feet high ; the shaft and the upper member of the base 

Xn are 



676 



Egypt. 



times approaches within a few miles of the Mediterranean. 
In Marmarlca stood the temple of Jupiter-Ammon, in the 
middle of a sandy desert. # 

CYRENAICA 

* Through this desert travellers used to make their way by the stars, Sil. iii. 660. 
as through the sandy deserts of Asia, Curt. vii. 4. 



are of one piece of ninety feet long, and nine in diameter: the base is a square of 
about fifteen feet on each side. This block of marble, 60 feet in circumference, 
rests on two layers of stone, bound together with lead. The whole column is 114 
feet high. The wonderful tower of Pharos, 400 feet high, was destroyed by the 
Turks, who built in its room a square castle without taste or ornament. ■ At a 
mile and a half south of the town, in the place of the ancient suburb Necropolis, 
or the city of the dead., is the descent to the catacombs, where the dead bodies were 
deposited. 

The road from Alexandria to ROSETTA is through a barren desert, producing 
nothing but Kali or Glass-ivort, the herb that yields Barilla, see p. 105. The situ- 
ation of Rosetta is delightful, surrounded with fine gardens and plantations of trees, 
lemon and orange-trees, date-trees, palm-trees, sycamores, &c. It was built in the 
eighth century, at the mouth of the Nile, but is now six miles from the sea. In 
sailing up the Nile, from Rosetta to Grand Cairo, the prospect offers little variety ; 
nothing is to be seen but palm-trees, single or in clumps, which become more rare as 
you advance; wretched villages, composed of mud-walled huts, built on artificial 
mounds ; a boundless plain, which at different seasons, is an. ocean of fresh water, a 
verdant field or a dusty desert ; and on every side, an extensive and foggy horizon, 
where the eye is wearied or disgusted : at length, towards the junction of the two 
branches of the river, the mountains of Grand Cairo are discovered in the east, and 
to the south-west, three detached masses appear, which, from their triangular form, 
are known to be the Pyramids. 

CAIRO stands on the eastern bank of the Nile, at the distance of near a mile from 
the river ; but there is a canal from it, that comes up to the city. Cairo is of great 
extent, about nine miles in circumference ; but as in most Turkish cities, the houses 
are ill built ; the streets narrow, winding, and unpaved. Contrary to the general 
custom of the east, the houses have two or three stories, over which is a terrace of 
stone or tiles ; in general, they are of earth and bricks, badly burnt ; the rest are of 
soft stone, procured from the neighbouring mount Mokattam. All these houses 
have the air of prisons, for they have no light from the street; as it is extremely 
dangerous to have many windows in such a country. They even take the precau- 
tion to make the entering door very low. The light enters from the inner courts, 
whence the sycamores reflect a verdure pleasing to the eye. An opening to the 
north, or at the top of the ceiling, admits a refreshing breeze. Some make the 
population of Cairo amount to 700,000, but others, not to the half of that number. 
All calculations, however, of the number of inhabitants in Turkey are arbitrary, as no 
registers are kept of births, deaths, or marriages. The Mahometans have even 

superstitious prejudices against numbering their people. A stranger, on his 

arrival at Cairo, is struck with the ragged and wretched appearance of the inhabitants. 
The Mamlouks, it is true, are splendidly dressed, and always appear on horseback; 
but this display of luxury only renders the contrast of indigence the more shocking. 
In Egypt, none but the Mamlouks are permitted to ride on horseback. Common 
people and foreigners always walk, or are carried by mules or asses. Foreigners of 
distinction, however, sometimes procure a licence to ride on horseback. 

The three principal PYRAMIDS are seen from Cairo. They stand upon a 
ledge of rock, forty or fifty feet above the level of the plain, twelve miles from Cairo, 
and about four miles from the west bank of the Nile. Ancient authors differ greatly 
concerning their height. Herodotus makes the height of the largest pyramid, eiglit 

plethra, 



Africa Antiqua. 



677 



CYRENAICA extended from Catabathmos (a remarkable 
declivity, which Sallust and several of the ancients make the 
eastern boundary of Africa) to the Syrtis Major, or the Ar<e 
Philenon, the altars of the two brothers. A district of this 
country was called Pentapolis, from its five cities ; Cyrene, 
eleven miles from the sea, founded by a colony of Greeks from 
the island Thera, the birth-place of Carneades, the Academi- 
cian, Strab. xvii. p. 838. ; Apollonia, the sea-port of Cyrene ; 
Ptolemais, anciently Barce, the people Barest; Arsinoe; and 
Berenice, anciently Hesperis, near which was the famous garden 
of the Hesperides. 

Leptis, Oea, and Sabrata, were the chief cities in the RK- 
GIO SYRTICA. 

This country was bounded on the east by the river Cinyps or 
Cinyphus, which runs into the Syrtis Major, where dwelt the 
Lotophagi, so called from their living on the lotus, a food so 
luscious as, according to Homer, to make strangers forget their 
country ; and on the west by the river Triton, which runs into 
the Syrtis Minor, and in its course forms several lakes, among 
the rest Tritonis, whence Minerva was called Tritonia, because 
she was supposed to have been born there. 

The capital of AFRICA PROPRIA was CARTHAGO*, 
Carthage, built by a colony of Tyrians under the famous 

DIDO ; 

plethra, or 800 feet, ii. 124. Strabo makes it a stadiu?n y or 625 feet, xvii. 811. 
Diodorus, more than six plethra, or 600 feet, i. 63. and Pliny, 783 feet, xxxvi. 11. 
s. 17. There is the same difference in the accounts of the moderns. It is remark- 
able, that so curious a fact should not be ascertained. Three hundred and sixty- 
thousand men are said to have been employed for twenty years in building the 
largest pyramid, Plin. ib. Herodotus says, that 100,000 men were always engaged 
in the work, and changed every three months, Ib. The sum expended to purchase 
onions, leeks, &c. for the workmen, amounted to 1600 talents; whence we may con- 
jecture the whole expence, Herodot. tfJ° Plin. ibid. Pliny justly calls these works 
Regum pecunia otiosa ac stulta ostentatio ; and adds, that by a most deserved fate, the 
very names of those who reared such vain monuments are sunk in oblivion, lb. 

Near one of the pyramids, is the enormous SPHINX, now almost sunk in the 
sand, so that the top of its back only is visible ; its head rises about 27 feet above the 
sand. Its chin measures ten feet six inches in height ; and the whole length of the 
countenance nearly eighteen feet. Niebubr. Pliny makes the circumference of its 
head, 102 feet, the length of its feet, 143 feet, and the height from the belly to the 
crown of the head, 62 feet, all of one stone, ib. s. 17.— —There were anciently a 
great number of pyramids and sphinxes in different parts of Egypt, besides those near 
Memphis, Strab. xvii. 807. some of which are still to be seen. 

There are remains of the ruins of Thebes, and also of several other ancient cities 
of Egypt, but the descriptions of them in general are very uninteresting. 



* DIDO, called also Eliza, upon her arrival in Africa, is said to have purchased 
from the inhabitants of that country as much ground as she could surround with a 

X x 3 bull's 



678 



Carthage. 



DIDO; the citadel, which stood in the middle of the city, was 
called Byrsa. Carthage was destroyed by Scipio, rebuilt by 
Augustus, and finally destroyed by the Saracens in the seventh 
century. 

About 

bull's hide, Liv. xxxiv. 61. Virg. JEn. I. 367. Appian. Be Bell. Punic. I. (Justin 
says, as much as an ox's hide could cover, xviii. 5.) and to have cut the hide into very- 
small thongs, by which means she included a much larger space than the inhabitants 
imagin, d ; whence the place first built on, ;*. e. the citadel, got the name ot BYRSA, 
(from fiupffa,, corium vel pel/is, a hide,) lb. Carthage is said to have been built 65 
years b. tore Rome. Veil. i. 6. Appian says, 50 years before the taking of Troy by 
the Greeks, Be Punic. I. About this, as about other ancient facts, authors vary. 

Justin relates, that Dido, being sought in marriage by IARBAS, a neighbouring 
prince, with a denunciation of war it she refused, was urged by her subjects to comply. 
Having therefore erected a funeral pile in the extremity of the citv, as if ;<bout to 
perform cert in sacred rights before her marriage, to appease the manes, of Sichaus 
or Acerbas. her former husband ; she ascended the pile with a sword in her hand, and 
looking to the people, who were standing around, she said, that she would go to her 
husband, as they had required, and instantly slew herself with the sword. She was 
worshipped as a goddess as long as Carthage stood, "Justin, xviii. 6. Serv in Virg. 
JEn. 1. 344- 

Carthage stood on a kind of peninsula, which is 360 stadia or 45 miles in circum- 
ference. The ne k of the peninsula extending 60 stadia, was fortified by a wall. 
(Stra'r.. xvii. 832. Polybius makes its extent only IS stadia, i. 73. So Appian, 56.) 
Here were the stall of the elephants Below the citadel lay the harbours; and a 
small isiand, called COTHON, encompassed with an Euripus or canal, having docks 
on each side of it all round. 

Carthage, when its power was at the highest, possessed the whole coast of Africa, 
from Cyrenaica and the deserts of l.ybia to the straits of Gibraltar, a great part of 
Spain and Sicily also Sardinia, and some other small islands. We may judge of the 
opulence of Carthage from its efforts against the Romans and in patticular from its 
state, when that people determined to destroy it, at the instigation of CAEO the 
Censor, who used always to conclude his speeches in the senate thus. Ex hoc 
amplius censeo, CARTHAGO EST DELENDA. Scipio Nasica, on the 
contrary, thought more wisely, that Carthage should be spared, that from the terror 
of it, the Romans might be kept from sinking into luxury and vice, Appian. Je Punic. 
38. Carthage, notwithstanding all its losses, then contained 700,000 inhabitants, and 
possessed 300 cities in Africa. The Romans having formed the b<ise resolution of 
destroying th;s city without having received at that time any just cause of offence, 
acted with the deepest art. They first demanded, as a mark of submission, 300 of 
the children of the chief men as hostages. These being delivered, they next 
demanded, that the Carthaginians should give up all their arms and warlike machines* 
This also was complied with. The suits of armour given up amounted to zoo,ooo, 
and the catapults, &c. to 3,000. The Romans then demanded that the Cartha- 
ginians should leave their present city, and build a new one in any part of their 
territories they pleased, provided it was not within 80 stadia or ten miles of the sea. 
When the Carthaginians, after making all these sacrifices, perceived that the destruc- 
tion of their city was resolved on, and that they must either leave their habitations, 
according to the cruel command of their unjust aggressors, or prepare for a desperate 
resistance ; having with joint consent determined rather to peri>h than tamely submit 
to such indignity, they shut their gates against the Romans, and took the most 
vigorous measures for their defence. They fabricated every day 140 shields, 300 
swords, 500 lances, and IOOO darts, to be thrown from warlike machines, for making 
the ropes of which the women cut out their own hair, Appian. 55. Although they 
had for fifty years been limited by treaty to build no more than 1% ships, and the 

mouth 



CaHhage. 



679 



About 15 miles east of Carthage stood Tunes > or -eta, Tunis, 
at the mouth of the river Catada y near which Regulus was 
defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians, under Xantip- 

pus 

mouth of Cothon was Hocked up ; yet in two months they constructed 120 sail, and 
having dug a new communication with the sea from Cothon, they suddenly sent out 
this fleet to the astonishment of the Romans. 

The siege began in the consulship of L. Marcius Censorinus and M. Manlius> 
a. U. 604 r ..nd lasted three years. The courage and exertions of the Carthaginians 
almost exceed belief. They chose Hasdrubai for their general, who tarnished the 
glory of his military exploits by his cruelty. The Romans sustained many severe 
defeats; and their army would have been utterly destroyed, had it not been pre- 
served by the prudence of SCIPIO, grandson, by adoption, to Scipio the conqueror of 
Hannibal,. who then served in a subordinate rank. 

Scipio having gone to Rome to stand candidate for the iEdileship, was from an ad- 
miration of his virtue, created consul by the people, although below the legal age, and 
appointed to command the army in Africa. After many violent conflicts, and much 
effusion of bio -d, Scipio at last took and destroyed Carthage, after it had stood 700 
years. Kasdrubal with 40,000 men, surrendered themselves, on condition of having 
their lives spared. But the wife of Hasdrubal, who had fled with the deserters to the 
temple of iEsculapius, which stood on the top of the citadel, scorning to survive the 
ruin of her country, having uttered the bitterest imprecations against her husband, 
who was standing with Scipio, within hearing, threw herself with two children from 
the top of the house into the middle of the flames, in imitation, says Florus, of that 
queen who built Carthage, ii. 15. 

Scipio seeing the destruction of so great a city, is said to have shed tears. Reflect- 
ing on the fate of Troy, of the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, and on the recent 
everthrow of the Macedonians, he repeated two verses of Homer, in which the fall of 
ilium and Priam is predicted, II. iv. 164. Being asked by Polbybius his preceptor, 
who happened to be then present, what he meant by them, he said, that considering 
the vicissitude of human affairs, he was afraid lest the same misfortune should befal 
his own country, Appian. ib. 84. as it actually did, see p. 249. Perhaps he perceived 
that the ruin of Carthage would accelerate that of Rome. He little thought, that, in 
about 100 years after, divine vengeance would make the grandsons of the victors, and 
among the rest one of his own descendants', fall by the hands of their own country- 
men, as victims to appease the manes of the slaughtered Africans, Herat, od. ii. I * 25.; 
and that the great grandson of the chief author of the destruction of Carthage, the 
most virtuous of the Romans (Cato), should be obliged to kill himself to prevent his 
falling into the hands of the oppressor of the liberties of his country (Cassar), 
see p. 242. 

The government of Carthage, during the lifetime of Dido, is supposed to have been 
monarchical; but afterwards it was partly aristocratical, and partly democratical. 
Two chief magistrates were annually created from among the nobility called 
Suffetes, possessing nearly the same power as the Consuls at Rome, Nep. in 
Hannibal ?. Liv. xx\. 7. xxviii. 37. called also Reges, kings, Nep. ib. Herodot.\\\. 
167. Diodur. xim. 43. xiv. 54. xv. I J. xx. 33. "Justin, xxii. 7. Consuls, ib. xxxi. 2. 
and Dictatois. Liv. xxiii. 13. Justin, xix. 1. whence Polybius makes the Carthaginian 
government to partake of monarchy as well as of aristocracy and democracy, vi. 49. 
— The Senate was composed of men respectable for their age, their birth^ and 
fortune, but es echlly for their merit. They deliberated about all matters of public 
concern. With respect to their number and manner of election, we have no certain 
account. About what things, the senate determined, and what things were laid 
before the assembly of the people, authors have left us very much in the dark. 
Polybius ascribes the downfall of Carthage, to the people having arrogated the chief 

X x 4 power 



680 



Africa Antiqua. 



pus the Lacedaemonian j on the same bay of the Mediterra- 
nean with Carthage ; at the bottom of which, on the east, was 
Mercurii Promontorium> or Hermaum> Cape Bona j near it 
Clupea, or Aspis. 

East 

power to themselves; whereas at Rome, during that period, he observes, the chief 
direction of affairs was almost entirely left to the senate, ib. 

At Carthage the power of judicature was vested in 104 men, called by a round 
number Centumnnri y and chosen from among the nobility, whose power was very 
great, and their office for life, Liv. xxxiii. 48. Five of th< se were selected, who had 
greater power than the rest, Aristot. ib. — An hundred judges were chosen from the 
number of senators, to examine the conduct of generals upon their return from 
war, "Justin, xix. 2. There was also a magistrate at Carthage, who took cognizance 
of the morals of the citizens, as the censors at Rome, whom Cornelius Nepos there- 
fore calls Prajectus morum, in vita Hamikaris, 3. We likewise read of a Prtetor 
and Qucestor, who took care of all the public revenue s, Nep. Hannibal. 7. Liu. xxxiii. 
48. — Aristotle, who prefers the government of Carthage to that of Lacediemon and 
Crete, mentions what he thinks two great defects in it ; namely, that the same 
person might hold several different employments together : sv.d that in ch using 
persons to offices of public trust, regard was had to rank and fortune, and not merely 
to merit, ii. 11, 

The generals of the Carthaginian armies enjoyed absolute power, and continued in 
command during the pleasure of the Senate and people. The Carthaginian armies 
were mostly composed of mercenaries, which was frequently the cause of discord, 
and, at the end of the first Punic war, brought Carthage to the brink of ruin ; the 
mercenaries, when disbanded, being dissatisfied with their pay, and therefore having 
turned their arms against their employers, under MATHO, Pclyb. i. 65. ad Jin. 
This war lasted three years and a half, with dreadful cruelty and bloodshed on both 
sides. It was at last successfully terminated, by the valour and conduct of AM1L- 
CAR BARCA, the father of Hannibal. Matho, the leader of the revolters, was 
taken, and put to death with the greatest torture, together with many of his com- 
panions, ib. Iff Diodor. excerpt, xxv. While the Carthaginians were involved in this 
war, the Romans took occasion to sieze on Sardinia, Polyb. i. 88. which afterwards 
proved one chief cause of the second Punic war, ib. iii. 10. Liv. xxi. 1. 

If any general had been guilty of misconduct, and sometimes if he had even been 
unsuccessful, he was put to death, Liv. xxii. Jin. usually by crucifixion, which was a 
frequent mode of punishment at Carthage, Polyb. i. 79. ; Liv. epit. 17. ; Zonar. viii. 
II.; An r el. Victor. 28.; Justin, xviii. 7. xxii. 7.; Val. Max. vii. 3. ext. 7. 

The deity chiefly worshipped by the Carthaginians, was Saturn, (Kgovos vel Xgovos, 
Diodor. xx. 14.) supposed to be the same with what is called in Scripture Moloch; 
to whom they offered human victims, Justin, xiii. 6. ; Augustin. De Civ. D. vii. 19. ; 
Lactant. i. 21. ; Plutarch. Be Superst. 21. Sil. iv. 767. After the dreadful defeat 
which they received from Agathocles, they sacrificed at once 200 boys of the noblest 
birth, chosen by lot, Diodor. xx. 14. and 300 citizens, at the same time, voluntarily 
gave themselves up to the same fate, ib. Justin relates, that when Darius sent am- 
bassadors to ask assistance from the Carthaginians against the Greeks, he required that 
they should desist from the custom of offering human victims, of eating dog's flesh, and 
of burning the bodies of their dead ; with which request, he says, they readily com- 
plied, xix. i. But Curtius observes, that this practice, derived from the Tyrians, 
their founders, continued to the destruction of Carthage, iv. 3. 23. Herodotus men- 
tions a striking mark of the superstition of the Carthaginians, that Amilcar, who 
commanded the army against Gelon, remained in the camp during the battle, sacrificing 
to the gods; and when he heard that his troops were defeated, was supposed to have 
thrown himself into the flames, as he was never afterwards seen. His image was 
worshipped at Carthage, vii. 167. 



Africa Antiques 



081 



East from this stood Hadrumetum ; and Thapsus> near which 
Csesar defeated Scipio and Juba. 

The east of Africa Propria was called Byzacium. 

The Carthaginians worshipped several other deities besides Saturn ; as Urania vel 
Ccelestis, or the moon, Tertullian. apolog. 23. Jupiter, under the appellation of Belus 
or Baal ; Neptune, Mars, Hercules, Apollo, Msculapius, &C. Polyb.vn. I. and in 
particular, Juno, Virg. JEn. i. 15. iv. 5. We find the Carthaginian generals always 
punctual in paying their devotion 10 the gods : Thus Amilcar, when about to pass into 
Africa, Liv. xxi. I. ; Hannibal, after the taking of Saguntum, before he set out for 
Italy, ib. 21.; after the battle of Canns, ib. xxiii. II, &c. 

The Carthaginians owed their power to commerce, to the cultivation of which 
they were led by the situation cf their city and the natural genius of its inha- 
bitants, as being sprung from Tyre, the first commercial city in the world. 
Carthage long possessed the empire of the sea ; and might have continued to 
enjoy it much longer, had it not been for their lust of conquest. From the 
mines of Spain, Diodorus says, the Carthaginians derived those treasures with 
which they supported so many and grievous wars, v. 38. In the mines near New 
Carthage, upwards of 40,000 men were employed : and furnished every day 
2 5, .000 drachma, i.e. about £859. 7s. 6d. Strab. iii. 147. But the resources of 
Rome, although less abundant, were more certain ; and therefore ultimately pre- 
vailed. The native troops of the Romans were superior to the mercenaries of the 
Carthaginians. 

Learning was but little cultivated at Carthage, although that city produced some 
writers of note ; as MAGO, who wrote twenty-eight books on husbandry, Cic. Orat. 
i. 58. which, after the taking of Carthage, were, by order of the senate, translated 

into Latin, Var. R. R. i. 1. Plin. xviii. 3. Clitomachus, the scholar and 

successor of Carreades the philosopher, Cic. Acad.'w. 6. & 31. Orat. i. II. who 
wrote a consolatory address to his countrymen upon the destruction of his native city. 

Cic. Tusc.w. 21, &c. TERENCE was born at Carthage, but educated at Rome, 

having been brought thither as a slave by Terentius Ljucanjfe, a senator, who gave 
him his liberty; and hence he derived his name, Suet, in n>it. Terent. Terence was 
so intimate with Scipio Afiicanus the younger, and iHelius, that he was thought to 
have been assisted by them in writing his plays, Cic. Amic. 24. ; nor did he himself 
contradict the report, Adelph. prol. — To these may be added the great HANNIBAL, 
who, though from his earliest years almost always engaged in war, yet found leisure 
to attend to literature, Nepos, in vita ejus. — — A certain Carthaginian having com- 
municated treasonable intelligence to Dionysius of Syracuse, a decree was made, that 
no Carthaginian thereafter should learn to write or speak the Greek language, 
Justin, xx. 5. 

The Carthaginians were a nation of merchants, industrious, ingenious, and enter- 
prising; but false, deceitful, and cruel. Cunning {calliditas) was their distin- 
guishing characteristic, Cic. de Arusp. resp. 19. in Rull. ii. 94. £.35. PUNICA FIDES, 
among the Romans became proverbial, and was equivalent to dolus -vel perfidia, 
artifice or treachery, Sallust. Jug. ic8. ; Liv. xxi. 6. Thus Plautus uses Panus 
for false, deceitful, Panul. prol. 113. So Livy, in recounting the vices of Hannibal, 
says, he had perjidia plusquam Punica, xxi. 4.; Fersutia Punicce, and calliditas 
Graca, are opposed to the openness and sincerity of the Romans, Romance artes, 
Id. xlii. 47. But the Romans did not always practise these virtues, as Livy himself 
acknowledges in this very passage. Nothing could exceed their artifice as well as their 
injustice towards the Carthaginians. The characters of both nations, and of their most 
illustrious citizens, will be best traced from their actions. We derive our information 
concerning the Carthaginians chiefly from Roman writers, whose national antipathy 
led them to represent the character and conduct of their enemies in the most unfa- 
vourable iight, to depreciate their virtues, and aggravate their vices. 

West 



682 



Africa Antigua, 



West from Carthage stood Utica, near prom. Apolltnis, and 
prom. Pulchrum, thought by some to be the same where Scipio 
Africanus landed with his army. 

Between Carthage and Utica ran the river Bagrada, near 
which the army of Regulus destroyed an enormous serpent, 
with their warlike engines, after it had killed a great number 
of them. The skin is said to have been sent to Rome, 120 
feet long, Plin. 8. 14. 

The west of Africa Propria was called Zeugitana. 

NUMIDIA was divided differently at different times. The 
two chief states in it were the Massyli, on the east, and the 
Massasyli) or -ii, on the west. Masinissa was king of the for- 
mer, and Syphax of the latter. They were both called Noma- 
des or FJumtda, and after the defeat of Syphax became subject 
to Masinissa. 

Chief towns : On the sea coast, Tabraca, at the mouth of 
the river Tusca ; Hippo Regius, near the river Rubricatus, the 

Episcopal seat of St. Augustine ; west of which Ruficade. 

Inland towns: Cirta, the capital, near the river Ampsaga; east 
of which Vaga ; south of it Sicca ; and ZAM A, famous for 
the defeat of Hannibal by Scipio. The situation of Thirmtda, 
where Hiempsal was slain by Jugurtha, is uncertain. Among 
the deserts stood Thala and Gapsa. 

MAURITANIA was separated from Numidia by the river 
Mulucha : the people were called Mauri, Moors. 

The chief towns were Casarea, which gave the name of 
Casariensis to the eastern part, the kingdom of Bocchus ; 
and Tingis or »/, Tangier, south of the Fretum Herculeum^ 
whence the western part, the kingdom of Bogud, was called 
Tingitana. 4 

South of Mauritania lived the Gatuli, Garamantes, Libyes, 
and JEthiopes, whose limits are not exactly ascertained. Strabo 
supposes all the animals produced in the torrid or frigid zones 
to be of a diminutive size ; hence the origin of the fables of the 
pigmies, xvii. p. 821. 

West of Gatulia were the Insula Fortunate, one of which 
was named Canaria, as it is said, from the number of its large 
dogs ; whence these islands are now called the Canaries ; and 
another Nivaria, supposed to be Teneriffe, from its being al- 
ways covered with snow. 

North of these were the Insula Purpuraria, now the Ma- 
deiras, discovered by Juba, who there set up a manufacture of 
purple. 

The 



Africa Antiqua. 



683 



The Insula Hesperides and Gorgonum^ mentioned in the Peri- 
plus of Hanno the Carthaginian, .who is said to have sailed 
round Africa, are supposed to have been the Cape Verd islands. 
But the account given of them, and of other southern places, 
in that book, is too fabulous to be credited. The same thing 
may be said of the famous Atlantis of Plato, which he repre- 
sents as larger than Asia and Africa, and which therefore some 
take to be America. But several authors allow the authenticity 
of the periplus of Hanno: (See DodweWs dissertations prefixed 
to the Oxford edition of the Geographic veteris Scriptores Graci, 
vol. i.) Pliny mentions Hanno's having sailed round Africa, 
and written an account of it, ii. 67. v. i. So Pomponius Mela, 
ii'i. 9., and Solinus, c. 56. Some vessels, manned with Phoe- 
nicians, by order of Necos, king of Egypt, having taken 
their departure from the Arabian gulf or Red Sea, made 
the circuit of Africa, and returned after a voyage of two 
years, to Egypt by the straits of Cadir, now Cadiz, Herodot. 
iv. 42. The same voyage is said to have been performed by 
others, Strab. ii. 98. 



Modern Divisions of Africa. 

Egypt •, Barbary, comprehending Barca, Tripoli, Tunis, 
Algiers, Fez, and Morocco •, Biledulgerid, part of ancient 
Mauritania ; Zaara, or Sahara ; Negroland, along the 
Niger 5 Upper Guinea, the Slave Co.i-r, the Gold and Ivory 
Coast; Lower Guinea, comprehending Loango, Congo, 
Angola, Benguela, and Matanan ; Caffraria, or the country 
of the Hottentots, around the Cape ot Good Hope; Monomo- 
TAPA ; SOFALAJ MoNOMUGI, ZaNGUEBAR ; AjAN ; Coast of 

Abex Nubia ; Abyssinia ; and Ethiopia. But Africa is 
divided differently by different writers. 
The principal inlands of Africa are : 

BabelmandeLj at the entrance of the Red sea. In the In- 
dian ocean, Zocotora, or Socatra. East from Zanguebar, 

Mosambioue (or Meiinda), belonging to the Portuguese, and 

the Comora isles. Madagascar, a large island, about 1000 

miles long, and 300 broad Mauritius or the Isle of 

France, with its dependencies, belonging to the English ; and 
Bourbon, belonging to the French. In the Atlantic, St. He- 
lena, a small island, 21 miles in circumference, belonging to the 

English, 



68.4. 



America. 



English, about 1200 miles west of Benguela. This island is 

the place of exile of Napoleon Buonaparte. Ascension Isle •, 

and St. Matthew, uninhabited ; St. Thomas, Prince's island, 

&c. in the gulf of Guinea, belonging to the Portuguese . 

Cape Verd islands ; — Portuguese. Canaries, Canary, 

Teneriffe, Ferro; — Spanish. Madeiras — Portuguese. 

— Azores, or "Western isles, nearly at an equal distance from 
Europe, Africa, and America ; — Portuguese. 



AMERICA.* 

AMERICA extends from the 80th deg. N. to the 57th deg. 
S. lat. ; and, where its breadth is known, from the 35 th to 
the 136th deg. W. Ion. 5 about 9000 miles in length, and 3600 
in its greatest breadth. It has the Atlantic on the east, which 
separates it from Europe and Africa; and the Pacific or Great 
South sea on the west, which separates it from Asia. 

It is divided into two great continents, North and South 
America which are joined by the kingdom of Mexico, form- 
ing a kind of isthmus* 1500 miles long, at Darien so narrow as 
to be only 60 miles over. 

The principal seas, bays, and straits, in America, are Baffin's 
Bay, Hudson's Bay, Hudson's Straits ; Straits of Belleisle, which 
separate Newfoundland from New Britain ; Gulf of St. Lau- 
rence ; Fundy Bay, which separates Nova Scotia from New 

England, 

* Manners and Customs of the Native Americans. 

The characteristical features of the Native Americans or Indians of America 
as they are called, are, a very small forehead, covered with hair from the extremities 
to the middle of the eye-brows. They have little black eyes, a thin nose, small, and 
bending towards the upper lip. The countenance broad; the features coarse, the ears 
large and far from the face ; their hair very black, lank, and coarse. Their limbs 
well turned; the feet small; the body tall, straight, of a copper colour, and well pro- 
portioned; strong and active, but not fitted for much labour. Their faces smooth, 
and free from beard, owing to a custom among them, of pulling it out by the roots. 
Their countenances, at first view, appear mild and innocent; but upon a narrow in- 
spection, they discover something wild, distrustful, and sullen. Their features are 
regular, though often distorted by absurd endeavours to improve the beauty of their 
natural form, or to render their aspect more dreadful to their enemies. In the 
islands, where the four-footed animals were both few and small, and the earth yielded 
her productions almost spontaneously, the constitution of the natives, neither braced 
by the active exercises of the chace, nor invigorated by the labours of cultivation, was 

10* extremely 



America. 



685 



England, remarkable for its tides, which rise to the height of 
fifty or sixty feet, and flew so rapidly as to overtake animals 
feeding on the shore; Massachusetts Bay,- Delawar Bay ; ^Ghe- 
sapeak Bay ; Gulf of Florida, or Bahama Strait; Gulf of Mex- 
ico ; Bay of Campeachy ; Bay of Honduras ; Gulf of Darien * 
the Caribbeean Sea : the Bays formed at the mouth of the Oro- 
nooco, of the Amazons, and of La Plata ; the Straits of Ma- 
gellan, above 300 miles in length, but of unequal breadth, 
sometimes not two miles ; running between the Atlantic and 
Pacific Oceans, and separating Terra del Fuego from the con- 
tinent of South America ; east from which are the Straits of la 
Maire, so called from a Dutchman, who first discovered them, 
between Fuego and States Island ; the Bay of Panama, opposite 
to Darien ; and the Gulf or Sea of California, 

The 

extremely feeble and languid. On the continent, where the forests abound with 
game of various kinds, and the chief occupation of many tribes was to pursue it, their 
frame acquired greater firmness. Still, however, the Americans were more re- 
markable for agility than strength. They were not only averse to toil, but incapable 
of it ; and when roused by force from their native indolence, and compelled to 
work, they sunk under tasks which the people of the other continent would have 
performed with ease. They were likewise observed to have much less appetite ; so 
that the Spaniards appeared to them to be insatiably voracious; and they affirmed 
that one Spaniard consumed more food in a day than was sufficient for ten 
Americans. 

There is a singular uniformity of appearance among all the inhabitants of the New 
World ; so that, as Ulloa observes, if we have seen one American, we may be said to 
have seeH them all ; their colour and make are so nearly the same. The only ex- 
ception is the Esquimeaux Indians on the coast of Labrador, who are of a middle 
size and robust, with heads of a dispropot tioned bulk, and feet as remarkably small. 
Their complexion, though swarthy, by being continually exposed to the rigour of a 
cold climate, inclines to the European white, rather than to the copper colour of 
America; and the men have beards, which are sometimes bushy and long. Some 
people have been found on the Isthmus of Darien of a dead milk-white colour, not 
resembling that of the fair people among Europeans, but without any tincture of a 
blush or sanguine complexion. But these cannot be considered as constituting a 
distinct species, any more than the white children sometimes produced by the 
negroes of Africa, called Albinos. The parents of the Whites of Darien, called by 
the Dutch Kackerlakes, are of the same colour with other natives of the country. 
Both of these, therefore, are to be held as a degenerate breed. Neither of them 
propagate their race ; their children are of the colour and temperament peculiar to 
the natives of their respective countries. — In the southern extremity of America, 
there is said to be a people of a gigantic size, called PATAGONIANS, above eight 
feet high, and of proportional strength ; but their existence is doubtful. 

Although the savages of America are exempt from many of the distempers which 
affect polished nations, yet they are liable to various disorders, brought on by immo- 
derate hardship and fatigue, by the inclemency of the seasons, scarcity of food, exces- 
sive repletion after long fasting, and by other causes. One dreadful malady is sajd to 
have been introduced into Europe from America, callediZ^j Venerea, the Neapolitan 
or French disease, because it is said to have first appeared with most destructive vio- 
lence in the French army before Naples, a. 1493. It made dismal ravages through 

various 



686 



America, 



The rivers in America are the largest, and the mountains 
the highest, in the world. 

The principal rivers are *, in north America, Su Laurence, 
and the Missisippi, which rise at no great distance from one 
another ; in South America, the Maragnon, or the river of the 
AMAZONS, the largest in the world; the LA PLATA; 
and the Oronoque, Orinoco, or Oronooco. 

The river St. Laurence, in its course, forms several lakes of 
greater extent than are to be met with any where else ; Lake 
Superior, about 1500 miles in circumference ; Lake Michigan 
or Illinois, Lake Huron, Lake Erie or Oswego, and Lake 0«- 
tario. Between Lake Erie and Ontario is the stupendous cata- 
ract, called the Falls of Niagara, where the river, about half 
a mile broad, tumbles over a precipice about 150 feet* in per- 
pendicular 

* On one side 163 feet, and on the other only 143. Philos. Tr. of Philadelphia, 
1793, vol. iii. See Appendix to Monthly Review, Jan. 1795. 



various parts of Europe, and for a considerable time baffled all the efforts of medical 
ikill, till the application of mercury was thought of for its cure. 

The mental powers of the American Indians appeared still more feeble than the 
frame of their bodies. They had no ideas but what related to present objects. They 
had not a word to express any thing but what is material and corporeal. ■ Time, space, 
substance, and a thousand other abstract terms, were altogether unknown to them. 
Some tribes cannot reckon farther than thtee, and have no denomination to distinguish 
any number above it. Several can proceed as far as ten, others to twenty. Some, as 
the Iroquois in North America, who are more civilised, have extended their arithmetic 
to a thousand : but the Cherokee nation, on the same continent, mo farther than a 
hundred ; r.nd the smaller tribes in their neighbourhood can rise no higher than ten. 
They have little foresight of futurity, and their thoughts seem wholly occupied about 
the present moment. When on the approach of evening, the Carribbee feels himself 
disposed to go to rest, no consideration will tempt him to sell his hammock. But in 
the morning, when he is sallying out to the business or pastime of the day, he will 
part with it for the slightest toy that catches his fancy. The North Americans 
and natives of Chili, who inhabit the temperate regions in the two great districts 
of America, are people of cultivated and enlarged understandings, when viewed 
in comparison with some of those seated in the islands, or on the banks of the 
Maragnon and Orinoco. Their occupations are more various, their system of 
policy as well as of war more complex, their arts more numerous. But even 
among them the intellectual powers are extremely limited in their operations ; Mid 
unless when exerted in the chace, or in war, are held in no estimation. When not 
engaged in these, they waste their life in a listless indolence. To be free from 
occupation, seems to be all the enjoyment towards which they aspire. They will 
continue whole days stretched out in their hammocks, or seated on the earth, in 
perfect idleness, without changing their posture, or raising their eyes from the ground, 
or uttering a tingle word, see p. 632. 

Among the savages of America, as of other countries, the condition of women 
is humiliating and wretched. The husband usually purchases his wife, either 
by performing certain service to her parents, or by ofFering them presents. He 
considers her as a female-servant whom he has acquired, and therefore subjects 
, her 



America. 



687 



pendicular height. Below Lake Superior is another fall, called 
St. Marfs Falls. 

The MISSISIPPI is joined by the Illinois, the Misaures, the 
Ohio, and several other large rivers. After a course of 4500 
miles, including its turnings, it falls into the Gulf of Mexico. 

There are many other considerable rivers in North America ; 
Hudson 9 s river, which rises near Lake Champlatn in Canada 5 
and falls into the Atlantic at New York ; the Delaware, joined 
by the Schuylkill at Philadelphia ; the Susquehanna, Potowmack, 
James river, Sec. 

The river of the Amazons and La Plata annually overflow 
their banks, and fertilize the adjacent country, in the same 
manner as the Nile does Egypt. 

The principal mountains are, the ANDES or Cordilleras^ 
thought to be the highest in the world, which run from north 
to south, along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, the whole length 

of 

her to every office of labour and fatigue. — It is observable, that women have 
always been found in n state of degradation wherever the custom of purchasing 
wives has prevailed. It is only in polished society that women receive from men 
that degree of respect which is due to them, and which proves equally beneficial 
to both sexes. — Among the savage tribes of America, while the men loiter 
out the day in sloth, or spend it in amusement, the women are condemned to 
incessant toil, as among the ancient Germans, see p. 561. and 565 In some 
districts, this dominion is so grievous and so sensibly felt, that some women, in a 
wild emotion of maternal fondness, have destroyed their female children in their 
infancy, to deliver them from that intolerable bondage to which they knew they 
were doomed. From this harsh treatment, women are far from being prolific. 
The difficulty of procuring subsistence in the savage state causes infants to be 
often exposed. When twins are born, one of them commonly is abandoned, 
because the mother is not equal to the task of educating both. When a mother 
dies while she is nursing a child, all hope of preserving its life fails, and it is buried 
together with her in the same grave. But the Americans are not deficient in 
parental tenderness to such of their offspring as they chuse to rear. The dependence 
of children on their parents, however, is of short duration. It ceases almost entirely, 
as soon as they reach maturity ; and after that they shew no greater regard to their 
parents than to any other persons. 

The natives of America, when first discovered, lived mostly by fishing, and hunting. 
In some rivers, as in the Maragnon or Amazons and Orinoco, fish are so plentiful, 
that they may be caught with the hand. The sagacity of the American hunters 
in finding their prey, and their address in killing it, are surprising. They have dis- 
covered a kind of poison, in which if they dip their arrows, the slightest wound is 
mortal, without infecting the flesh of the animal. The plants which they raise by 
eulture are chiefly, — 1. the maize, called in Europe the Turkey or Indian wheat : — 
2. the manioc, which grows to the size of a large shrub, or small tree, and produces 
roots somewhat resembling parsnips; after carefully squeezing out the juice, which is 
poisonous, these roots are grated down to a fine powder, and formed into thin cakes 
ealled Cassada bread, insipid to the taste, but no contemptible food: — 3 the plantain, 
a tree which grows so quickly as to yield fruit in less than a year ; which fruit, when 
roasted, supplies the place of bread, and is both palatable and nourishing : — 4. the 
petatoe: and — 5. pimento, a small tree, yielding a strong aromatic spice } of which 



688 



America. 



of South America, 4300 miles; and the Apallachian or Allegany 
mountains, in North America, extending from Canada almost 
to the Gulf of Mexico, which rise gradually from the east, and 
are steep towards the west. There are very high mountains 
towards the north, always covered with snow, whence the wind 
blows three quarters of the year, and occasions a degree of cold 
in those regions, not experienced in any other part of the world 
in the same latitude. 

The discovery of America is one of the most important 
events in history. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, a native 
of Genoa, settled at Lisbon, struck with the success of the 
Portuguese navigators, and reflecting on the figure of the 
earth, with the help of an inaccurate map, had formed a strong 
persuasion, that the Atlantic Ocean comprehended unknown 
countries; or that a passage to the East Indies and China might 
be found by the west. Like a good citizen, he first proposed 

the 



the Americans mingle a large quantity with every kind of food they take. They had 
none of the ordinary grains of Europe ; and their agriculture was rendered very im- 
perfect, as well as their other operations extremely circumscribed, by their having no 
tame animals, as the ox and the horse ; and by their being unacquainted with the use 
of metals. 

The total ignorance of the Americans with respect to the advantages derived from 
domestic animals, is one of the most remarkable distinctions between the inhabitants 
of the Ancient and New Worlds. The Tartar follows his prey on the horse which 
he has reared, or tends his numerous herds, which furnish him both with food and 
cloathing. The Arab has rendered the camel docile, and avails himself of its per- 
severing strength; the Laplander has formed the rein-deer to be subservient to 
his will; and even the people of Kamschatka have trained their dogs to labour. 
But among the Americans nothing of this kind took place. Most of the animals, 
indeed, which have been rendered domestic in our continent do not exist in the New 
World ; but those peculiar to it, are neither so tierce nor so formidable, as to 
have exempted them from servitude. There are some animals of the same species 
in both continents. But the rein-deer, which has been tamed and broken to the 
yoke in the one hemisphere, runs wild in the other. This is also the case with the 
bison of America, which is manifestly of the same species with the horned cattle of 
the other hemisphere. 

The savage Americans, when first discovered, had picked up some trifling quantity 
of gold in the torrents that descend from their mountains, and formed it into orna- 
ments; but of the process of making iron, thie most useful of all metals, and which is 
never found in its perfect state, (see p. na.) they were altogether ignorant. Their 
devices to supply this want of the serviceable metals were extremely rude and awkward. 
The most simple operation was to them an undertaking of immense difficulty and 
labour. To fell a tree with no other instruments than hatchets of stone, was employ- 
ment for a month. To form a canoe into shape, and to hollow it from a tree, 
consumed years; and it frequently began to rot, before they hid finished it; which 
tardiness however was as much occasioned by their natural indolence, as by their want 
of skill. Their operations in husbandry were equally slow and defective. In a country 
covered with woods of the hardest timber, the clearing of a small field destined for cul- 
ture required the united efforts of a tribe, and was a work of much time and great toil. 

This 



America. 



689 



the attempt to his countrymen, as a means of depriving the 
Venetians, their rivals, of the rich commerce which they car- 
ried on with the Indies by the way of Egypt and the Red Sea- 
But the Genoese rejected his proposal, as the dream of a 
visionary. He next applied to John II. King of Portugal, a 
prince of an enterprising genius, and no incompetent judge of 
naval affairs, who listened to him with attention, and referred 
the consideration of his plan to some eminent cosmographers, 
whom he was accustomed to consult in matters of that kind. 
They, from mean and interested views, having artfully tried, 
by captious questions, to draw from Columbus a full explana- 
tion of his system, advised the king to dispatch a vessel secretly, 
in order to attempt the proposed discovery, by exactly follow- 
ing 



This was the business of the men, and their indolence was satisfied with performing it 
in a very slovenly manner. The labour of cultivation was left to the women, who after 
digging or rather stirring the ground with wooden mattocks, and stakes hardened in 
the fire, sowed or planted it ; but were more indebted for the increase to the fertility 
of the soil, than to their own rude industry.— —Some tribes were totally unacquainted 
with every species of cultivation ; as the Topayers of Brasil, the Guaxerot of Terra 
Firma,the Caiguas, the Moxos, and several other tribes of Paraguay. 

The Americans were divided into a number of small independent communities; each 
possessing an immense tract of ~ountry. Among some tribes there was no idea of pri- 
vate property. The men hunted, and the women laboured together ; and they enjoyed 
the produce in common. Among others, the increase of these cultivated lands is de- 
posited in a public granary, and distributed among them, at stated times, according to 
their wants. The notions of property, however, are found to be different in different 
tribes. Where no idea of property is established, there -can be no distinction among 
men, but from what arises from personal qualities. Hence the savage Americans en- 
tertain a high sense of equality and independence. All are equally free, and scorn to 
submit to servitude. Many of the Americans, when they found that they were treated 
as slaves by the Spaniards, died of grief; many destroyed themselves in despair. There 
was no visible form of government among them ; and the names of magistrate and sub- 
ject were unknown. The right of revenge is left in private hands. The aged may ad- 
vise, but do not decide, and their counsels are seldom listened to ; for as it is deemed 
pusillanimous to suffer an offender to escape with impunity, resentment is implacable and 
everlasting. The passion of revenge rages with such violence in the breast of savages, 
that eagerness to gratify it may be considered as the distinguishing characteristic of 
men in an uncivilised state. The American Indians have been known, for the purpose 
of revenge, to travel a thousand miles through the wildest countries amidst incredible 
hardships. If they are so fortunate at last as to surprise and destroy their enemy, they 
esteem it the highest pitch of felicity. 

Revenge is the chief source of those wars, which almost perpetually prevail among 
the American tribes, and which are prosecuted with the snme implacable rancour as 
quarrels among individuals. They fight not to conquer, but to destroy. Before war 
is undertaken by any community, a formal consultation is held. The elders assemble, 
and deliver their opinions in solemn speeches. If the determination be for war, they 
prepare for it with much ceremony. A leader offers to conduct the expedition, 2nd if, 
accepted. But no man is constrained to follow him ; the resolution of the community 
to commence hostilities imposes no obligation on any member to tak« part in the war. 

Y y Each 



690 



America. 



ing the course which Columbus seemed to have pointed out. 
John, on this occasion, forgetting the sentiments becoming a 
monarch, meanly adopted their perfidious counsel. The ship 
accordingly was dispatched, but soon returned without effecting 
any thing. Columbus having discovered this dishonourable 
transaction, with that indignation which is natural to an inge- 
nuous mind, left Portugal and went to Spain, a. 1484. Here 
he addressed himself to Ferdinand and Isabella, who at that 
time governed the united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon. 
But they submitted the matter to unskilful judges, who treated 
Columbus with contempt. He therefore sent his brother Bar- 
tholomew to lay his scheme before Henry VII. of England ; 
but Bartholomew on his voyage fell into the hands of pirates, 

who, 



Each individual is still master of his own conduct, and his engagement in the service is 
perfectly voluntary. They never take the field in numerous bodies, but in scattered 
parties. They place no glory in attacking their enemies with open force. To conquer 
by stratagem is the highest merit of a commander. The most distinguished success is 
a disgrace to a leader, if purchased with any considerable loss of his followers. To 
fall in battle, instead of being reckotied an honourable death, is a misfortune, which 
subjects the memory of a warrior to the imputation of rashness or imprudence. This 
caution proceeds not from want of courage, but from the small number of men in each 
tribe, and of consequence the value of every individual. It is a constant practice 
among the Indians of America, to scalp the enemies they have slain, that is, to tear 
the skins off their sculls and faces, which they carry home as trophies of their victory. 
They are particularly solicitous to seize prisoners. These they usually put to death 
with exquisite tortures. Among some tribes they broil and eat them. Some of the 
captives are reserved to replace the members which the community has lost ; and are 
adopted into the families of those whose friends have been slain. They assume the 
name and rank of the deceased, and are treated thenceforward with all the tenderness 
due to a father, a brother, a husband, or a friend. But if, either from caprice, or an 
unrelenting desire of revenge, the women of any family refuse to accept the prisoner 
who is offered to them, his doom is fixed. No power can then save him from torture 
and death. The fortitude with which the captives bear these tortures exceeds belief. 
Amidst sufferings apparently too gre^t for human nature to sustain, they chant their 
death-song with a firm voice, they boast of their own exploits, they insult their tor- 
mentors for their want of skill in avenging their friends and relations, they warn them 
of the vengeance which awaits them, on account of their death, and excite their fero- 
city by the most provoking reproaches and threats. They appear to be not only in- 
sensible of pain, but to court it. As the constancy of every American warrior may 

be put to such severe proof, the great object of education and discipline in the Ne\» 

World, is to form the mind to sustain it. As the youth of other nations exercise 

themselves in feats of activity and force, those of America vie with one another in ex- 
hibitions of their patience under sufferings. A boy and girl will bind their arms together, 
and place a burning coal between them, in order to try who first discovers such impa- 
tience as to shake it off. No youth is admitted into the class of warriors, nor is a 
warrior promoted to the dignity of captain or chief, till he has given sulficient proofs 
of his capacity to suffer the most excruciating pain without shrinking. This faculty, 
however, for which the Americans have been so justly celebrated, is not an universal 
attainment. The constancy of many of the captive* is overcome by the agonies of 

torture. 



America. 



i 

691 



who, having stripped him of every thing, detained him a pri- 
soner for several years. At length he made his escape, and 
arrived in London, but in such extreme indigence, that he was 
obliged to employ himself for a considerable time, in drawing 
and selling maps, in order to pick up as much money as would 
purchase a decent dress, in which he might venture to appear 
at court. He then laid the proposals of his brother before the 
king, who, notwithstanding his excessive caution and parsimony, 
received them with more approbation than any monarch, to 
whom they had hitherto been presented. 

Meanwhile Columbus, after bearing much raillery and abuse, 
for eight years, at the court of Spain, had at last, by means 
of Peres, a monk, and two other churchmen, Quxntanilla 

and 

torture. Their weakness and lamentations complete the triumph of their enemies, and 
reflect disgrace upon their country. 

The captives who are preserved renounce their native country, and attach themselves 
to the people by whom they are adopted so entirely, as often to join them in their 
expeditions against their own countrymen. As the contending states aim st nothing less 
than the extermination of each other, no exchange of prisoners can take place between 
them. When any one becomes a prisoner, his country and friends consider him ae 
dead ; (so anciently among the Romans, turn riecessisse videtur cum capitis est. Digest, 
xlix. 15. 18.) He has incurred indelible disgrace, by suffering himself to be sur- 
prised, or to be taken by an enemy ; and were he to return home after such a stain on 
his honour, his nearest relations would not receive, or even acknowledge that they 
knew him. Among some tribes he would even be put to death. Thus the unfortu- 
nate captive, an outcast from his own country, feels the less reluctance in making a 
transition, which to us appears so unnatural.-— The alienation and enmity prevalent 
among the Indian tribes, from their perpetual hostilities, prevented them from uniting 
in any common scheme of defence against their European invaders; and while each 
tribe fought separately, all were subdued. 

Although among most of the Indian tribes the greatest freedom prevailed, and per- 
sonal qualities only were respected, yet in some places the power of certain families was 
estalished. Thus, in Florida, the authority of the Sac/jems, caciques, or chiefs, was 
not only permanent, but hereditary. They were distinguished by peculiar ornaments, 
they enjoyed prerogatives of various kinds, and were treated by their subjects with that 
reverence which people accustomed to subjection pay to a master: The same was the 
case in Hispaniola, Cuba, and the larger islands, where the caciques, in order to pre- 
serve or augment the veneration of the people, had the address to call in the aid of su- 
perstition to uphold their authority. They delivered their mandates as the oracles of 
Heaven, and pretended to possess the power of regulating the seasons, and of dispensing 
rain. or sunshine according as their subjects stood in need of them Among the Nat- 
chez on the banks of the Missisippi, some families were reputed noble, and enjoyed he- 
reditary dignity. The body of the people was considered as vile, and formed only for 
subjection. The former were called Respectable, the latter the Stinkards. The great 
chief in whom the supreme authority was vested, is reputed to be a being of a supe* 
rior nature, the brother of the sun, the sole object of their worship. They approach 
him with religious veneration, and honour him as the representative of their deity. Hit 
will is a law, to which all submit with implicit obedience. The lives of his subjects 
are so absolutely at his disposal, that if any one has incurred his displeasure, he comes 
with profound humility, and offers him his head- Nor does this dominion «nd with 

Y y % hh 



€92 



America. 



and S ANT ANGEL, prevailed on Queen ISABELLA, from 
a motive of religion, to favour his enterprise. As her finances 
were then in a very low state, after the reduction of Granada, 
she even offered to pledge her jewels in order to raise money to 
defray the expences of the expedition. But Santangel, over- 
joyed at her consent, engaged to advance the sum that was 
requisite. Three vessels were equipped, of no great size, hav- 
ing on board only ninety men, mostly sailors, besides a few 
adventurers. The whole expence did not exceed four thousand 
pounds sterling. The largest vessel was commanded by Colum- 
bus himself, and the two smallest by two brothers, of the name 
of Pinzon. 

Columbus 



his life; his principal officers, his favorite wives, together with many domestics of 
inferior rank, are sacrificed at his tomb, that he may be attended in the next world 
by the same persons who served him in this ; and such is the reverence in which he is 
held, that those victims welcome death with exultation, deeming it a recompence 
of their fidelity, and a mark of distinction, to be selected to accompany their deceased 
master. 

In the warmer and more mild climates of America, most of the natives, when first 
discovered, were altogether naked. Some had a slight covering, such as decency re- 
quired. But though naked, they were not unadorned. They dressed their hair in 
many different forms. They fastened bits of gold, or shells, or shining stones, in their 
ears, their noses, and cheeks. They stained their skins with a great variety of 
figures ; and they spent much time, and submitted to much pain, in ornamenting 
their persons in this fantastic manner. They anointed their bodies with the grease of 
animals, with viscous gums, and with oils of different kinds. By this means they 
checked that profuse perspiration which, in the torrid zone, wastes the vigour of the 
frame, and abridges the period of human life. This also furnished a defence against 
the extreme moisture of the rainy season. At certain seasons they tempered paint of 
different colours with those unctuous substances, and bedaubed themselves plentifully 
with that composition, which served as a protection both against the penetrating heat of 
the sun, and the innumerable tribes of insects which infest those regions. — The In- 
dians in the northern parts of America are fond of adorning themselves with strings of 
beads and shells about their necks. In summer they go almost naked , but in winter 
cover themselves with the skins of beasts taken in hunting. — A custom prevails almost 
universally, of changing the form of the heads of infants. " But in all their attempts 
either to adorn or to new-model their persons, it seems to have been less the object of 
the Americans to please or to appear beautiful, than to give an air of dignity and terror to 
their aspect. Their attention to dress had more reference to war than to gallantry. The 
difference in rank and estimation between the two sexes was so great as extinguished, 
in some measure, their solicitude to appear mutually amiable. The man deemed it be- 
neath him to adorn his person for the sake of one on whom he was accustomed to look 
down as a slave. It was when the warrior had a view to enter the council of his na- 
tion, or take the field against its enemies, that he assumed his choicest ornaments, and 
decked his person with the nicest care. The decorations of the women were few and 
«imple ; whatever was precious or splendid was reserved for the men. In several tribes 
the women were obliged to spend a considerable part of their time every day in adorning 
and painting their husbands, and could bestow little attention upon ornamenting them- 
selves. Among a race of men so haughty as to despise, or so cold as to neglect them, 



America. 



693 



Columbus set sail from Palos, a small sea-port town of An- 
dalusia, 3d August 1492, and after surmounting many difficul- 
ties, on the thirty-third day he discovered one of the Bahama 
islands ; and after that Cuba and Hispaniola * or St. Domingo. 
At the end of about nine months, he returned to Spain with 
a quantity of gold, and some of the natives, to the confusion 
of his enemies, and the astonishment of all. Ferdinand and 
Isabella loaded him with the highest honours, and appointed 
him Admiral of the West Indies. He set out on a second 
voyage, September 1493 ^ and after various delays, on a third, 
1498, in which he discovered the continent of South America, 
at the mouth of the Oronooko. On his arrival at St. Domingo, 

his 

* Thus Columbus accomplished what had been predicted ; Venlent annis Secul<e 
seris, quibus Oceanus vinculo rerum laxet, etingens Pateat tellus, Tiphysque novos Detegat 
vbes i ne sit terris Ultima Thule, Ssnec. Med. 373. 



the women naturally became careless and slovenly, and the love of finery and shew, 
which has been deemed their favourite passion, was confined chiefly to the other sex. 
To deck his person was the distinction of a warrior, as well as one of his most serious 
occupations." Dr. Robertson s History of America^ 'vol. ii. p. 1 24. Svo. 

The habitations of the Americans were extremely mean and simple. Some tribes 
had no houses at all. Others, who have no fixed abode, and roam through the forests 
in quest of game, sojourn in temporary huts, which they erect with little labour, and 
abandon without any concern. Even those tribes which are more improved, and whose 
residence was become altogether fixed, had nothing but wretched huts, sometimes of 
an oblong, sometimes of a circular form, intended merely for shelter, with no view to 
elegance, and little attention to conveniency. The doors were so low, that it was ne- 
cessary to bend or to creep on the hands and feet, in order to enter them. They were 
without windows, and had a large hole in the middle of the roof, to convey out the 
smoke. Some of their houses were so large as to contain accommodation for fourscore 
or a hundred persons ; where different families dwelt under the same roof, and often 
around a common fire, without separate apartments, or any kind of screen or partition 
between the spaces which they respectively occupied. 

The common method among the Americans of dressing their victuals, was by roast- 
ing them on the fire ; and among several tribes this is the only species of cookery yet 
known. Some of the southern tribes had discovered the art ©f forming vessels of 
earthen ware, and baking them in the sun, so that they could endure the fire. In 
North America they hollowed a piece of hard wood into the form of a kettle, and fill- 
ing it with water, brought it to boil by throwing red-hot stones into it. The people 
in the island of Otaheite, some time ago discovered in the South-Sea, who far ex- 
celled most of the Americans in their inventions, had no vessel that could bear the fire, 
and had no more idea that water could be made hot, than that it could be made solid- 

The arms of the Americans were clubs made of some heavy wood, stakes hardened 
in the fire, lances having their heads armed with flint, or the bones of some animal ; 
and, to annoy at a distance, the bow and arrow, in shooting which they are remark- 
ably dexterous. The sling is used only by a few tribes in the southern continent. — 

But the ingenuity of the savages of America is chiefly displayed in the construction of 
their canoes. An Esquimaux shut up in his boat of whalebone, covered with the skins 
of seals, can brave that stormy ocean, on which the barrenness of his country compels 

Yy 3 him 



694 



America. 



his prudence and temper were put to the severest trial, by the 
mutinous behaviour of the colony which he had settled there. 
His enemies at court misrepresented his conduct. Their 
artifice and malice prevailed. A governor was sent to suc- 
ceed him, who was not ashamed to put him in irons, and 
sent him like a criminal to Spain. The injustice of this act 
was universally condemned. Columbus was honourably ac- 
quitted ; but would never part with his chains ; and when 
he died, he ordered them to be buried with him. He 
undertook a fourth voyage, 1502, in which he discovered the 
Isthmus of Darien. Being forced on Jamaica by a storm, and 
in want of provisions, he procured supplies from the savages* 
by the terror of an eclipse of the moon, which he knew 

was 



him to depend for the chief part of his subsistence. The people of Canada venture 
upon their rivers and lakes, in boats made of the bark of trees, and 30 light that two 
men can carry them wherever shallows or cataracts obstruct the navigation. In these 
frail vessels they undertake and accomplish long voyages. The inhabitants of the isle3 
and southern continent form their canoes by hollowing the trunk of a Lirge tree, with 
infinite labour, and though in appearance extremely awkward and unwieldy, they 
paddle and steer them with such dexterity, that Europeans well acquainted with all 
the improvements in the science of navigation have been astonished at the rapidity of 
their motion, and the quickness of their evolutions. Their pirogues t or war-boats, are 
so large as to carry forty or fifty men ; their canoes employed in fishing and in short 
vdyage's are less capacious. 

The religious notions of the native Americans are not sufficiently ascertained. 
Several tribes have been discovered which have no idea whatever of a supreme Being, 
and of course no rites of religious worship. But most of them have some confused no- 
tions of a deity, whom, however, they commonly dread as the author of evil, and worship 
chiefly th.u ne may avert calamities. False conceptions of the Deity have given rise to 
divination, the observation of omens, faith in dreams, attention to the chirping of 
birds, and cries of animals. Sec. Among many nations the sun was the chief object 

of religious worship The belief of the immortality of the soul is almost universal 

among the Americans, who all hope for a future and more happy state, where they 
shall be for ever exempt from the calamities which imbitter human life in its present 
condition. This they figure as a delightful country, blessed with perpetual spring, 
whose forests abound with game, whose rivers swarm with fish, where famine is never 
felt, and uninterrupted plenty shall be enjoyed without labour or toil. As they ima- 
gine th.it the dead begin their career anew in the world whither they are gone, that 
they may not enter upon it defenceless, and unprovided, they bury with them their bow, 
their arrows, and other weapons used in hunting or war; they deposit in their tomb?, 
the skins or stuffs of which they make garments, Indian corn, manioc, venison, &c. 
In some places, upon the death of a cazique or chief, his principal favourites are in- 
terred together with him. 

The savages of America, ns in every other part of the globe, are passionately fond 
of dancing, which, indeed, mingles in every occurrence of public and private life ; 
also of gaming, and of intoxicating liquors : so that what Tacitus says of the ancient 
Germans {see is strictly applicable to the Americans; and Dr. Robertson, in 

his description of them, uses nearly the same expressions, •vol. il. p. 150. Most of 
the tribes in the southern parts of America had discovered a method of extracting an 

intoxicating 



America, 



was to happen at that time. When Columbus returned to 
Spain, his protectress Isabella was dead. Ferdinand gave him 
fair words, but nothing else. This truly great man died in 
1506, weighed down by grief and infirmities. After his death, 
the Indians were no longer treated with gentleness, but were 
almost entirely exterminated from St. Domingo and Cuba by 
the most horrid barbarity. 

The fame of Columbus roused the emulation of many 
adventurers. The coast of South America was discovered 1499, 

by 



intoxicating liquor from maize or manioc root, by means of fermentation. The 
people of the isles of North America, and of California, who were ignorant of this 
art, used in place of spirituous liquors, the smoke of tobacco, drawn up by a certain 
instrument into the nostrils, the fumes of which ascending to the brain, they felt all 

the transports and frenzy of intoxication, In most of the American tribes, women 

are not permitted to partake of their festivals. Their province is to prepare the liquor, 
to serve it about to the guests, and to take care of their husbands and friends when 
their reason is overpowered. Since the Indians in North America have been sup- 
plied by the Europeans with spirituous liquors, the women indulge in drinking them 
as immoderately as the men. 

Among the savage tribes of America, almost universally, the horrid custom pre- 
vails, of putting to death the aged and incurable ; which is not regarded as a deed of 
cruelty, but as an act of mercy. The same hardships and difficulty of procuring sub- 
sistence, which deter savages, in some cases, from rearing their offspring, prompt them 
to destroy their aged parents and friends. An American broken with years and in- 
firmities, conscious that he can no longer depend on those around him, places himself 
contentedly in his grave, and it is by the hands of his children or nearest relations, 
that the thong is pulled or the blow inflicted, which releases him for ever from the 
sorrows of life. 

Thus the character of an American savage exhihits human nature in a very unfa- 
vourable light, blended, however, with several virtues, selfish, unfeeling, sullen, un- 
grateful, revengeful, cunning, cruel; but independent, fearless of danger, patient 
under suffering, and strongly attached to his tribe. 

Different opinions are entertained about the manner in which America was first 
peopled. Some have supposed, that it was originally united to the ancient continent, 
and disjoined from it by the shock of an earthquake, or the irruption of a deluge* 
Others have imagined, that some vessel, being forced from its course, by the violence 
of a westerly wind, might be driven by accident towards the American coast, and 
have given a beginning to population in that desolate continent. But these are mere 
suppositions, and not supported by evidence. The ignorance of the Americans, when 
first discovered, concerning the necessary arts of life, and their total want of the do- 
mestic animals, prove that they were not descended from any people in the ancient 
continent which had made considerable progress in civilization. As it has been esta- 
blished beyond a doubt, by the discoveries of Captain Cook in his last voyage, that, in 
about 66° north latitude, the continents of Asia and America are separated by a strait 
only eighteen miles wide, and the inhabitants on each continent are similar, and fre- 
quently pass and repass in canoes fiom one continent to the other; it seems probable, 
that the progenitors of all the American nations, from Cape Horn to the southern limits 
of Labrador, from the similarity of their aspect, colour, Sec. migrated from the north- 
east parts of Asia. But since the Esquimaux Indians are manifestly a separate species 

Yy 4 of 



America. 



by AMERIC VESPUCCI, a Florentine, in the service of 
Portugal, who, having published an account of his voyage, 
had the good fortune, very unjustly, to give his name fo near 



of men, distinct from all the nations of the American continent,, in language, in dispo- 
sition, and in habits of life, and in all these respects bear a near resemblance to the 
Greenlanders ; and since it has been found that the north-west coast of Greenland is 
separated from America only by a very narrow strait, if separated at all, it is believed,, 
that the Esquimaux Indians emigrated from the north-west parts of Europe. 

The different species of animals peculiar to America are much fewer in proportion 
than those of the other hemisphere. In the islands, there were only four kinds of 
quadrupeds known, the largest of which did not exceed the size of a rabbit. On the 
continent, the variety was greater, but still the number of distinct species was ex- 
tremely small. Of two hundred different kinds of animals spread over the face of the 
earth, only about one- third existed in America at the time of its discovery, and these 
inferior in size, in strength, and ferocity to the animals of the other continent, Bvffon. 
(But this is controverted by American writers, Morse's Geogr. p. 54.) The same qua- 
lities in the climate of America, which stinted the growth and enfeebled the spirit of 
its native animals, have proved pernicious to such animals as have migrated into it vo- 
luntarily from the other continent, or have been transported thither by the Europeans. 
The bears, the wolves, the deer of America, are not equal in size to those of the old 
world. Most of the domestic animals, with which the Europeans stored the provinces 
in which they settled, have degenerated with respect either to bulk or quality, in a 
country whose temperature and soil seem to be less favourable to the strength and per- 
fection of the animal creation.- But insects and reptiles abound in many parts of 

America to an astonishing degree, particularly in the torrid zone, where they multiply 
faster perhaps, and grow to a more monstrous bulk, than in any other quarters of the 
globe. The air is often darkened with clouds of insects, and the ground covered with 
shocking and noxious reptiles. The country round Porto Bello swarms with toads in 
such multitudes as hide the surface of the earth. At Guyaquil, snakes and vipers are 
hardly less numerous. Carthagena is infested with numerous flocks of bats, which 
annoy not only the cattle but the inhabitants. In the islands, legions of ants have, at 
different times, consumed every vegetable production, and left the earth entirely bare, 
as if it had been burnt with fire. The damp forests and rank soil of the countries ou 
the banks of the Orinoco and Maragnon teem with almost every offensive and poisonous 
creature which the power of a sultry sun can quicken into life. Serpents and snakes 
abound greatly on the banks of the Mississippi: also the Alligator, a species of the 
crocodile, an amphibious and oviparous animal, extremely voracious, which is found 
in several rivers of America. Some alligators are of so monstrous a size as to exceed 
five yards in length. They are great destroyers of the fish, and are said sometimes to 
use address to inveigle their prey. Eight or ten, as it were by compact, draw up at 
the mouth of a river, or creek, where they lie with their mouths open, while others go 
a considerable way up the river, and drive the fish downward. 

The number of birds common to the old and new world is much greater than that 
of quadrupeds. The American birds of the torrid zone, like those of the same climate 
in Asia and Africa, are decked in plumage, which dazzles the eye with the vivid 
beauty of its colours ; but nature, satisfied with clothing them in this gay dress, has 
denied most of them that melody of sound and variety of notes which catches and de- 
lights the ear. The birds of the temperate climates there, in the same manner as in 
our continent, are less splendid in their appearance ; but in compensation for that de- 
fect, have all the power and sweetness of music in their voice. The birds of America 
generally exceed those of Europe in the beauty of their plumage, but are said to be 
much inferior to them in the melody of their notes. 

one 



British North America. 



697 



one half of the globe. About the same time the coast of 
North America was discovered by SEBASTIAN CABOT, a 
native of Bristol. 

The inhabitants of America when first discovered by the 
Europeans, were all in the most savage state, except those of 
Mexico and Peru, who had made some small progress in the arts 
of civilization, but in many respects were also quite unculti- 
vated. They knew nothing of letters, were wholly unacquainted 
with the use of iron, and had no horses, sheep, or oxen, nor 
any of the domestic animals of Europe. 

NORTH AMERICA is divided into three parts, British 
America, Independent America, or the United States, and 
Spanish America. 

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA includes, 

1. NEW BRITAIN, between 50 and 70 deg. N. lat. and 60 
and 100 deg. W. Ion. 1600 miles long, and 1200 broad. The 
north of it is called Labrador, and the south Esquimeaux. 

The country to the north of Hudson's Straits is called North 
Main; and on the west side of Hudson's Bay, New Wales, 
divided into north and south, where most of the English settle- 
ments are ; Port Neilson, Church-Hill, New Severn, and Albany : 
at the bottom of the bay, Fort Charles, Fort Rupert, and some 
others. 

The knowledge of these northern parts was owing to the 
attempts made to discover a north-west passage to China. The 
different adventurers have given their names to the places which 
they discovered ; as, Hudson's Bay, Davis 1 Straits, &c. 

The animals in this country are all covered with a close, soft, 
warm fur ; and in winter, which here lasts nine months, are 
said to assume a white colour \ which is the case also with 
animals carried thither from Europe. 

2. CANADA, or the province of Quebec, 800 miles long 
and 200 broad 5 between 45 and 52 deg. N. lat. and 61 and 
81 deg. W. Ion. The chief towns are, QUEBEC, 320 miles 
from the sea; and Montreal, 170 miles above Quebec. 
About half-way between them is Trois Rivieres, or the Three 
Rivers. 

In this country is produced the Beaver, a very surprising 
animal, of the amphibious kind, about four feet in length, and 
weighing 60 or 70 pounds, which builds its own habitation, 

and 



698 



North America, 



and provides food to serve i&elf during the winter, always in 
proportion to the severity of it. # 

3. NOVA SCOTIA, 350 miles long, and 250 broad ; be- 
tween 43 and 49 deg. N. lat. and 60 and 67 deg. W- long. The 
chief town is HALIFAX, on Chebucto Bay ; Annapolis, on 
Fundy Bay. This province was granted by James I. to his 
secretary Sir William Alexander, who gave it its present name. 
It was afterwards, for a long time, subject to the French, who 
called it Acadia. 

INDEPENDENT NORTH AMERICA (or The United 

States,) comprehends, 

1. NEW ENGLAND, 550 miles long, and 200 broad; 
between 41 and 49 deg. N. lat. and 67 and 74 W. Ion.; 
divided into four provinces, Massachusetts Bay : Chief towns, 
BOSTON, Salem, Newbery Port, Marblehead, Cape Anne, Ply- 
mouth, Dartmouth, and Cambridge, where there is an univer- 
sity, at present the first literary institution on this con- 
tinent, Morse. New Hampshire ; Portsmouth : 

Rhode Island, &c. Newport : and Connecticut : 

New London, Hertford.. The chief cape is Cape Cod : the chief 
river is Connecticut. There is a tract of country on the west 
of this river, and north of Massachusets, called VERMONT, 
which is a separate government in the United States. Its 
chief town is Bennington. 

* The ingenuity of the beavers in building their cabins, 2nd in providing them- 
selves subsistence, is truly wonderful. When they are about to choose a habitation, 
they assemble in companies, sometimes of two or three hundred, and after mature de- 
liberation, fix on a place where plenty of provisions, and all necessaries, are to be found. 
Their houses are always situate in the water, and when they C3ii find neither lake nor 
pond convenient, they supply the defect by stopping the current of some brook or small 
river. For this purpose they select a number ot trees, carefully taking those above the 
place where they intend to build, that they may swim down with the current, and 
placing themselves by threes or fours round each tree, soon fell them. By a continua- 
tion of the same labour, they cut the trees into proper lengths, and rolling them into 
the water navigate them to the place where they are to be used. After this they con- 
struct a dam, with as much solidity and regularity as the most experienced workmen 
could do. The formation of their cabins is no less remarkable. These cabins are 
built either on piles in the middle of the pond they have formed, on the bank of a 
river, or at the extremity of some point of land projecting into a lake. The figure of 
them is round or oval. Two thirds of each of them rise above the water, and this 
part is large enough to contain eight or ten inhabitants. They are contiguous to each 
other, so as to allow an easy communication. Each beaver has his place assigned him, 
the floor of which he curiously strews with leaves, rendering it clean and comfortable. 
The winter never surprises these animals before their business is completed ; for their 
houses are generally finished by the last of September, and their stock of provisions 
laid in, which consists of small pieces of wood, disposed in such manner as to preserve 
its moisture. Morse s Amei icon Geography, 

New 



United States, 



699 



New England was chiefly peopled by the Nonconformists, 
who fled from the oppressive government of Charles I. 

2. NEW YORK, 350 miles long, and 300 broad ; between 
40 and 46 deg. N. lat. and 72 and 76 deg. W. Ion. It was for 
some time in the possession of the Dutch, who called it New 
Holland. It was ceded to England at the peace of Breda, 1667, 
and got its present name from the then Duke of York. This 
province includes the island of Niw York, 1 2 miles long and 3 
broad; Long Island, about 140 miles long and 12 broad ^ 
and Staten Island, * 

The principal towns are NEW YORK, 40 40' N. lat. and 
74 deg. W. Ion. ; and about 150 miles above it, on Hudson's 
river, Albany ; north from which is Saratoga, f 

At the northern extremity of Lake George, which communi« 
cates with Lake Champlain, stood the Fort Ttconderoga. 

The chief cape is Sandy-Hook, near New York, at the entrance 
of Rariton river. 

3. NEW JERSEY, 160 miles long, and 60 broad ; between 
Hudson's river and the Delaware. It was given by Charles II. 
to his brother James Duke of York, who sold it to Lord Berkley 
and Sir George Carteret j the latter of whom having lands in 

* The Sound, which separates Long Island from the main land, is from three te 
twenty- five miles broad. Near the west end of it, about eight miles eastward of New 
York city, is the celebrated strait, called Hell-gate, remarkable for its whirlpools, 
which make a tremendous roaring at certain times of the tide, occasioned by the nar- 
rowness and crookedness of the pass, and a bed of rocks which extend quite across it , 
A skilful pilot, however, may with safety conduct a ship of any burden through this 
strait with the tide, or at still water with a fair wind. — York bay, which is nine miles 
long and four broad, spreads to the southward before the city of New York. It is 
formed by the confluence of the East and Hudson's rivers, and embosoms several small 
islands, of which Governor s island is the principal. It communicates with the ocean 
through the Narrows, between Staten and Long islands, which are scarcely two miles 
wide. The passage up to New York from Sandy- Hook is safe, and not above twenty 
miles in length. The common navigation is between the east and west banks, in about 
1% feet water. There is a light-house at Sandy-Hook on Jersey shore. HUD- 
SON'S river is one of the finest and largest rivers in the United States. It rises in the 
mountainous country between the lakes Ontario and Champlain. The length of its 
course is about 250 miles. The bed of this river, which is deep and smooth to an 
astonishing distance, through a hilly rocky country, and even through ridges of some 
of the highest mountains in the United States, appears to have been produced by some 
mighty convulsion in nature. The tide flows a few miles above Albany, which is 160 
miles from New- York. It is navigable for sloops of 80 tons to Albany, and to HUD- 
SON, (which is a town of late origin, 130 miles from New-York,) for vessels of any 
size. About sixty miles above New- York the water becomes fresh. — In the interior 
part of the country there is a lake called Salt Lake, because strongly impregnated 
with saline particles, from which the Indians make their salt. It empties into Sen eca 
river, which runs into Lake Ontario. 

f Near this Geneial Burgoyne and his army surrendered to the Americans under 
General Gates on the 17th of Oetober 1777, which gave occasion to the treaty with 
France. 

the 



100 



North America. 



the island of Jersey in Europe, gave this province that name. 
Chief towns, Burlington, Perth- Amboy, Trenton, and Prince- 
town, where there is a college, which was erected 1 746. 

4. PENNSYLVANIA, 300 miles long, and 240 broad ; 
between 33 and 44 deg. N. lat. and 74 and 81 deg. W. Ion. It 
has its name from William Penn, a Quaker, who first settled a 
colony in it in the reign of Charles II. and instituted the 
wisest laws for its regulation, a. 1682. He founded the city 
PHILADELPHIA on the Delaware > 100 miles from the sea, 
which is now the finest city in America. It has the Schuyl- 
kill on the south, which is also a navigable river. Canals run 
along all the streets, which communicate with both rivers. 
Other places of note are, Germantown, Chester, Oxford, Rad~ 
nor, &c. 

5. MARYLAND, about 140 miles long, and 130 broad ; 
between 75 and 80 deg. W. Ion. and 35 and 40 deg. N. lat. 

It is divided into two parts by the Chesapeak Bay, which 
runs up the country 300 miles, about eighteen miles broad for 
a considerable way, and seven where narrowest. At the bottom 
of it are Cape Charles on the north, and Cape Henry on the 
south, near the mouth of James river. 

This country was reckoned part of Virginia till 1632, when 
it was granted by Charles I. to Lord Baltimore, a Roman Ca- 
tholic, of the kingdom of Ireland. It was named Maryland^ 
in honour of Henrietta Mary, Charles's Queen. Its chief town 
is Annapolis. 

6. VIRGINIA, 750 miles long, and 240 broad ; between 
36 and 40 deg. N. lat. and 75 and 90 deg. W. Ion. separated from 
Maryland by the river Patowmac or Patomack. This country 
was first settled by Sir Walter Raleigh, who called it Virginia, 
in honour of Queen Elizabeth which name was formerly ap- 
plied to the whole coast of North America. Its principal article 
of commerce is tobacco. The places of note are, Williams- 
burg, Norfolk, James Town, and York Town, where Lord 
Cornwallis and his army surrendered to the united forces of 
France and America, commanded by General Washington, 19th 
October 1781. On the south bank of the Patomack river,. 
Alexandria ; nine miles below which is Mount Vernon, 
the seat of General Washington, on the same river ; where it 
is two miles wide, and about 280 miles from the sea- 
There is a fertile tract of country west from Virginia, lately 

settled, called KENTUCKY, from a river which runs into the 
Ohio; extending 250 miles in length, and 200 in breadth, from 
36 30' to 39® 30' N. lat. The chief towns are Lexington and 
Leestown. 

7. NORTH 



Spanish Noiih America, 



701 



7. NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, and 
GEORGIA, 700 miles long, and 380 broad; between 30 and 
37 deg. N. lat. and 76 and 91 deg. W. Ion. There is no town 
of consequence in North Carolina. CHARLESTOWN is the 
capital of South Carolina ; and Savannah of Georgia. Th» 
staple commodities are, rice, indigo, and the produce of the 
pine, pitch, tar, and turpentine. 

There is a very large tract of country, called the WESTERN 
TERRITORY, extending from the river OHIO, north-west, 
along the Missisippi, all the way to the Lake of the Woods, 
where the Americans have been for some years establishing set- 
tlements, which from the richness of the soil, and the many 
natural advantages it contains, promises in time to become a 
great state. Here are found in various places, coal-mines, salt- 
springs, inexhaustible quarries of free stone, lime, clay, &c. ; 
some rich mines of lead, and one of silver. 

LOUISIANA, an immense country, along the banks of 
the Missisippi, the limits of which are undetermined. The 
only place of note is the small town New Orleans, near the 
mouth of the Missisippi. This country was originally colonised 
by the French, by whom it was ceded to Spain in 1763. By 
late treaties it was restored to the French, and while France 
was under the dominion of Buonaparte, Louisiana was sold to 
the United States, to whose territories it now appertains. But 
this transfer is a subject still in dispute between the present 
government of Spain and the United States. 

SPANISH NORTH AMERICA comprehends, 

1. EAST and WEST FLORIDA, 500 miles long and 440 
broad; between 25 and 32 deg. N. lat. and 81 and 91 deg. W. 
long. The capital of the former is St, Augustine, and of the 
latter, Pensacola. 

2. NEW MEXICO, and CALIFORNIA, 2000 miles long, 
and 1600 broad ; between 23 and 43 deg. N. lat. and 94 and 
126 deg. W. Ion. The capital of the former is Santa Fe, and 
of the latter St. Juan. The country north of this is quite 
unknown. 

3. OLD MEXICO * or NEW SPAIN, 2000 miles long, and 

600 

* Manners and Customs of the Natives of Mexico and Peru. 



The people of Mexico and Peru, particularly the latter, had made considerable 
progress in civilization, compared to the rude tribes of America , but were still vastly 

ti . inferior 



702 



North America, 



600 in its greatest breadth ; between 8 and 30 deg. N. lat. and 
83 and 1 10 deg. W. Ion. Its capital, MEXICO, situate in the 
centre of a lake, carries on a trade with Europe, by La Vera 
Cruz, and with the East Indies and South America, by Aca- 
pulco. The principal commodities are, the cocoa or cacao 
nut, cochineal, gold, and silver, and precious stones. The in- 
terior 



inferior to the polished nations of the ancient continent. They were both totally 
unacquainted with the useful metals, and had tam^d few of the inferior animals. 
The Mexicans only reared ducks, turkies, a specie, of small dogs, and rabbils, but 
had made no attempt to subdue the more robust animals. The Peruvians had tamed 
the L/ama, an animal peculiar to their country, of a form which bears some resem- 
blance to a deer, and some to a camel ; of a .size somewhat larger than a sheep. Its 
wool furnished them with cloathing, and its flesh served them for food. It was even 
employed as a beast of burden, and carried a moderate load with much patience and 
docility. 

The government of Mexico was an elective monarchy. Montezuma was said to be 
the ninth who had swayed the sceptre. The rights of private property were ascertained, 
*nd a diversity of ranks established similar to what prevailed in the feudal states of the 
old world. The choice of the monarch seems originally to have been vested in the 
whole body of the nobility, but was afterwards committed to six electors, who gene- 
rally chose some relation of the former so\ ereign. The authority of the monarch, al- 
though limited, was extensive. His palace was magnificent, and his court splendid. 
His subjects approached him with the most submissive reverence : they durst net lift 
their eyes from the ground before him, nor look him in the face. The people were 
obliged to shew a similar respect to the nobles, although in a less degree. Justice is 
said to have been administered with equity. Taxes were imposed according to esta- 
blished rules, on land, on the acquisitions of industry, and upon commodities of every 
kind exposed to sale in the public markets. As the use of money was unknown, all 
the taxes were paid in kind. Thus the natural productions of all the different pro- 
vinces in the empire, and manufactures of every kind, were collected in the public 
storehouses; whence the Emperor supplied his numerous attendants in time of peace, 
and his armies in time of war. Those who had no property were bound to the per- 
formance of various services. In place of money, the Mexicans made use of cacao- 
nuts as a standard of value in buying or selling commodities of small price; because 
chocolate, which was made of these nuts, was the favourite drink of persons ol all 
ranks. 

The Mexicans had made considerable progress in the improvements of police, and 
also in the arts. They had public couriers stationed at proper intervals, to convey 
intelligence from one part of the empire to the other, an institution which was not at 
that period introduced into any kingdom of Europe. They represented men, animals, 
and other objects, by such a disposition of various coloured feathers, as is said to 
have produced all the effects of light and shade, and to have imitated nature with 
truth and delicacy. Their ornaments of gold and <ilver are described as having been 
no less curious. But no specimens exist which arswer to these descriptions. The most 
wonderful invention of the Mexicans was their preservi-i? the memory of past evei-ts, 
and conveying intelligence of tiansactions from a distance, by painting objects and 
figures on white cloth. In this manner the ambassadors of Montezuma notified to him 
the arrival of Cortes and the Spaniards. The nearest approach, however,, which they 
had made to the discovery ot letters, was their representing numbers by artificial marks. 
The figure of a circle denoted unit, and in small numbers the computation was made 
by repeating it. Larger numbers were expressed by a peculiar mark, and they had su.h 
as marked all integral numbers from twenty to eight thousand.-— The Mexicans divided 

their 

9t 



Spanish North America. 70S 

terior of this country is in a state of insurrection against the 
King of Spain. 

The empire of Mexico was subdued by the famous FER- 
NANDO CORTEZ, who was sent on this expedition by 
Velasquez, governor of Cuba, 15 19. Cortez landed with only 
600 men, 1 8 horses, and a few field pieces. 

The appearance of the Spaniards spread universal consterna- 
tion. Their ships, their horses, their iron armour, and above 

all, 



their year into eighteen months, each consisting of twenty days, amounting in all to 360, 
and added five supernumerary or waste days, as they termed them, at the end of the 
year, to make it answer to the course of the sun. On these five days no work was 
done, nor any sacred rite performed : they were devoted wholly to festivity and pas- 
time. — The Mexicans are said to have had a great number of cities. There was among 
them a separation of professions, and particular trades were carried on by different 
persons; as that of the mason, the weaver, the goldsmith, the painter, &c. Each was re- 
gularly instructed in his calling, and to it alone his industry was confined. According 
to the distinction of ranks established in Mexico the great body of the people was in a 
most humiliating state. A considerable number called Mayeques, nearly resembled in 
condition those peasants in Europe who, under various denominations were considered, 
during the prevalence of the feudal system, as instruments of labour attached to the 
soil. Others were reduced to the lowest form of subjection, that of domestic servitude» 
and felt the utmost rigour of that wretched state. Even those considered as freemen, 
were treated by their haughty lords as beings of an inferior species. — The nobles, pos- 
sessed of ample territories, were divided into various classes, to each of which particular 
titles of honour belonged. Some of these titles, like their lands, descended from father 
to son in perpetual succession. Others were annexed to particular offices, or confer- 
red during life by the monarch, as marks of personal distinction. 

From these particulars, one should imagine the Mexicans to have made considerable 
progress in refinement; but in other respects they differed little from the rudest tribes 
of their neighbours. Like them, they were incessantly engaged in war, and seem t» 
have been prompted to hostility by the same motives. They fought to gratify their 
vengeance, by shedding the blood of their enemies. In battle, they were chiefly intent 
on taking prisoners, and it was by the number of these that they estimated the glory of 
victory. No captive was ever ransomed or spared. All were sacrificed without mercy, 
and their flesh devoured with the same barbarous joy, as among the fiercest savages. On 
some occasions it rose to even wilder excesses. Their principal warriors covered them- 
selves with the skins of the unhappy victims, and danced about the streets, boasting or 
their own valour, and exulting over their enemies. This ferocity of character pre- 
vailed among all the nations of New Spain. Their funeral rites were equally 

bloody. On the death of any distinguished personage, especially of the Emperor, a 
certain number of his attendants were selected to attend him to the other world, and 
those unfortunate victims were put to death without mercy, and buried in the same 
tomb. Their gloomy religious notions served to increase their cruelty. Their di- 
vinities were clothed with terror, and delighted in vengeance. They were exhibited 
to the people under detestable forms, which created horror. The figures of serpents,, 
of tygers, and other destructive animals, decorated their temples. Fear was the only 
principle that inspired their votaries. Fasts, mortifications, and penances, all rigid, and 
many of them excruciating to an extreme degree, were the means employed to appease 
the wrath of their gods, and the Mexicans never approached their altars, without 
sprinkling them with blood drawn from their own bodies.. But, of all offerings, hu- 
man sacrifices were deemed the most acceptable* 



70* 



North America* 



all, their artillery, made the natives imagine them something 
more than human. Cortez having got admission into the ca- 
pital, which is said to have then contained 6o,ooo families, 
had the boldness and address to make its Emperor MONTE- 
ZUMA, the most powerful monarch in the new world, a pri- 
soner, in the midst of his own guards. This unhappy Prince, 
being afterwards obliged to shew himself, in order to quell an in- 
surrection of his subjects against the Spaniards, was wounded on 

the 



The empire of PERU was said to have existed longer than that of Mexico. The 
Peruvians kept an account of time, together with a register of the number of inhabi- 
tants in each province, and of the several productions collected there for public use, by 
means of knots on cords of different colours, called QU1POS. By the various colours, 
different objects were denoted, and by each knot, a distinct number. This mode was 
greatly inferior to the paintings and symbols or the picture-ivritin^ as it may be called, 
of the Mexicans. Hardly any of these quipos or knotted cord's now remain. They 
were almost all destroyed by the Spanish conquest, and the civil wars subsequent to it. 
Some remnants of the Mexican paintings still exist, although not so many as might 
have been expected. The Peruvians ascribed all their improvements to MANCO CA- 
PAC, called the INCA, and his consort MAMA OCOLLO, who pretended to be 
she children of the Sun, and delivered their instructions in his name, and by his 
authority. The Inca assumed not only the character of a legislator, hut of a messenger 
from heaven : hence his precepts were received not merely as the injunctions of a su- 
perior, but as the mandates of the Deity. His race was held to be sacred ; and in order 
to preserve it distinct, without being polluted by any mixture of less noble blood, the 
sons of Manco Capac married their own sisters and no person was ever admitted to 
the throne, who could not claim it by such a pure descent. To those Children of the 
Sun, for that was the appellation bestowed upon all the offspring of the first Inca, the 
people looked up with the reverence due tobeings of asuperior order. They were deemed 
to be under the immediate protection of the Deity, from whom they issued, and by him 
every order of the reigning Inca was supposed to be dictated. This persuasion ren- 
dered the power of the Inca very absolute, and every crime committed against him was 
punished capitally. The system of superstition on which the Incaj founded their pre- 
tensions to such high authority, was of a genius very different from that established 
among the Mexicans. Manco Capac turned the veneration of his followers entirely 
towards natural objects. The Sun, as the great source of light, of joy, and fertility, at- 
tracted their principal homage. The moon and stars, ns co-operating with him, received 
secondary honours. They offered to the Sun a part of those productions which his ge- 
nial warmth had called forth from the bosom of the earth, and reared to maturity. 
They sacrificed, as an oblation of gratitude, some of the animals which were indebted 
to his influence for nourishment. They presented to him choice specimens of those 
works of ingenuity, which his light had guided the hand of man in forming. But the 
Incas never stained his altars with human blood, nor could they conceive, that their be- 
neficent father, the Sun, would be delighted with such horrid victims. Thus, the national 
character of the Peruvians became more gentle than that of any people in America. 
This was particularly conspicuous in their wars ; they fought not like savages, to destroy 
and exterminate; nor like the Mexicans, toglut blood-thirsty divinities with human sacri- 
fices; they conquered in order to reclaim and civilize the vanquished, and to diffuse the 
knowledge of their own institutions and arts. Prisoners seem not to have been exposed to 
the insults and tortures, which were their lot in every other part of the New World. The 
Incas took the people whom they conquered under their protection, and admitted them 

tP 



Spanish North America, 705 



the head by a stone from an unknown hand, of which he died in 
a few days. GUATIMOZIN, his nephew and son-in-law, was 
chosen to succeed 5 who, after a brave resistance, being entirely 
routed and made prisoner by Cortes, was at first treated by 

him 



to a participation of all the advantages enjoyed by their original subjects. The 
idols of every conquered province were carried in triumph to the great temple 
at Cuzco, and placed there as trophies of the superior power of the divinity, 
who was the protector of the empire. The people were treated with lenity, 
and instructed in the religious tenets of their new masters, that the conqueror 
might have the glory of having added to the number of the votaries of his father the 
Sun. 

The lands were divided into three shares. One was consecrated to the Sun, and 
the product of it applied to the building of temples and other religious purposes ; the 
second belonged to the Inca, and was allotted to the services of the state ; the third 
and largest share was reserved for the maintenance of the people, among whom it was 
parcelled out, and divided anew every year, in proportion to the rank, the num- 
ber, and exigencies of each family. All those lands were cultivated by the 
joint industry of the community. The people, summoned by a proper officer, 
repaired in a body to the fields, and performed their common task, while songs and 
musical instruments cheered them to their labour. — There was great inequality of con- 
dition among the Peruvians, who were divided into three orders, nobles, free-men, and 
slaves. 

The arts were carried to a much greater degree of improvement in Peru than in 
Mexico. Agriculture was more extensive, and carried on with greater skill. Of 
course there was greater plenty of provisions. The Peruvians enriched the soil by 
manuring it with the dung of sea-fowl, and conveyed a regular supply of moisture to 
the fields by artificial canals. The use of the plough, indeed, was unknown. They 
turned up the earth with a kind of mattock of hard wood ; and both sexes joined in 
performing the work. Even the children of the Sun set an example of industry, by 
cultivating a field near Cuzco with their own hands ; and they dignified this function 
by calling it their triumph over the earth. 

The houses, and particularly the temples of the Peruvians, were greatly superior 
in their structure to any thing of the kind in America. Many monuments of them 
still remain, while hardly a vestige of the edifices of the other American states is to be 
seen. But the noblest and most useful works of the Incas, were two public roads from 
Cuzco to Quito, extending in an uninterrupted stretch, above five hundred leagues, 
the one through the interior and mountainous country, the other through the plains 
on the sea-coast. At proper distances, Tambos or storehouses were erected for the ac- 
commodation of the Inca and his attendants, in their progress through his dominions. 
Over brooks and torrents, which roll from the Andes into the Western ocean, they 
contrived to make bridges by means of strong cables, which they formed by twisting 
together some of the pliable withes or oziers, with which their country abounds. Six 
of these cables they stretched across the stream parallel to one another, and made them 
fast on each side, then they bound them firmly together by interweaving smaller ropes 
so close as to form a compact piece of net-work, which, being covered with branches 
of trees and earth, they passed along it with tolerable security. Proper persons were 
appointed at each bridge, to keep it in repair, and to assist passengers. In the level 
country, where the rivers became deep, and broad and still, they were passed in 
Balzas or floats, on which the Peruvians raised a mast and spread a sail, a thing never 
attempted by any other of the American tribes, who were totally ignorant both of 
public ways and bridges. — —The Peruvians were also more ingenious than their 
neighbours, in procuring the precious metals. They obtained gold in the same man- 

Z 2 ner 

I 



706 



North America. 



him with humanity ; but upon an application of the Spanish 
soldiers, he was basely subjected to the torture, together with 
his chief favourite, in order to force from them a discovery of 
the royal treasures, which it was supposed they had concealed. 

Guatimozin 



ner with the Mexicans, by searching for it in the channels of rivers, or washing the 
earth in which particles of it were contained. But in order to procure silver, they 
hollowed deep caverns on the banks of rivers and sides of mountains, and emptied 
such veins as did not dip suddenly below their reach. They had discovered the art 
«f smelting and refining silver, and many of the utensils which they used ill common 
life were rmde of silver. Several of these are said to have been remarkable for the 
neatness of their workmanship, but most of them were melted down by the ignorant 
and rapacious conquerors of that country. Many other specimens of the in- 
genuity of the Peruvians have been dug out of their Guacas, or mounds of earth, 
with which they covered the bodies of their dead; such as mirrors of various dimen- 
sions, made of hard shining stones highly polished ; vessels of earthen ware of dif- 
ferent forms; hatchets, and other instruments, some destined for war and others tor 
labour. Some were of flint, some of copper, hardened to such a degree, by an un- 
known process, as to supply the place of iron on several occasions. These, however, 
were but few, and little used. 

Although the Peruvians excelled the Mexicans, and all the other American tribes, 
in the arts of peace, yet they were greatly inferior to them in warlike courage. The 
greater part of the rude nations of America opposed their invaders with undaunted 
ferocity, though with little conduct or success. The Mexicans maintained the 
struggle in defence of their liberties with such persevering fortitude, that it was 
with difficulty the Spaniards triumphed over them. Peru was subdued at once, 
and almost without resistance ; and the most favourable opportunities of regaining 
their freedom, and of crushing their oppressors, were lost through the timidity of 
the people. The Indians of Peru are now more tame and depressed than any people 

in America. There are also some other circumstances in which the Peruvians 

were inferior to the Mexicans. They had no cities, except Cuzco. Every 
where else, the people lived mostly in detached habitations, dispersed over the 
country, or, at the utmost, settled together in small villages. In - consequence 
of this, the different trades and professions were not so completely separated in 
Peru as in Mexico, and there was much less commercial intercourse among the in- 
habitants. 

The Peruvians, notwithstanding their character for gentleness in general, had the 
cruel custom, upon the death of their Incas, and of other eminent persons, of putting 
to death a considerable number of their attendants, and interring them around their 
guacas, that they might appear in the next world with their former dignity, and be 
served with the same respect. On the death of Huana Capac, the most powerful of 
their monarchs, above a thousand victims were deomed to accompany him to the 

tomb. In one particular the Peruvians appear to have been more barbarous than 

the most rude tribes. Though acquainted with the use of fire in preparing maize 
and other vegetables for food, they devoured both flesh and fish perfectly raw, 
and astonished the Spaniards with a practice repugnant to the ideas of all civilized 
people. 

Mexico and Peru, ami all the other Spanish dominions in America, are ruled 
by viceroys or governors sent from Spain, who possess supreme authority, and 
live in great splendour. Their courts are formed upon the model of that at 
Madrid, with horse and foot guards, a household regularly established, nume- 
rous attendants, and ensigns of command, displaying such magnificence, as hardly 
retains the appearance of delegated authority. There used to be only two supreme 

governors, 



Spanish Noi~th America. 



707 



Guatimozin bore whatever the refined cruelty of his tormentors 
could inflict, with the invincible fortitude of an American 
warrior. His fellow-sufferer, overcome by the violence of the 
anguish, turned a dejected eye towards his master, which 

seemed 



governors, tlie viceroy of New Spain, who resided at Mexico, and of Peru, who re- 
sided at Lima. The former governed alt the Spanish provinces in North America 
and the latter those in South America. But each of these governments having been 
found too extensive for the superintendance of one man, a third viceroyaky has been 
established in the present century, at Santa Fe de Bogota, the capital of New 
Granada, the jurisdiction of which extends over the whole kingdom of Terra 
Firma and the province of Quito. A fourth viceroyaky was erected, a. 1776, 
to which are subjected the provinces of Rio de la Plata, Buenos Ayres, Paraguay, 
Potosi, &c. The viceroys appoint various officers tinder them. Justice is ad- 
ministered by certain courts or tribunals, called AUDIENCES, whose sentences 
are final in ordinary litigations ; but in causes of great importance, their decisions 
are subject to review, and may be carried by appeal before the royal council of 
the Indies in Spain, in which is vested the supreme government of all the Spanish 
dominions in America. As the king is supposed to be always present in this council, 
its meetings are held in the place where he resides. As the Spanish viceroys are 
invested with so great authority, their power is commonly limited to a few- 
years. 

By the cruelty of the Spaniards, and still more by their unwise policy, the 
number of the ancient inhabitants in rheir American provinces was miserably 
reduced : and this depopulation was still farther encreased by famine, and by 
the introduction of the small-pox, a malady unknown in America, and extremely 
fatal to the natives. In the islands, and along the continent from the Gulf 
of Trinidad or Orinoco, to the confines of Mexico, several tribes were, by 
cruelty and oppression, altogether extinguished. Prudent regulations have since 
been made for the protection of the natives; but it will require a long time 
to restore to those countries their former state of population. The number 
of Spaniards settled in America was, for a considerable time, but small. 
About sixty years after the discovery of the New World, there were not above 
fifteen thousand in all the provinces. The property of the colonies being engrossed 
by a few individuals, chiefly by the descendants of the conquerors, who each of them 
possessed large tracts of country ; and the imposition of church tithes, which uni- 
versally took piace, together with other taxes, were very unfavourable to popula- 
tion. ; The principal object of the Spanish monarchs was, to secure the produc- 
tions of the colonies to the parent state, by an absolute prohibition of any intercourse 
with foreign nations. Even the commercial intercourse of one colony with another, 
was either absolutely prohibited, or limited by many jealous restrictions. All 
that America yields flows into the ports of Spain ; all that it consumes must 
issue from them. No foreigner can enter its colonies vvithout express permis- 
sion; no vessel of any foreign nation is received into their harbours; and the 
pains of death, with confiscation of moveables, are denounced against every in- 
habitant who presumes to trade with them. This commercial dependence of 
distant colonies on the mother country, which the Spaniards first introduced, is 
without example in the history of ancient nations, among whom colonies were 
either migrations, which served to disburden a state of its supernumerary inhabitants, 
or military detachments, stationed as garrisons in a conquered province. Spain, 
by a jealous government, and by the hand of power, has now for near 
three centuries maintained its dominion over a tract of territory more extensive 
than ever was possessed by any state at so great a distance from the mother 
country. 

Z z 1 The 



708 



North America, 



seemed to implore permission to reveal all that he knew. But 
the high-spirited monarch, darting on him a look of authority, 
mingled with scorn, checked his weakness, by asking, " Am I 
now reposing on a bed of flowers ?" Overawed by the re- 
proach, 



The inhabitants of the Spanish provinces of America may be divided into 
five classes. — Z. The Spaniards from Europe, called Cbapetones, who possess all the 
offices of trust and power, and consequently hold the first rank, which increases their 
natural haughtiness of character. — 2. The descendants of Europeans settled in 
America, called Creoles^ who are said to be enervated by luxury, and debased by 
superstition. — 3. The offspring either of an European and a Negroe, or of an Euro- 
pean and an Indian, the former called Mulattoes, the latter Mestizos ; of whom those 
of the first generation are considered and treated as Indians and Negroes; but in the 
third descent, the characteristic hue of the former disappears; and in the fifth, the 
deeper tint of the latter is so entirely effaced, that they can no longer be distinguished 
from Europeans, and become entitled to all their privileges. It is chiefly by this mixed 
race, whose frame is remarkably robust and hardy, that the mechanic arts are carried 
on, and other active functions in society are discharged, which the two higher 
classes of citizens, from pride or from indolence, disdain to exercise. — 4. Negroes 
from Africa, chiefly employed in domestic service, who form a principal part 
in the train of luxury, and are cherished and caressed by their superiors, to whose 
vanity and pleasures they are equally subservient. Their dress and appearance are 
hardly less splendid than that of their masters, whose manners they imitate, and 
whose passions they imbibe. Elevated by this distinction, they have assumed such a 
tone of superiority over the Indians, and treat them with such insolence and scorn, 
that the antipathy between the two races has become implacable. The laws have in- 
dustriously fomented this aversion, and, by most rigorous injunctions, have endea- 
voured to prevent every intercourse that might form a bond of union between them. 
Thus, by an artful policy, the Spaniards derive strength from that circumstance in 
population, which is the weakness of other European colonies, and have secured as 
associates and defenders, those very persons, who elsewhere are objects of jealousy and 
terror. • 5. The Indians form the last and most depressed order of men in the coun- 
try which belonged to their ancestors. By the regulations of Charles V. 1542, the 
Indians were considered as slaves, to whose service the Spaniards had obtained a full 
right by conquest. They were reckoned to be of an inferior species, both with respect 
to the powers of mind and body, and therefore were treated with a degree of indignity 
as well as cruelty, the detail of which is shocking to humanity. These regulations 
have since been abrogated; and the Indians admitted into the rank of freemen. At 
the same time a capitation tax was imposed on every male from the age of eighteen to 
fifty, and certain services exacted, particularly that of working in the mines. The 
Indians who live in the principal towns are entirely subject to the Spanish laws and 
magistrates ; but in their own villages, they are governed by Caziques, some of whom 
are the descendants of their ancient chiefs, others are named by the Spanish viceroys. 
Although the tax be moderate, and the Indians can only be called out to work alter- 
nately in divisions termed Mitas, not exceeding the seventh part of the inhabitants in 
any district, yet grievous oppressions are often exercised. This however is not general. 
In many places the Indians are now treated with gentleness, and enjoy not only ease, 
but affluence. Little progress has been made in converting them to Christianity. The 
same superstition and number of monastic institutions prevail in the Spanish settle- 
ments of America as in the mother country, and are productive of still more perni- 
cious effects. Many of the Spanish cities of America are now become populous and 
flourishing. Mexico is supposed to contain above 150,000 inhabitants ; Puebla de Its 
Angeles > 6o,OCO ; 54,000; Cartbagena, 25,000 ; ^0/0/1,25,000; Guadalaxara, 

4 f 3°^oo ; 



Spanish North. America. 



709 



proach, he persevered in his dutiful silence, and expired. Cor- 
tes, ashamed of a scene so horrid, rescued the royal victim from 
the hands of his torturers ; but some time after, on pretence of 
a conspiracy, ordered him to be hanged, together with two of 
his principal caziques or noblemen. 

• SOUTH 



30,000; Popayan, ao,ooo ; Guaqu\l> from 16 to 20,000; Cizenza, between 35 and 
30,000; &c. 

The quantity of gold and silver found in the mountains of the New World astonish- 
ed the inhabitants of Europe, who had formerly been very scantily supplied with the 
precious metals from the mines of the ancient hemisphere. The sura regularly en- 
tered in the ports of Spain is equal in value to four millions sterling annually, reckon- 
ing at a medium from the year 1492, in which America was discovered : which, in 
300 years, amounts to twelve hundred millions. Spanish writers affirm, that as 
much more ought to be added to the sum, in consideration of the treasure extracted 
from the mines without paying duty to the king. But this influx of money instead 
of being advantageous, proved very hurtful to Spain. The rage of emigrating to the 
New World drained it of inhabitants; and the vast accumulation of adventitious 
wealth, discouraged agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, the only sources of 
real opulence. The long wars of Philip II. and the impolitic bigotry of his suc- 
cessor, which expelled near one million of his most industrious subjects, (the Moors,) 
a. 161 1, served to aggravate these evils. " Early in the seventeenth century, Spain 
felt such a diminution in the number of her people, that, from inability to recruit 
her armies, she was obliged to contract her operations. Her flourishing manufactures 
were fallen into decay. Her fleets, which had been the terror of all Europe, were 
ruined. Her extensive foreign commerce was lost. The trade between different 
part3 of her own dominions was interrupted ; and the ships which attempted to carry 
it on were taken and plundered by enemies, which she once despised (the Dutch). 
Even agriculture, the primary object of industry in every prosperous state, was ne- 
glected, and one of the most fertile countries in Europe, hardly raised what was suf- 
ficient for the support of its own inhabitants." Dr. Robertsons History of America, 

vol. Hi. /.36a. 2>vo. Thus Spain, thinned of people and void of industry, was 

no longer able to supply her colonies with the articles which they wanted ; so that, 
notwithstanding her severe prohibitions against a contraband trade, which still remain 
unrepealed, she was obliged to wink at her merchants introducing into her co- 
lonies the manufactures of England, the Low Countries, of Italy and France, as their 
own property. " In a short time not a twentieth part of the commodities exported to 
America was of Spanish growth or fabric. All the rest was the property of foreign 
merchants, though entered in the name of Spaniards. The treasures of the New 
World may be said henceforward not to belong to Spain. Before it reached Europe it 
was anticipated as the price of goods purchased from foreigners. That wealth which, 
by an internal circulation, should have spread through each vein of industry, and 
have conveyed life and activity to every branch of manufacture, flowed out of the 
kingdom with such a rapid course, as neither enriched nor animated it. On the other 
hand, the artisans of other nations, encouraged by this quick sale of their commodi- 
ties, improved so much in skill and industry, as to be able te afford them at a rate 
so low, that the manufactures of Spain, which could not vie with theirs either in 
quality or cheapness of work, were still farther depressed. This destructive com- 
merce drained off the riches of the nation faster and more completely than even the 
extravagant schemes of ambition carried on by its monarchs. Spain was so much asto- 
nished and distressed at beholding her American treasures vanish almost as soon as they 
were imported, that Philip III. unable to supply what was requisite in circulation* 

Zz 3 issued 



710 



South America. 



SOUTH AMERICA is divided into the following parts, of 
which the first four belong to Spain. 

I. TERRA F1RMA, 1400 miles long, and 700 broad; be- 
tween the equator and 12 deg. N. lat. and 60 and 82 deg. W. 

Ion. 

issued an edict, by which he endeavoured to raise copper-money to a value in currency 
nearly equal to that of silver; and the lord of the Peruvian and Mexican mines was 
reduced to a wretched expedient, which is the last resource of petty impoverished 
states." Ibid. 

These difficulties were increased by the regulations established about the mode of 
carrying on the intercourse between the mother country and the colonies. In order to 
secure the monopoly at which she aimed, Spain did n< t vest the trade with her colo- 
nies in an exclusive company, according to the plan of the Dutch with their colonies, 
both in the East and West Indies; whose example was followed by the English, the 
French, and the Danes, with respect so the East-India commerce ; and by the two 
former, in some branches of their trade to the New World : — a plan which has been 
thought by the best judges very unfavourable to the progress of industry and popula- 
tion in a new colony. Smith's Inquiry, ii. 171. 

Spain, it is probable, was preserved from falling into this error in policy, by the 
high ideas which she early formed concerning the riches of the New World. Gold 
and silver were commodities of too high value to vest a monopoly of them in private 
hands. The crown wished to retain the direction of a commerce so inviting ; and in 
order to secure that, ordained the cargo of every ship fitted out for America, to be 
inspected by the officers of the Casa dc Gontratacion in Seville, btfore it could receive 
a licence to make the voyage ; and that ©n its return, a report of the commodities 
which it brought, should be made to the same board, before it could be permitted to 
land them. In consequence of this regulation, all the trade of Spain with the New 
World centered in the port of Seville, and was gradually brought into a form, in which 
it has been conducted with little variation, from the middle of the sixteenth century 
almost to our own times. For the greater security of the valuable cargoes- sent to 
America, as well as for the more easy prevention of fraud, the commerce of Spain 
with its colonies is carried on by fleets, which sail under strong convoys. These 
fleets, consisting of two squadrons, one distinguished by the name of Galleons, the 
other by that of the Flota, are equipped annually. Formerly they took their departure 
from Seville ; but as the port of Cadiz has been found more commodious, they have 
sailed from it since the year 1720. 

The Galleons destinrd to supply Terra Firma, and the kingdoms of Peru and Chili, 
with almost every article of luxury, or necessary consumption, that an opulent people 
can demand, touch first at Carthagena, and then at Porto- bello. To the former the 
merchants of Santa Martha, Caraccas, the New Kingdom of Granada, and several 
other provinces resort. The latter is the great mart for the rich commerce of Peru 
and Chili. At the season when the Galleons are expected, the produce of all the 
mines in these two kingdoms, together with their other valuable commodities, is 
transported by sea to Panama. From thence, as soon as the appearance of the fleet 
from Europe is announced, they are conveyed across the isthmus, paitly on mules, and 
partly down the river Chagre to Porto-bello. This paltry village, whose climate, from 
the pernicious union of excessive heat, continual moisture, and the putrid exhalations 
arising from a rank soil, is more fiital to life than any perhaps in the known world, 
x immediately filled with people. From being the residence of a tew negroes and mu- 
lattoes, and of a miserable garrison relieved every three months, its streets are 
crowded with opulent merchants from every comer of Peru, and the adjacent 
provinces. A fair is opened, the wealth of America is exchanged for the ma- 
nufactures of Europe, and during its prescribed term of forty days, the richest traffic 

OS 



Terra Firma. 



711 



Ion. It got this name, because it was the first part of the con- 
tinent discovered by Columbus. It was afterwards subdued 
and settled by the Spaniards under BALBOA, 1513. Its 
chief towns are, Porto-Bello and Carthagena, on the 

Atlantic j 



on the face of the earth is begun and finished with that simplicity of transaction and 
unbounded confidence, which accompany extensive commerce. The Flota holds its 
course to Vera Cruz. The treasures and commodities of New Spain and the depend- 
ing provinces, which were deposited at Puebla de los Angeles, in expectation of its 
arrival, are carried thither, and the commercial operations of Vera Cruz, conducted 
in the same manner with those of Pnrto-bello, are inferior to them only in im- 
portance and value. Both fleets, as soon as they have completed their cargoes from 
America, rendezvous at the Havanna, and return in company to Europe. 

The trade of Spain with her colonies, while thus fettered and restricted, came ne- 
cessarily to be conducted with the same spirit, and upon the same principles, as that 
of an exclusive company. Being confined to a single port, it was of course throwninto 
a few hands, and almost the whole of it was gradually engrossed by a small number of 
wealthy houses, formerly in Seville, and now in Cadiz. These, by combinations, 
which they can easily form, may altogether prevent that competition which preserves 
commodities at their natural price ; and by acting in concert, to which they are 
prompted by their mutual interest, they may raise or lower the value of them at plea- 
sure. In consequence of this, the price of European goods in America is always high, 
and often exorbitant. A hundred, two hundred, and even three hundred per cent, 
are profits not uncommon in the commerce of Spain with her colonies. From the 
same ingrossing spirit it frequently happens, that traders of the second order, whose 
warehouses do not contain a complete assortment of commodities for the American 
market, cannot purcnase from the more opulent merchants such goods as they want at 
a lower price than that for which they are sold in the colonies. With the same vigi- 
lant jealousy that an exclusive company guards against the intrusion of the free trader, 
those overgrown monopolists endeavour to check the progress of every one whose en- 
croachments th^y dread. Robertsons History of America, hi. 368. This restraint of 
the American commerce to one port, not only affects its domestic state, but limits its 
foreign operations. — Instead of furnishing the colonies with European goods in such 
quantity as might render both the price and the profit moderate, the merchants of 
Seville and Cadiz seem to have supplied them with a sparing hand, that the eagerness 
of competition among customers obliged to purchase in a scanty market, might enable 
their factors to dispose of their cargoes with exorbitant gain. About the middie of the 
last century, when the exclusive trade to America from Seville was in its most flou- 
rishing state, the burden of the two united squadrons of the Galleons and Flota did 
not exceed 27,500 tons. The supply which such a fleet could carry, must have been 
very inadequate to the demands of those populous and extensive colonies, which de- 
pended upon it for all the luxuries, and many of the necessaries of life. Ib. 

Various schemes were proposed for remedying the pernicious consequences of this 
plan, but without effect. The evil went on increasing till after the beginning of last 
century, when the house of Bourbon succeeded to the crown. Philip V. used the 
most vigorous measures to check the encroachments of foreigners on the trade of 
Spain ; but his intentions were frustrated by an article in the treaty of Utrecht, 
by which the contract for supplying the Spanish colonies with negroes, called the 
ASSIENTO, which had formerly been enjoyed by France, was transferred to Britain, 
with the more extraordinary privilege of sending annually to the fair of Porto- bello, a 
ship of 500 tons, laden with European commodities; in consequence of which, British 
factories were established at Carthagena, Panama, Vera Cruz, Buenos Ayres, and 
<*ther Spanish settlements, under the direction of the Assiente, or: British South &ca 

Zz 4 Company^ 



712 



South America. 



Atlantic *, and Panama on the Pacific ; where are held annual 
fairs for American, Indian, and European commodities.* The 
district of Caraccas in this region is in a state of rebellion 
against Spain, which will probably terminate in its complete 
independence. 

2. PERU, 

Company, as it was wiled. This privilege was greatly abused. Instead of a ship of 
500 tons, as stipulated in the treaty, they usually employed one which exceeded 900 
tons in burden. She was attended by two or three smaller vessels, which mooring in 
some neighbouring creek, supplied her clandestinely with fresh bales of goods, to re- 
place such as were sold. The inspectors of the fair, and officers of the revenue, 
gained by exorbitant presents, connived at the fraud. Thus, partly by the operations 
of the company, and partly by the activity of private interlopers, almost the whole 
trade of Spanish America was engrossed by foreigners. The immense commerce of 
the Galleons, formerly the pride of Spain, and the envy of other nations, sunk to 
nothing, and the squadron itself, reduced from 15,000 tons to 2,000 tons, served 
hardly any purpose, but to fetch home the royal revenue arising from the fifth on 

silver. To check these encroachments, ships of force called Guarda Coitas, were 

stationed upon the coast of those provinces to which interlopers most frequently re- 
sorted. The acts of violence committed by them on the ships of the British merchants 
excited murmurs and complaints, which precipitated Great Britain into a war with 
Spain, a. 1739; in consequence of which Spain obtained a final release from the 
Assiento, and was left at liberty to regulate the commerce of her colonies, without 
being restrained by any engagements with a foreign power. 

Taught by experience, the Spanish government perceived the inconvenience of 
carrying on their trade to the New World solely by the Galleons and Flota, and there- 
fore permitted vessels, called Register Ships, to be fitted out, during the intervals 
between the stated seasons when the Galleons and Flota sail, by merchants in Seville 
or Cadiz, upon obtaining a licence from the council of the Indies, for which they pay 
a very high premium. The register ships are sent to those ports where any extra- 
ordinary demand is foreseen or expected; by which means, such a regular supply of 
fresh commodities is conveyed to the American market, that the interloper is no 
longer allured by the same prospect of excessive gain, or the people in the colonies 
urged by the same necessity to engage in the hazardous adventures of contraband 
trade.— — The advantages of this plan became so manifest, that at length, in the 
year 1748, the Galleons, after having been employed upwards of two centuries, were 
finally laid aside. 

Various other improvements, with respect to the intercourse of Spain with her co- 
lonies, and also with respect to her own domestic commerce and police, have taken 
place. In the year 1765, Charles III. laid open the trade to the Windward Islands, 
Cuba, Hispaniola, Porto Rico, Margarita, and Trinidad, to his subjects in every pro- 
vince of Spain. In 1774* a free trade was granted to the colonies between themselves, 
which before was prohibited. Still, however, rigid restrictions remain, which dis- 
courage the industry and cramp the commerce both of Spain and her colonies. — A 
commerce is carried on between South America and the Philippine islands, without 
any communication with the mother-country. One or two ships depart annually from 
Acapuka for Manila in the island of Luconia, at the distance of near io,oco mile?, 
which carry out silver to the value of 500,000 pesos, but have hardly any thing else 
of value on board ; in return for which, they bring back spices, drugs, china, and Japan 
wares, calicoes, chintz, muslins, silks, and every precious article, with which the 
benignity of the climate, or the ingenuity of its people, has enabled the east to supply 
the rest of the world. Ibid. 

* The climate here, especially in the northern parts, is extremely hot and 
sultry during the whole year. From the month of May to the end of November, 

the 



Pern, 



71S 



2. PERU, 1 800 miles long, and 500 broad j between the 
equator and 25 deg. S. lat. and 60 and 8 1 deg. W. Ion. Its 
chief towns are, Lima, 12—15 s - lat - and 77— 3° w - lon - > 
Callao, Quito, Cusco, and POTOSI, where is the richest silver 
mine that ever was discovered. Most of the mines of gold are 
in the north of Peru, and those of silver in the south. A fifth 
of the produce belongs to the King of Spain. 

This empire was reduced by three private adventurers, Pi- 
zarro, Almagro, and Luouez, a priest. FRANCIS IT- 
ZARRO, the chief of them, set sail from Panama, 153 1, 
with only 250 foot, 60 horse, and 12 small pieces of cannon. 
Having perfidiously got into his power ATABALIPA or Ata- 
hualpa, the Inca ©r Emperor, the twelfth in descent from Mango 
Capac, who was accounted a child of the sun, he instantly re- 
ceived for his ransom no less than 1,500,000/. sterling, an in- 
credible sum for Europeans at that time. But even this did not 
satisfy the avaricious Spaniards, nor save the life of the Inca. 
The thirst of gold, which had first brought them into this 
country, and prompted them to commit unheard-of cruelties on 
the natives, soon set them against one another. Pizarro and 



the season called winter by the inhabitants, is almost a continual succession of thunder, 
rain, and tempests; the clouds precipitating the rains with such impetuosity, that the 
low lands exhibit the appearance of an ocean. Great part of the country is of conse- 
quence almost continually flooded : and this, together with the excessive heat so im- 
pregnates the air with vapours, that in many provinces, particularly about Popayan 
and Porto-bello, it is extremely unwholesome. The soil of this country is very dif- 
ferent, the inland parts being exceedingly rich and fertile, and the coasts sandy and 
barren. It is impossible to view without admiration the perpetual verdure of the 
woods, the luxuriancy of the plains, and the towering height of the mountains. 
This country produces corn, sugar, tobacco, and fruits of all kinds ; the most re- 
markable is that of the manzanillo tree. It bears a fruit resembling an apple, but 
which, under this specious appearance, contains the most subtile poison. The bean 
of Carthagena is the fruit of a species of willow, about the bigness of a bean, and is an 
excellent and never-failing remedy for the bite of the most venomous serpents, which 
are very frequent all over this country, Among the natural merchandise of Terra 
Firma, the <pearls found on the coast, particularly in the bay of Panama, are not the 
least considerable. An immense number of negroe slaves are employed in fishing for 
these, and have arrived at a wonderful dexterity in this occupation. They are some- 
times, however, devoured bj sharks, while they dive to the bottom, or are crushed 
against the shelves of the rocks. 

Panama is the capital of Terra Firma Proper, and is situate upon a capacious bay, 
to which it gives its name. It is the great receptacle of the vast quantities of gold and 
silver, with other rich merchandise, from all parts of Peru and Chili : here they are 
lodged in store-houses, till the proper season arrives to transport them to Europe. 

Porto-Bello is situate close to the sea, on the declivity of a mountain which 
surrounds the whole harbour. The convenience and safety of this harbour is such, 
that Columbus, who first discovered it, gave it the name of Porto-Bello, or the Fine 
Harbour. 

Almagro, 



714r 



South America. 



Almagro, becoming irreconcileable enemies, the former, being- 
victorious, caused his rival to be beheaded ; and was himself 
soon after murdered in revenge, by the friends of Almagro ; 
who, setting his son at their head, exercised the most horrid 
cruelties on their enemies. But young Almagro, being defeated 
and taken prisoner by De Castro, the Spanish governor, was 
executed as a traitor. Some time after, Gonzalo Pizarro, a 
brother of Francis, also attempting to make himself sovereign 
of Peru, met with the same fate. He was vanquished by Peter de 
la Gasga, formerly an ecclesiastic, a man of great abilities and 
integrity, who finally settled the affairs of this country 1584^* 

3. CHILI, extending 1200 miles along the coast of the 
South Sea, between 25 and 45 deg. S. lat. from 300 to 500 

* Though Peru lies within the torrid zone, yet having the Pacific ocean on the 
west, and the Andes on the east, the air is nor so sultry as is usual in tropical coun- 
tries. The sky is general cloudy, so that the inhabitants are shielded from the di- 
rect rays of the sun ; but what is extremely singular, it never rains in Peru. This 
defect, however, is sufficiently supplied by a soft and gentle dew, which falls every 
night on the ground, and so refreshes the plants and grass, as to produce in many places 
the greatest fertility. In the inland parts of Peru, and by the banks of the rivers, 
the soil is generally very fertile, but along the sea-coast it is a barren sand. The pro- 
ductions of this country are, Indian corn, wheat, balsam, sugar, wine, cotton, — 
cattle, deer, poultry, parrots, wild fowls, lions, bears, monkeys, &c. Their sheep 
are large, and work as beasts of burden. Another extraordinary animal here is the 
vicunna, or Indian goat, in which is found the bezoar-stone, celebrated for expelling 
poisons. The province of Quito abounds with cedar, cocoa, palm-trees, and the 
kinguenna, which affords the Peruvian or Jesuits' bark ; also the storax, guaiacum, and 
several other gums and drugs. Gold and silver mines are found in every province, 
but those of Potosi are the richest. The mountain of Potosi alone is said to have 
yielded to the Spaniards, the first forty years they were in possession of it, two thou- 
sand millions of pieces of eight. 

Peru is governed by a viceroy, who is absolute; but it being impossible for him to 
superintend the whole extent of his government, he delegates a part of his authority 
to the several audiences and courts, established at different places throughout his do- 
minions. 

Lima, the capital of Peru, and residence of the viceroy, is large, magnificent, 
and populous ; and for the splendour of its inhabitants, the grandeur of its public 
festivals, the extent of its commerce, and the delightfulness of its climate, is superior 
to all cities in South America. These eminent advantages are, however, considerably 
overbalanced by the dreadful earthquakes which frequently happen here. In the year 
1747 a most tremendous earthquake laid three-fourths of this city level with the 
ground, and entirely demolished Callao, the port-town belonging to it. Never was 
any destruction more complete or terrible ; but one, of 3,000 inhabitants, being left 
to record this dreadful calamity, and he by a providence the most singular and extra- 
ordinary imaginable. 

Lima contains from 54,000 to 62,000 inhabitants, of whom the whites amount to 
a sixth part. 

All travellers speak with amazement of the decoration of the churches with gold, 
silver, and precious stones, which load and ornament even the walls. Quito is next to 
Lima in populousness. 

miles 



Chili. 



miles broad. Its capital is St. Jago. * The inhabitants of this 
country are attempting to throw off the yoke of the King of 
Old Spam. 

Chili was first invaded by Almagro, 1535. By repeated at- 
tacks the Spaniards subdued all the champaign country along 
the coast, but the Puelches, Araucos^ and other inhabitants of 
the mountainous country, have bravely maintained their in- 
dependence. 

West of Chili 300 miles is the island of JUAN FERNAN- 
DEZ, not inhabited, where Commodore Anson refitted his 
shattered ships, 1741* and where Alexander Selkirk, a 
Scotsman, being left by his ship, 1705, lived above four years; 
which served as a foundation to De Foe for the celebrated novel 
of Robinson Crusoe. 

4. PARAGUAY or LA PLATA, 1500 miles long, and 
1000 broad; between 12 and 37 deg. S. lat. and 50 and 75 
deg. W. Ion. The interior parts are little known. The chief 
city is Buenos Ayres, which, with its surrounding territory, is 
now in a state of independence on the King of the Brazils, with 
a regularly organised government. Buenos Ayres is so called 
from the excellence of its air, on the south side of the river la 
Plata, about 200 miles from its mouth. The chief cape is' 
St. Anto?uo i north of which is Cape St. Mary, f 

This 

* The air of Chili, though in a hot climate, is remarkably temperate, occasioned 
by the refreshing breezes from the sea, and the cool winds from the top of the Andes, 
which are covered with eternal snows. This country is free from lightning, and al- 
though thunder is frequently heard, it is far up in the mountains. Spring begins here 
about the middle of August, and continues till November. It is summer from No- 
vember till February. Autumn continues till May ; and winter till August. It 
rarely snows in the vallies, though the mountains are always covered. This country 
is entirely free from all kinds of ravenous beasts, poisonous animals, and vermin ; 
not even so much as a fly is to be found here. The soil is extremely fertile, being 
watered with numberless little rivulets from the mountains. It produces, in the 
greatest abundance, apples, pears, plumbs, peaches, quinces, apricots, almonds, 
olives, grapes, cocoa-nuts, figs, and strawberries as large as pears, — wheat, oats, 
corn, garden flowers, and fruits of almost every kind. It abounds in gold, silver, 
and lead mines, and the rivers themselves roll on golden sands. But their staple com- 
modity is cattle ; they have them in such abundance, as frequently to cast the flesh 
into the rivers, reserving the hides, tallow, and tongues for exportation. 

f This country, besides an infinite number of small rivers, is watered by three 
principal ones, which, united near the sea, form the famous Rio de la Plata, or Plate 
river, and which annually overflow their banks, and, on their recess, leave them en- 
riched with a slime, that produces great plenty of whatever is committed to it. This 
river, where it unites with the ocean, is 150 miles broad. At too miles from its 
mouth, a ship in the middle of the channel cannot be seen from either shore ; and at 
Buenos Ayres, 100 miles still further back, one cannot discern the opposite shore. 
There are no mountains of consequence here, excepting that remarkable chain which 
divides South America, called the Andes. The height of Chimborazo, the most 

elevated 



716 



South America, 



This country was first settled by the Jesuits ; and wonderful 
things are told of their success. But upon the expulsion of that 
order, some years ago, from Europe, their possessions in Para- 
guay were also seized on by the crown of Spain, a. 1767. 

5. BRAZIL, belonging to Portugal, whose King has for 
some years resided wholly here, is 2500 miles long, and 
700 broad ; between the equator and 35 deg. S. lat. and 35 
and 60 W. Ion. The chief towns are, St. Salvador, on the 
Bay of All Saints, and Rio de Janeiro, Its chief cape is St. 
Augustine. 

This country was first discovered by Americus Vespucius, 
1498. It abounds in gold and silver, and diamonds 5 and va- 
rious other rich commodities. * 

6. GUIANA or CARIBIANA, sometimes included in 
Terra Firma, extending from North Cape, at the mouth of the 
river of the Amazons, to the Oronooko. 

This country is very little known, except a small space along 
the coast, where the French and Dutch have formed settle- 
ments. That of the French on the south, is called Cayenne •, 
their chief town, Caen : That of the Dutch, on the north, 
Surinam f ; their chief town is Parimaribo, on the river 
Surinam. 

7. AMA- 

elevated point in these mountains, is 20,280 feet, which is above 5000 feet higher 
than any other mountain in the known world. 

This country consists of extensive plains, 300 leagues over, except on the east, 
where it is separated by high mountains from Brazil. La Plata is a most desirable cli- 
mate, and one of the most fruitful countries in the world. The cotton and tobacco 
produced here, with the herb called the Paragua, which is peculiar to this country, 
would alone be sufficient to form a flourishing commerce. There are here also several 
gold and silver mines. 

Buenos Ayres, the capital of La Plata, is the most considerabls sea-port to-.vn 
in South America. It is situate on the south side of the river La Plata, 200 miles 
from the mouth of it. This river is upwards of 20 miles broad at this place. From 
this town a great part of the treasure of Chili and Peru is exported to Old Spain. The 
natives of Tucuman are said to have wooden houses built on wheels, which they draw 
from place to place as occasion requires. 

* The air of this country is hot, but healthy, and the soil exceedingly fertile in 
maize, millet, rice, fruits, saiFron, balsam of capivi, ginger, indigo, amber, rosin, 
train oil, cotton, the best of tobacco, fine sugar, brazil wood, &c. Here also are mines 
of gold, silver and diamonds, and a great quantity of excellent crystal and jasper. 
This country also abounds in cattle, apes, parrots, and beautiful birds. The rivers 
and lakes are stored with fish, and there is a whale-fishery on the coast. 

The coast of this large country is only known ; the natives still possess the inland 
parts ; w hereof those towards the north are called Tapayers, and those in the south 
Tupinamboys. These natives seem to have little religion, and no temple or place for 
public worship ; but yet are said to believe a future state, and have some notion of 
rewards and punishments after this life. 

f SURINAM is one of the richest and most valuable colonies belonging to the 
United Provinces. The chief trade of Surinam consists in sugar, cotton, coffee of an 

excellent 



South America, 



717 



7. AMAZONIA, or the country of the Amazons, 1200 
miles long, and 960 broad, still in possession of the natives, 
who are governed by petty sovereigns, called Caciques, 

FRANCISCt) ORELLANA, one of the officers of Pizarro, 
who first sailed down the river Maragnon, from Peru to the 
Atlantic, 1540, observing companies of armed women on the 
banks, annexed the name of Amazons both to the country and 
river. It was however afterwards found, that these women 
were not soldiers, but were only, according to custom, carrying 
the arms of their husbands. # 

8. PATAGONIA, or Terra Magellamca y including the island 
Terra del Fuego, so named from a volcano in it, extends 700 
miles in length, and 300 in breadth, between 45 and 57 deg e 
S. lat. and 70 and 85 deg. W. Ion. 

This country also, from the barrenness of the soil, and the 
extreme rigour of the climate, still remains unoccupied by- 
Europeans. 

excellent kind, tobacco, flax, skins, and some valuable dying drugs. They trade with 
the United States, of whom they receive horses, live cattle, and provisions, and give 
in exchange large quantities of molasses. The Torporific eel is found in the rivers of 
Guiana, which, when touched either by the hand, or by a rod of iron, gold, copper, 
or by a stick of some particular kinds of heavy wood, communicates a shock perfectly 
like that of electricity. There is an immense number and variety of snakes in this 
country, and which form one of its principal inconveniences. 

Guiana is one of the richest and most valuable colonies in the western world. It is 
divided into five districts, called Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Surinam, and Cayenne; 
the four first of which receive their names from rivers which run through them, and the 
last from the town of Caen in France. The river Essequibo is ai miles broad at its 
mouth. The other rivers are also large and navigable. This country is now subject 
to Great Britain. 

* From the discoveries of Orellana, and others made since his time, it appears that 
the Amazons is one of the largest rivers in the world. It runs a course from west to 
east of about 3000 miles, and receives near 200 other rivers, many of which have a 
course of 5 or 600 leagues, and some of them not inferior to the Danube or the Nile. 
The breadth of this river at its mouth, where it discharges itself by several channels 
into the ocean, almost under the equator, is 150 miles ; and 1500 miles from its 
mouth it is 30 or 40 fathoms deep. In the rainy season it overflows its banks, and 
waters and fertilizes the adjacent country. 

The fair season here is about the time of the solstices, and the wet or rainy season 
at the time of the equinoxes. The trees, fields, and plants, are verdant all the year 
round. The soil is extremely rich, producing corn, grain, and fruits of all kinds, 
cedar-trees, brazil-wood, oak, ebony, logwood, iron wood, dying woods, cocoa, to- 
bacco, sugar canes, cotton, cassavi root, potatoes, yams, sarsaparilla, gums, raisins, 
balsams of various kinds, pine apples, guavas, bonanas, &c. The forests are stored 
with wild honey, deer, wild fowls, and parrots, The rivers and lakes abound wkh 
fish of all sorts ; but are much infested with crocodiles, alligators, and water serpents. 

The Indian nations inhabiting this wide country are very numerous ; the banks of 
almost every river are inhabited by a different people, who are governed by petty 
sovereigns, called Caciques, who are distinguished from their subjects by coronets of 
beautiful feathers. They are idolaters, and worship the images of their ancient 
heroes. In their expeditions they carry their gods along with them. Morses Ameri- 
can Geography. 

ISLANDS* 



71S 



American Islands. 



ISLANDS of AMERICA. > 

The following belong to Great Britain. 

I. CANADA ISLANDS. Newfoundland, at the 

bottom of the Gulf of St. Laurence, 350 miles long, and 200 
broad •, between 46 and 52 deg. N. lat. and 53 and 59 deg. 
W. Ion. This island is chiefly valuable for the fishery of cod 
carried on upon those shoals called the Banks of Newfoundland. 
The chief places are Placentia, Bonavista, and St. John. 

Cape Breton, about 60 miles south of Newfoundland, no 
miles long, and 50 broad. Its chief harbour is Louisburgh. 
St. John, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Laurence, 

II. BERMUDAS, or SUMMER ISLANDS, at a great 
distance from any continent \ few in number, of small extent, 
and very difficult of access ; their capital is St. George : N. lat. 
32 deg. W. Ion. 65 deg. They were first discovered bv Ber- 
mudas, a Spaniard ; and were called Summer Islands, from Sir 
George Sommers, who was shipwrecked on their coasts, a. 1609. 
The healthfulness of the air is celebrated by the poet Waller, 
who for some time resided there. 

III. BAHAMA or LUCAYAN ISLANDS, said to be 500 
in number, but few of them inhabited ; between 21 and 27 
deg. N. lat. and 73 and 81 deg. W. Ion. ST. SALVADOR, 
one of these islands, was the first land discovered by Columbus 
in 1492, who gave it this name, because his men, from despair 
of finding land, had determined to throw him over-board, and 
return home. 

But the principal islands of America are those called the 
WEST-INDIA ISLANDS, which belong to different nations. 
Their staple commodity is sugar. They are divided into the 
Great Antilles, Caribbee islands, and Little Antilles. 

I. The GREAT ANTILLES are four in number. 

1. CUBA, Spanish, about 700 miles long, and 70 broad ; 
between 19 and 23 deg. N. lat. and 74 and 87 deg. W. Ion. 
100 miles to the South of Cape Florida, and 75 north of Ja- 
maica •, divided by a ridge of hills, which run from east to west 
through the middle of the island ; naturally very fertile, but 
not well cultivated. 

The chief places are, the HAVANNA, facing Florida, where 
the galleons from Carthagena and Vera Cruz rendezvous in their 
return to Spain ; and St. Jago, opposite to Jamaica. 

10 f 2. St. DO- 



American Islands. 



719 



2. St. DOMINGO, or HAYTI, formerly Spanish and 
French, but now perfectly independent ; one part being under 
the presidency of Petion, the other (and more considerable) 
portion under Christophe, a free black general, who has assumed 
the title of Henry I., Emperor of Hayti, and has completely 
organised his dominions. This island is 450 miles long, and 
150 broad ; separated from Cuba by a strait 50 miles broad, 
called the Windward Passage. 

3. PORTO RICO, Spanish, 54 miles east of St. Domingo, 
120 miles long, and 60 broad. The capital, Porto Rico, or 
St. John, stands in a small island on the north side of the main 
island, and is joined to it by a causey. 

4. JAMAICA, British, about 140 miles long, and 60 broad ; 
intersected by a ridge of steep rocks, which run from west to 
east, and have been tumbled upon one another by the frequent 
earthquakes, in a surprising manner. 

The chief towns are KINGSTON and Spanish-town, both 
on the south side of the island. The former capital, Port Royal, 
was destroyed by an earthquake, 1692. 

The Spaniards, in subduing these islands, destroyed an incre- 
dible number of the natives. 

II. CARIBBEE ISLANDS, between 11 and 18 deg. N. lat. 
and 59 and 63 deg. W. Ion. divided into the Leeward and 
Windward islands. Martinico, and those south of it, are called 
Windward Islands ; those north of it are called Leeward Islands. 

The chief of these islands, belonging to Britain, are, St. 
Christopher's or St. Kitts, named from Columbus ; Nevis and 
Montserrat ; Antego or Antigua , Dominica, Barbadoes, St. Vin* 
cent, Grenada, and the Grenadines, St, Lucie, and Tobago. 

Those belonging to France are, Guadaloupe, and Martinico. 

The two small islands St. Eustatia and Saba, a little west of 
St. Kitts, belong to the Dutch. 

St. Thomas, and St. Croix or Santa Cruz, belong to the 
Danes. 

East of Porto Rico are several craggy and uninhabited islands, 
belonging to Spain, called the Virgin Islands. 

III. The LITTLE ANTILLES, called also the Sotovento 

Islands, along the coast of Terra Firma Trinidad belongs to 

Britain ; Margaretta, &c. to Spain ; Cayenne and Toriuga, to 
France Curassou, Bonnaire, and Aruba, to the Dutch, who 
thence used to carry on a profitable trade with Terra Firma, or 
the Spanish Main particularly with the town and country 

called 



720 American Islands. 

called CaraccaS) in the province Venezuela^ where the best cacao 
or chocolate nuts grow. 

North-east from the straits of Magellan are the Falklatid 
islands, belonging to Britain. 

There are few islands of note on the western side of Ame- 
rica. 



INDEX. 



C 7" ] 



INDEX. 



A A 

Abas, 393 

Abdera, 345 
Aborigines, 186 
Absyrtes, 353. 443 
Abul Fazel, 640 
Accidentia, at Athens, 294 
Academies, literary, first esta- 
blished, 32 
Acapulco, 702 
Acarnania, 314 
Acastus, 444 
Acbar, 640. 649 
Achaean republic, 409. league, 

474 
Achaia, 279 
Acharna, 301 
Acheldus, 401 
Achilles, 187. 445. &c. 
Acids, 105 
Acrisius, 395 
^<rto, v. -f, 417 
Actaeus, 417 
Actium, 314 
Adonis, 364 
Adrastus, 430 
Adrian, wall of, 501 
JEacus, 385 

iEdiles instituted, 211. 223 
JEetes, 440 
JE gates, 269 
JEgesta, 270 
JEgeus, 421 

333* 3 8 5 
JEgisthus, 407 
JEgospotamos, 349 
^^>'//wj-.E_ypt, 664. history of, 

JEmonia or Hamonia, 320 



JEneas, 187 
587 

JEolia Insula, 275 

iEolus, 276. 416 

JEsculapius, 287. 367 

JEson, 443 

JEtna, 271 

Africa, 663 

Agamemnon, 405, &c. 

Agathyrsi, 354 

Agesilaus, 468. 617 

^f§7>, 474 

Agrarian law, 213 

Agricola, 501 

Agrigentum, 264 

Agrippa, Menenius, 21 1 

Air, 42. 48 

Air balloon, 45 

Air pump, 43 

Alba Longa, 146. 191. 198 

Albania, 592. 627 

Albano, 146 

Albuquerque, 489. 654 

Alcaus, 343 

Alcestis, 370 

Alcibiades, 467 

Alcinous, 456 

Alcmaon, 4.3 1 

Alcmena, 428 

Alcuinus, 24 

Aleppo, 594. 627 

Alexander the Great, 229. 470. 

620. 634 
Alexandria, school of, 17. State 

of the ancient city, 669. and 

of the modern, 675 
Alfergan, 24 
Alfred, 504 

3 A Alge, 



722 



INDEX. 



Algebra, invention of, 23 
Ali Bey, 672 
Alkalis, 105 
Almagro, 713 
Almamon, 23 
/Almansor, 486 
Alphonzo, favours science, 24 
Alphonso, conquests of, 486 
Althaa, 433 
Amalfi, 156. 254 
Amalthae^, 312. 355 
Amasis, 666 
Amazonia, 717 
Amazons, 339. 423 
Amber, 41. 109. 568 
Ambracia, 316 
Americ Vespucci, 696 
America, 684 

Americans, manners of, 684 
Amphiaraus, 431. his temple, 
302 

Amphictyon, 418 
Amphictyons, 308 
Ampblon, 428 
Amphipolis, 327 
Amphiscii, 8 
Amphitryo, 428 
Amru, 23 
Amsanctus, 157 
Amulius, 192 
Amycus, 411 
Anabaptists, 131 
Anatomy, .102 
Anaxagoras, 12 
Anaximander, 11 
Anaximenes, 11 
Ancona, 137 
Ancus Marcius, 198 
Andes, mountains, 687 
Androgeos, 422 
Andromeda, 396 
Angelo, (Michael,) 142 
Angles, 71. 503 
Anio, 144 

Animals of America, 646 
Anne, Queen, 428 
Antaci, 8 

Antalcides, peace of, 469 
Antaph ernes, 613 



Antenor, 186 
Anticyra, 309 
Antigonus, 471 
Antilles, Great islands, 718 

Little , 719 

Antioch, 627 
Antipodes, 8 
Antisthenes, 295 
Apis, 391. 605 
Apollo, 365 
Apollonia, 329 
Apollonius, 18 
Appius Claudius, 214 
Arabia, 596 
Arabs, 23. 633 
Aratus, 9. 17. 474 
Arbaces, 598 
Arcadia, 285 
Areas, 417 
Archimedes, 18. 60 
Archons, first created at Athene 
426 

Areopagus, 29 1 

Argivi, 392 

Argonauts, 339. 441 

Argos, 288. 392 

Ariadne, 422 

Arians, 131 

Arion, 343. 430 

Aristxus, 371 

Aristagoras, 611 

Aristarchus, 17 

Aristides, 334. 466 

Aristillus, 17 

Aristomenes, 463 

Aristotle, 16.294.470 

Armenia Major, 593 

Armenia Minor, 590 

Arpi, 158 

Artaxerxes, 614 

Artemisium, 336 

Arts of the ancients, unknown 

to the moderns, 49 
Asbestus, 108 
Ascanius, 190 
Ascii, 8 
A sera, 305 
Asia Minor, 587 
Asia, 585 



Asphaltitcs 



INDEX. 



Asphaltites Jacus, 119. 595 
Assyria, 597 
Astrology, 24. 28 
Astronomy, history of, 11 — 

35 

Astyages, 600 

Astydamla, 444 

Atabalipa, 713 

Atalanta, 433 

Athamas, 427 

Athena, Athens, 262. 288 

Athos, 327 

Atlantides, 379 

Atlas, 396. 663 

Atmosphere, weight of, 43 

Atreus, 403 

Atthis, 418 

Attica, 287. 417 

Attraction and repulsion, 37 

Aufidus, Ofanto, 160 

Augusta Taurinorum, Turin, 

Augustulus, 249 
Augustus, 242 
Auiis, 305 
Aurora, 376 
Aurora Borealis, 66 
Aurungzebe, 640 
Avernus, 151. 316 
Axis in peritrochio, 68 

B 

Babylon, description of, 624 

Babylonia, 596 

Bacchus, 381 

Bacon, Roger, 25 

Baia, 151 

Bahama islands, 71S 

Bajazet, 480 

Balboa, 711 

Baldwin, 479 

Baleares insula, 48^ 

Barbarians, 665 

Bassora, 637 

Beaver, 697 

Becket, 507 

Beda, 24 

Belisarius, 476 

Bellerophon, 393 



Bellona, 362 
Beneventum, 157 
Bengal, 634 
Benea, 325 
Bermudas, 718 
Bessarion, Cardinal, 25 
Bithynia, 591 
Boadicea, 501 
Bceotia, 303. 426 
Bohemia, 575 
Bombay, 653 
Bootes, 417 
Boroas, 419 

Bosphorus Thracius, 350 
Botany, 102 
Brahmins, 651 
Brazil, 716 
Brennus, 219. 473 
Bridge of boats over the Helles- 
pont, 349 
Briseis, 447 
Britain, 490 
Britain, New, 697 
Britons, manners of, 492 
Bronze, 114 
Brundusium, 1 63 
Brutus, 204 
Buenos Ayres, 716 
Burrampocter river, 66l 
Byzantium, 350 

C 

Caaba, 629 
Cabot, Sebastian, 697 
Cacus, 186. 399 
Cadmus, 303. 426. 461 
Csesar, C. Julius, 22. 241 
Cairo, 676 
Calais, 420 
Calchas, 406. 415 
Calcutta, 634 
California, 701 
Caligula, 245. 546 
Callisto, 417 
Calvin, 130. 550 
Calvinists, 130. 574 
Calydon, 312. 432 
Calypso, 456 
Cambyses, 603 

3 A 2 Camera 



INDEX. 



Camera olscura, 63 

Camilla, 190 

Camillus, 218 

Canada, 697 

Canada islands, 717 

Canal, from the Nile to the Red 

Sea, 665 
Canna, 161 
Canusium, 160 
Capaneus, 43 1 
Caphareus, 335 
Cappadocia, 590 
Caprea, 155 
Capua, 148 
Caractacus, 501 
Caria, 589 

Caribbee islands, 719 
Carnatic, 656 

Caroline, North and South, 701 
Carpathus, 341 

Carthage, 678. history of, ib. 

government of, 679 
Cassandra, 407 
Cashmere, 644 
Casilinum % 148 
Caspian Sea, 586 
Cassini, 32 
Cassi6peia, 396 
Cassius, Sp. 212 
Castor, 411. 413 
Catana, 258 
Catiline, 241 
Catoptrics, 64 
Catti, 565 
Catulus, 240 

Caudium, & Furcte Caudlne, 157. 
227 

Cavendish, Sir Thomas, I 
Cecrops, I. 417. II. 421. 460 
Celestial globe, use of, 92.— -98 
Celtas, 535 

Censors instituted, 217 
Census f 201 

Centaurs, 322. 409. 423. 439 
Central forces, 71 
Centre of gravity, 69 
Ceos, 337 

Ccphahma or Sam?, 332. 
Cephalus, 420 



Cepheus, 396 
Ceramicus, 291 
Ceraunii monies, 31? 
Cerberus, 389 
Cerdick, 503 
Ceres, 360 
Ceylon island, 663 
Chaerea, 245 
Charonea, 305 
Cbaki6pe, 442 
Chalcis, 312. 327. 336 
Chaldsea, 596 
Chaonia, 318 

Charles V. K. of Spain, 487 

I. K. of England, 520. II. 
Chemistry, 100 
Chersonesus, 347 
Chili, 714 
Chimaera, 393 
China, 661 
Chios, 342 
Chiron, 439 
Chromatics, 64 

Chronology regulated by eclip 
22. 85 

Chryses and Chryseis, 406. 447 
Cicero, 241. 
Cicb*nes, 345 
Cilicia, 590 
Cimbri, 566" 
Cimmerians, 152 
Cimon, 466 
Cincinnati, 2 1 4 . 2 1 8 
Cineas, 231 
Circe, 375 

Circle, properties of, 72 
Circles of Germany, 569 
Circus Maximus, 200 
Cirrha, 309 
Cisalpine Gaul, 135 
Cithseron, 301 . — 304 
Clxlia, 209 
Claudius, 245 
Clepsydra, 23 
Climates, 6 
Clive, victory of, 645 
Clocks, invention of, 23. 32 
Clouds, cause of, 50 
Clyteranestra, 406 



INDEX* 



Coal, 109 

Cocytus, 316. 389 

Codrus, 425. 460 

Cmle Syria, 594 

Colchis, 442. 592 

Cold, its cause and effects, 53 

Collatinus, 204 

Colossus, 341 

Colours, cause of their diversity, 

\ Columbus, 487. 688. 718 

Comets, 4 

Commagene, 593 
I Commercial states in ancient 
times, 126 

in modern times, 254 

j Compass, invention of, 156. 254 

Congelation, 54 
I Conic Sections, 75 

Conon, 18, 468 

Constantine, 248 

Constantinople built, 228. 350. 
taken by the Turks, 481 

Consuls, institutions of, 207 

Copais, 304 

Copernieus, 26 

Copts, 673 

Corey ra or Phaacia, 330* Con- 
tests between the common peo- 
ple and the nobility of, 331 
! Corinth, 280 

Coriolanus, 21 1 

Coromandel coast, 655 

Corpus juris > a copy of* discover- 
ed, 254 

Corsica, 278 

Cortes, 703 

Corvus, 225 

Cos, 342 

Cosmo de Medicis, 25 
Crassus, 241 
Creon, 429 

Creta, Candia, 338. people of, 3 40 
Creusa, 188. 443 
Grissa, 309 
Crasus, 600 
Cromwell, 524 
Croton, 180 
1 Crucibles, 121 



Crusades, 253 
Cuba, 718 
Cuma, 149 
Cupid, 364 
Curetes, 34O. '355 
Curius Dentatus, 230. 23 r 
Curtius, 224 
Curule aediles, 223 
Cyanea insula , 352 
Cyaxares, 599 
Cyclades, 336 
Cyclops, 273. 454 
Cydonia, 339 
Cyllene, 379 
Cynaegyrus, 300 
Cynosarges, 295 
Cynthus, -ius, & -a, 337 
Cyprus, 592 

Cyrenalca, 677. whence named, 
Cyrus, 000 

Cyrus, the younger, 616 
Cythera, 332 

D 

Dacia, 353 
Daed&lus, 339.421 
Dalmatia, 352 
Damascus, 629 
Dan'aS, 393 
Danaus, 392 
Danes, 505 
Danube, 353, 572 
Daphn£, 371 
Darius, 465. 608 
Darius Codomannus, 620 
Dat&mes, 618 
Datis, 613 

Daughters, how named among 

the Romans, 202 
Daulis, 310 

Days of the Week, whence named, 
568 

Dead Sea, 119. 595 
Decelia, 301 
Decemviri, 214 
Decius, 226 
Deiph&bus, 41 5 
Dejamra, 401 

3 A 3 Dejcces, 



726 



INDEX. 



Dejoces, 599 
Delhi, 641 
Delphi, 2. 306 

Delta of the Indus, 646. of the 
Ganges, 659. of the Nile, 673 
Delos & Delius, 336 
Democritus, 16. 346 
Demetrias, 321 
Demetrius, 341. 47 1, 472 
Demosthenes, 287. 470 
Demophoon, 425 
Denmark, 584 
Descartes, 31 
Deucalion, 435 
Dews, cause of, 50 
Diana, 365. 377 
Dictator, institution of, 210 
Dido, 189. 678 
Dioclea, 352 
Dioclesian, 248. 352 
Diogenes, 295 

Diomedes of iEtolia, 186. 458 

of Thrace, 346. 399 

Dionysius, 274. 370 
Dioptrics, 63 
JDirce, 304 

Discord, goddess of, 445 
Distillation, 121 
Divisibility of matter, 36 
Division of bodies, 10 1. 

of the Terraqueous 

Globe, 123 
Dodona, 317 

Dog, curious fact concerning, 
334 

Domingo, St. 718 
Doris, 312 
Doriscus, 345 
Draco, 464 
Drake, 1 
Druids, 492. 540 
Druses, nation of, 628 
Duilius, 237 
Dulichium, 331 

Dutch and French Netherlands, 
553 

Dyrrachium or Epidamnus, 329 
E 

Earthquakes, 52. cause of, 113 



Earths, 107 
EchTon, 426 
Eclipses, 85 
Ecliptic, 6 
Edessa, 325 

Edward Confessor, 505. I. 508. 
II. 509. III. 510. the Black 
Prince, ib. IV. 514. V. ib. VI. 

517 
Egbert, 504 

Egypt, unfavourable to the pro- 
pagation of foreign plants and 
men, 675 

Elasticity, 42 

• effects of, in the clouds? 

Eleatic school, 15 
Electricity, 41 
Elements of bodies, 9 
Eleusis, 301. 360 
Elis, 281 

Elizabeth, Queen, 518 
Ellipse, 76 
Elysium, 390 
Emathia, 320. 325 
Empedocles, 14 
Emperor of Germany, 572 
Empires, 126 
Endymion, 378 
England, 498 
Enna, 272 
Ennius, 169 
Epaminondas, 469 
Epidaurus, 287 
Epigoni, 432 
Epimetheus, 435 
EpTrus, 314 
Epoch, 15 
Equator, 5 
Equinox, 5 
Eratosthenes, 18 
Erechtheus, 419 
Ei-ichthonius, 418 
Eriphyl£, 431 
Eryx, 269. 363 
Eteocles, 430 
Etesia, 57 
Ether, 43 

Ethiopians, why black, 374 
Etruria, 136 

Etagoras, 



INDEX. 



727 



Etag6ras, 618 

Evaporation, 49. 121 
Euboea, 335 
Euclid, 302 
Eudoxus, 16 
Eumaeus, 457 
Eumenes, 471 
Eumolpus, 420 
Eurlpus, 335 
Eurdpa, 384 
Europe, 131 
■ — divisions of, 133 
Eurotas, 283 
Eurystheus, 398 
Eurytus, 401 
Euxine sea, 351 
Evander, 186 

F 

Fabii, 213 

Fabius Maximus, 237 
Fabricius, 232 
Faro, 258 

Faro or Ferro islands, 585 
Faunus, 186 380 
Ferdinand, K. of Arragon, 486 
Ferro, Island of, 8 
Feudal System, 250. 561 
Figure of the earth, 1 
Flaminius, 238 
Flamstead, 33 

Florida, East and West, 701 
Fortunata Insula, 683 
Fracastorius, 26 
France, 534. 546 
Franks, 546. 567 
Frost, 55 
Fusion, 121 

G 

Galatia, 592 

Galba, 246 

Galilxa, 595 

Galileo, 29 

Gallia Antiqua, 534 

Gama, 489. 654 

Games of Greece, 281. 461 

Ganges, description of, 658 

Gassendi, 31 



Gauls, mannen of, 539^ 

Gauts, mountains of Indoatan, 

655 

Gaza, 630 
Geloni, 354 
Geneva, 549 
Gengis Kan, 480. 
Geography, 1. how improved, 
20. 

Geometry, its principles, 7 1 . — 76. 
George, I. II. & III. K. of Eng- 
land, 529 
Germany, 555 
Germans, manners of, 556 
Germanicus, 22. 244 
Giants, 426 
Glaciers, 549 
Glasses, 63 

power of, known to the 

ancients, 66 
Glaucus, 387 
Gnossus, 339 
Gomphi, 322 
Gordian, 247 
GortTna, 339 
Goths, 249 

Government, forms of, 129 
Gracchi , 239 
Gravity, 38 

its force, 70 

Grecian leaders against Troy, 

414 
Greece, 279 
Greek empire, 476 
Greek fire, 49 
Greenland, 584 
Gregory VII. Pope, 252 
Grisler, 550 
Grotto del Cani, 50 
Guatimozin, 705 
Guelfs and Ghibbelines, 252 
Gun-powder, no. 571 
Gustavus Adolphus, 569. 581 
Gyges, 600 

Gymnasia, at Athens, 293 
H 

Hades, 388 
Hseraus, 344 

3 A 4 Hamilcar, 



728 



INDEX. 



Hamilcar, 237. 269. 680 
Hannibal, 237. his learning, 681 
Halicarnassus, 589 
♦Halley, 3- 33- 
Hardness and softness, 36 
Harmodius, 465 
Harmonia, 426 
Harold, 506 
Haroun al Rascid, 23 
Harpe, 379 
Harpies, 441 
Havannah, 718 
Heat and its effects, 48 
Hebrus, 345 
Hecate, 378 
Hector, 187 

Hecuba, 414. her tomb, 348 
Helena, 335. 413 
Helicon, 304 
Hell£, 427. 440 
Hellespont, 349 
Helotes, 284. 462. 464 
Henghist, 503 

Henry, I. K. of England, 506. 
II. 507. III. 508. IV. 511. 
V. ^12. VI. 513. VII. 515. 
VIII. 516. 

Heraclea, the place where the con- 
vention of the Grecian states in 
Italy was held, as those in 
Greece at Delphi,. 170 

Heraclida, 403. 408.416 

Hercynian forest, 572 

Herculaneum, ~i 54 

Hercules, 186. 398, &c< 

Hermaphrodttus, 363 

Hero, 349 

Hesione, 399 

Hesperides insula, 683 

Hesse, Langrave of, 27 

Heteroscii, 8 

Hevelius, 31 

Hieroglyphics, 669 

Hiero, 274 

Hillus, 403, 404 

Hipparchus, 19 

Hippias, 465; 

Hippocrates, 16. 342 

H'ippodamla, 404 



Hippolyte, 423 
Hippolytus, 424. 
Hipsipyle, 441 
Hispaniola, 718 
Hook, 34 

Horatii et Curiatii, 1 96 

Horatius Codes, 208 

Horizon, 7 

Horox, Jeremiah, 30 

Hudson's river, 699 

Hungary, 576 

Huns, 249. 576 

Huss, burnt at Constance, 5-71 

Huygens, 31 

Hyaeinthus, 372. 411 

Hyder Ally, 655 

Hydraulic machines, 44 

Hydra, 398 

Hydruntum, Otranto, 164 
Hyginus, 22 
Hygrometers, 44 
Hymettus, 300 
Hyperion, 373 
Hypermnestra, 392 
Hystiseus, 465. 61 f 

I ' 

Iberia, 592 

Icarus, 342. 421 

Iceland, 584 

Idomeneus, 459 

Idus, 412 

Illyricum, 352 

Imbros, 347 

Impiety punished, 177 

Inachus, 391 

Inactivity of matter, 36 

Incas of Peru, 704 

Inclined plane, 69 

India, 634. revolutions and trade 

of, tb. cities of, 635 
Indians, manners of, 646 
Indostan, 634 
Indus, 646 

Inflammable substances, 109 
Ino, 427 

Inter amna, Terni, 137 
Intermitting springs, 44 



INDEX. 



729 



lolcOS, 121 

Idle, 401, 402 

Ionia* whence named, 409, 588 

Iphicrates, 468 

IphigenTa, 406. 408 

Iphitus, 401 

Ireland, 532 

Iron, 115 

Irus, 457 

Isabella, Q. of Castile, 486. 692 
Isauria, 590 
Isinglass, 103 
IstSi 3,91 

Islands of Asia, 662 

Ismarus, 345 

Issus, 590 

Ister, 353 

Italia Propria, 135 

Italy, 134* 185 

Ithaca, 332 

Itys, 419 

lulus, 190 

IxTon, 400. 438 

J 

Jamaica, 719 

James I. K. of England, 520. 
II.526 

Janissaries, 480 
Janssen, Zachary, 29 
Janus, 1 85 
Japan, 662 

Japix and Japygia, 51. 163 

Jason, 439 

Jerusalem, 595. 629 

Jesuits, admitted into China, 33 

Jocasta, 429 

John, K. 508 

Jordan, 594 

Jovian, 249 

Judaea, 595 

Jugum, 197 

Julian, 249 

Juno, 359 

Jupiter, 355 

Justinian, 476 

K 

Kentucky, country of, 700 
Kepler, 28 



L 

Labdacus, 426 

Labyrinth of Crete, 339, of 

Egypt, 666 
Lacedaemon, 283. 419. 461.464. 
Lacinium promontorium, 179 
Laertes, 420 
Lsevinus, 231 
Laius, 429 

Land, divisions of, 124. 
LaodomTa, 460 
Laomedon, 372. 399 
Lapitha, 322. 439 
Lapland, 583 
Larissa, 320. 322 
Latinus, 190 
Latitude, 7. 9 
Latiurrii 140. 357 
Latona, 365 

Laurence, St. river of, 6S& 

Lavinia, 190 

Leander, 349 

Lebanon, 593 

Lebethra, 321 

Leda, 411 

Lemnos, 344. Women of, 441 
Lenses, 63 
Leonidas, 311. 465 
Lesbos, 342 
Lethe, 390 

Leucas, v. ~adia> £ff £,eifcata 9 

3*5- 33 1 
Leuce, 448 
Leucothoe, 427 
Leuctra, 304 
Level of a canal, 1 
Lever, 68 
Liburnia, 352 
Light, 59. 68 
Lima, 714 
Lindus, 341 
Lines, 71 
Linus, 370 
Lipari islands, 275 
Lissus, 345 
Locri 9 176 
Locris, 310 
Locusts, 593 

Logarithms, invention of, 29 



INDEX. 



Logic, 15 
Longitude, 7. 9 
Loretto, 137 
Louisiana, 701 
Lover's-Leap, 315 
Lucretia, 204 
Lucullus, 238 
Lucumo, 199 
Luther, 569 
Lutherans, 130. & 574 
Luna, 378 
Lunar cycle, 15. 84 
Lusitania, 484 
Lustrum, 201 
Lycaonia, 590 
Lycaon, 416 
Lyceum, 294 
Lycia, 589 
Lycomedes, 424 
Lycurgus, 461 
Lydia, 589 
Lynceus, 392. 412 
Lysander, 349. 467 
Lysimachia, 348 
Lysimachus, ib. 473 

M 

Macedonia, 324 
Madras, 655 
Maesia, 353 
Magellan, 1 
Magi, 605. 623 
Magna Charta, 508 
Magna Gracia, 181 
Magnesia, 321 
Magnetism, 40 
Mahomet, 321. 477 
Mahrattaf, 641. 653 
Maia, 379 
Malabar coast, 652 
Malea, 284 
Mamertines, 234 
Mamlouks, 672 
Manco Capac, 704 
Manilius, 22 

Manlius, M. 221. T. 224. 226 
Maps, 125 
Marathon, 300 
Marcellus, 237 



Marco Polo, 638 
Marius, 239 

Marlborough, Duke of, 528 
Mars, 362 
Mar si, 138 
Marsyas, 372 

Mary, Q. of England, 515. Q. 

of bcots, 519 
Maryland, 700 
Mathematici, 13 
Matho, 680 
Mauritania, 682 
Mayo, 68 1 

Measures of length most com- 
mon, 125 
Mechanical powers, 68 
Medea, 353. 422. 442 
M^dia, 597 

Mediolanum, Milan, 1 35 

Medon, Medonfida, 426 

Med us, 444 

Medusa, 396 

Megabyzus, 607 

Megara, 259. 400 

Megasthenes, 636 

Megaris, 302 

Melanthus, 425. 432 

Meleager, 432 

Melibcea, 321 

Meltte, Malta, 277 

Memnon, the Ethiopian, 377. 449 

■ the Rhodian, 620 

Memphis, 656 

Menelaus, 413 

Mentor, the Rhodian, 619 

Mercury, 378 

Meridian, 5 

Messana, 257 

Messenia, 282. people of, 463, 
464 

Mesopotamia, 597 
Metals, 1 1 1 
Metapontum, 170 
Methymnus, 343 
Mot on, 14 
Mettus Fiiffchus, 197 
Mexicans, manners of, 701 
Mexico, ib. 

Microscopes, invention of, 68 

Midas, 



- I N 

Midas, 372. 383 

Military tribunes instituted, 217 

Milliarium aureum, 1 82 

Milo, 1 80. 234 

Miltiades, 347. 465 

Minerva, 361 

Minos, 340. 384. 421 

Minturna, 148 

Minya, 441 

Minotaur, 421 

Missisippi, river of, 687 

Mithridates, 240 

Mitylene, 343 

Mnestheus, 424 

Mobility of matter, 36 

Maris, lake of, 666 

Mogul empire, 640. ruin of, 642 

Molossis, 317 

Montezuma, 704 

Moon, motion of, 81, 82 

Mopsopia, 418 

Motion, and its laws, 68 

Motion of the earth, 2. 79 

Mountains, chief ones in the 

world, 124 
Muller, John, 25 
Mutina, Modena, 135 
Mummies, 665. 671 
Mummius, 239 
Munichia, 293 
Music, cause of, 46 
Mycena, 286. 397. 410 
Myrmidones, 385 
Myrtoum mare, 336. 404 
Myrtihs, 404 
My sia y 587 
Mysore, 655 

N 

Nadir, 7 

Nadir Shah, 641 

Napier, Baron of Merchiston, 29 

Natural Philosophy, 70 

Naupactus, 313 

Nauplius, 453 

Naxos, 338 

Ncapolis, Naples, 152 

history of, 255 

Neleus, 441 



Nepos differs from Herodotus, in 
his account of Miltiades, 348 

Neptune, 372. 386 

Nereus, 386 

Nero, 245 

Nessus, 402 

Nestor, 401 

Netherlands, 551 

New Britain, 697 

New England, 698 

New Jersey, 699 

New Mexico, 701 

New Spain, ib. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 44 

Newtonian philosophy, 35. 92 

New York, 199 
Nicocles, 618 
Nile, 673 
Niniv£, 598 
Ninus, ib. 
Ninyas, ib. 
Niobe, 428 
Nola, 156 
Nonacris, 285 
Norway, 583 
Notitia imperii, 20 
Nova Scotia, 698 
Numa, 195 
Numidia, 682 

O 

Odoacer, 250 
Odyssey, 458 
Oedipus, 429 
Oeneus, 401. 433 
Oenomaus, 404 
en one, 414 
Ogyges, 409 
Olympia, 281 
Olympic games, ib* 
Olynthus, 326 
Omphale, 401 
Omrou, 671 
Orbis, 3 

Orbit of a planet, ib. 
Orellana, 717 
Ores of metals, 112 
Orestes, 407 
Orion, 376 

Orithyia, 



73 2 



INDEX. 



Orithyfa, 419 
Orpheus, 370 
Osiris, 373. 382. 391. 670 
Ostracism, 464. 
Otancs, 607 
Otho, 246 
Ottoman, 480 
Oxus, 127. 586 

P 

Padus, the Po, 135 
Paeonia, 325 
Paestum, 172 
Pag as a, 421 
Pagodas, 649 
Palasmon, 387. 427 
Palestine, 594. 630 
Palamedes, 453 
Pales, 381 
Palibothra, 636 
Pallas, 361 
Pallen£, 326 
Palmyra, 594 
Pamphylia, 589 
Pan, 380 
Panama, 713 
Pandects, a copy of them disco- 
vered, 156. 254 
PandTon, 418. 421 
Pandora, 435 
Pangajus, 345 
Panormus, Palermo, 270 
Pantlcapoeum, Caffa, 354 
Papirius, 227 
Paphlagonia, 591 
Parabola, 70 
Parallax, 20. 32. 
Parallels of latitude, 5 
Paracelsus, 100 r 
Paris, 414 
Parmenldes, 15 
Paraguay, 715 
Parthenopaeus, 431 
Paryfatis, 616 
Pasipha&, 374 
Patagonia, 717 
Patavium, Padua, 135 
Patmos, 342 
Patroclus, 447 



Pegasus, 394 
Pelasgus, 416 
Peloponnesian war, 466 
Peloponnesus, Morea, 279 
Peleus, 444. 485 
Pelias, 439. 443 
Pelion, 421 
Pella, 325 
Pelopidas, 469 
Pelops, 403 
Peneus, 319 
Pennsylvania, 700 
Pentheus, 427 
Perseus, 393 
Pericles, 466 
Perdiccas, 471 
Periscii, 8 

Persians, history of, 600. man- 
ners of, 62 1 
Persis, v. -sia, 597 
Pertinax, 246 
Peru, 713 

Peruvians, manners of, 704 

Peter the Great, 580 

Pewter, 115 

Phaedra, 422 

Phaeton, 374 

Ph alar is, 265 

Phalerum, 293 . 

Pharsalus & Pharsalia, 322 

Phers, 421 

Phidias, 338 

Philadelphia, 700 

Philip, K. of Macedon, 469 

Philip II. of Spain, 487 

Philippi, battle of, 328 

Philippine islands, 662 

Philolaus, 14 

Philomela, 419 

Phineus, 441 

Philopoemen, 475 

Philosopher, 13 

Phlegra, 326 

Phlegraean plains, 437 

Phlegyas, 438 

Phoei6, 306 

Phoenicia, 594 

Phoenix, 670 

Phorcus, 387 

Phoroneu$, 



INDEX. 



Pboroneus, 391 
Phrygia Magna, $92 
Phrygia Minor, 587 
Phryxus, 427. 440 
Phyllis, 425 
Physiology, 102 
Picenum, 137 
Picus, 376 
Pieria, 325 

Pierus & Pier ides, 323 
Piraeus, 292 
Pirithous, 423. 438 
Pisidia, 589 
Pisistratus, 465 
Pittacus, 343 
Pizarro, 713 
Placard, 33 
Planets, 3. 76. 87 
Plataea, 304 
Plato, 16. 294. 468 
Pleiades, 379 
Pluto, 388 
Poland, 577 
Polar circles, 6 
Pollux, 41 1. 413 
Polyddrus, 426 
Polymces, 429 
Polyxgna, 448 
Pompey, 238 
Pompey's pillar, 676 
Pontius, 227 
Pontus, 591 
Popes, 251 
Porsena, 208 
Porto-Bello, 713 
Porto- Rico, 719 
Portugal, 488 
Porus, 634 
Posidonius, 21 
Potidaea, 226 
Potosi, 713 

Praneste y Palestrina, 145 
Praetor, first created, 223 
Praxiteles, 338 
Precipitation, 120 
Priamus, 187. 400 
Printing, invention of, 25. 252 
Proca, 191 
Procris, 420 



m 

Procopius, 576 
Prcetus, 394 
Progne, 419 
Prometheus, 435 
Properties of matter, 3 5 
Propontis, 350 
Proserpine, 360. 388 
Proteus, 386 
Prussia, 578 
Psammitichus, 665 
Psylli, 670 
Ptolemy, 22 
Pulley, 69 
Purbach, 25 
Pydna, 324 
Pylades, 407 
Pyramids, 665. 677 
Pyrites, 113 
Pyrometer, 48 
Pyrrha, 435 
Pyrrhus, 230. 446. 473 
Pythagoras, 12. 17. 180 
Pytheas, 17 
Pythian games, 309 
Python, 366 

Q 

Quadrilateral figures, 74 
Quaestors, 210 
uirtnus, 195 
uirites, ih* 

R 

Ragusa, 352 
Rain, cause of, 50 
Rainbow, 65 
Reflection of light, 61 
Refrangibility of light, 60 
Regulus, 237 
Religions, forms of, 230 
Remus, 192 
Respiration, 47 
Restoration of learning, 25 
Rhegium, 1 75 
Rhod6p£, 345 
Rhodus, Rhodes, 341 
Richard I. 507. II. 510. Ill, 515 
Rirers, 124, of Europe, 132. of 
f 3 Asia, 



734 



INDEX. 



Asia, 585. of Africa, 663. of 

America, 686 
Robinson Crusoe, 715 
Rodolphian tables, 28 
Romans, their art in prosecuting 

their conquests, 225. 238 
Rome, 140. 193 
Romulus, 192 
Russia, 578 
Ryots, 648 

S 

Sabini, 139 

Sacrobosco or Holy wood, John, 
24 

Saladin, 253. 671 
Salamis, battle of, 334 
Salmoneus, 416 
Salts, 105. 107 
Salt, how made, 120 
Same, 332 
Samnites, 225 
Samos, 342 
Samothrace, 346 
Sappho, 315. 343 
Saratoga, 699 
Sardanapalus, 598 
Sardinia, 278 
Sarmatia, 354 
Sarpedon, 385 
Satellites, 4 
Saturn, 185. 355 
Satyrs, 380 
Saxons, 503 
Scavola, 209 
Sciron, 302. 323 
Schaal, the Jesuit, 33 
Scipio, 161. 238. 679 
Scotland, 529 
Screw, 69 
Scylax, 634 

$eylla, 174. 256. Two of the 

same name, 375 
Scyros, 336 
Scythia, 354 

Seas, &c of Europe, 132. of 
Asia, 586. of America, 685 
Sea-water, 119 
Seleucis, 594 



Selim, 672 
Semelc, 3 8 1. 427 
Semiramis, 598 
Seneca, 22. 245 
Servius Tullius, 200 
Sesostris, 127. 664 
Sevajee, .653 
Severus, 246. 502 
Sextius, L. 222 
Sib arts, 170 
Sicily, 256 

history of, 273 

Sicinius, 210 
Sicyon, 279 
Sidon, 594. 628 

Silk, manufacture of, introduced 
into Europe, 476. 168. 255. 642 

Simonides, 337 

Sindy, country of, 647 

Sirens, 156. 456 

Sisyphus, 416 

Smerdis, 605. 607 

Smyrna, 588 

Snellius, 61 

Sobieski, John, 31 

Socrates, 467. saves the life of 
Xenophon, 306 

Solid figures, 75 

Solidity and Extension, 35 

Solon, 464. 600 

Solstice, 6 

Solution, 120 

Sophists, 13 

Sort»s, 308 

Sound, cause of, 45 

Spain, 482 

Sparta, 283.410 

Spectacles, use of, 29 

Spermaceti, 103 

Sphere, right, &c. 9. 88 

Sphinx, 429. 677 

Sporades, 3.6. 341 

Springs, origin of, 50 

.1 of different kinds, 117 

Spaniards, their treatment of the 
Americans, 707. manner of 
carrying on their trade with 
America, 709 

Stars, 5. 87. 92 

9f States 



I N D £ X. 



735 



States of different extent, how 
named, 12$. and from their 
different governments, 1 29 

Steel, 115 

Stephen, King, 507 

Strophades, 332. 442 

Styx, 389 

Sublimation, 122 

Substances obtained from animals 
and vegetables, 104 

Suevi, 566 

Sulpicius Gallus, 22 

Sultan or Soldan, 672 

Sun, notions of the ancients 
about his setting, 374. 567 

Surinam, 716 

Susiana, 597 

Sweden, 581 

Switzerland, 548 

Sylla, 239 

Sylvanus, 380 

Symphgades, 352 

Syracuse, 259 

Syria, 593. 627 

Syrtica regio, 677 

T 

Tanarus, 284 

Tamerlane, 481. 639 

Tanaquil, 199 

Tantalus, 403 

Tarentum, 166 

Tarquinius Priscus, 199 

Superbus, 203 

Tarsus, 590 

Tartary, 661 

Tatius, 194 

Terra Firma, 710 

Terraqueous globe, 98 
Its component parts, ib. 
Opinions of the ancients con- 
cerning its formation, 99 

Terrestrial globe, 5 

Telamon, 385. 400 

Telephus, 447 

Telescopes, invention of, 29. 67 
Tell, William, 550 
TemenuSy 408. 410 
Tempd, 319 



Tenedos, 344 
Teneriffe, 663 
Terence, 681 
Tereus, 419 
Thales, 11 
Thasus, 346 

Theba, Thebes, 303. 322. 426 

in Egypt, 665 

Thebaid, subject of, 429 
Themistocles, 334. 337. 465 
Theodoric, 250 
Theodosius, 249 
Theophrastus, 295 
Thera, 338 

Therma <y. Thessalonica, 325 
Thermometer, invention of, 54 
Thermopyla, 310 
Thersander, 432 
Theseus, 422. 460 
Thespia, 305 
Thesprotia, 316 
Thessalia, 319 

Thessalian women, remarkable 

for their skill in magic, 325 
Thessalomca, Salonichi, 325 
Thetis, 445 
Thrace, 344 
Thracian Bosporus, 350 
Thrasybulus, 467 
Thucydides, 346. 466 
Thyestes, 405 
Thy mates, 425 
Tiberius, 244 
Ttbur, Tivoli, 144 
Ticinum, Pa via, 135 
Tides, their cause, 86 
Timochares, 17 
Tin, us 
Tisamanes, 408 
Titan, 355 
Tithonus, 377 
To mi, whence named, 353 
Tomyris, 602 
Trachin, 320 
Trajan's bridge, 353 
Transit of Venus, first observed, 

3° . . 

Transubstantiation, 575 

Trent, council of, 135. 571 

Triangles, 



INDEX. 



Triangles, 74 
Trigonometry, 21. 74 
Tripoli, 628 
Triton, 386 

Tribunes of the commons insti- 
tuted, 2TI. I39 
Troas £sf Troja, 587 
Troezen, 286 

Trophonius, oracle of, 305 
Tropics, 6 

Tuisco v. Tuisto, 556 

Tullia, 202 

Tullus Hostilius, 196 

TumultuSi 544 

Turnus, 190 

Turkey in Asia, 628 

Turks, 479* government of, 627 

Tusculum, Frescati, 145 

Twinkling of the stars, the 

cause of, 62 
Tycho Brahe, 27 
Tydeus, 430. 434 
Tyndarus, 411 
Tyre, 594. 628 
Tyrtasus, 463 

U 

Ulysses, 186 

Umbria, 136 

United Provinces, 552 

Universities, first instituted, 24 

JJrim and Thummim, 668 

V 

Vacuum, disputes about, gl« 36 
Valens, 249 

Valerius Poplicola, 205. 208 
Van Helmont, 47. 100 
Varro, 22 
Vegetables, 102 
Veji, siege of, 218 
Velocity of falling bodies, 70 
Venereal disease, whence brought, 

685 
Venice, 251 
Venus, 363 
Venusia, Venosa, 161 
Verdigris, 115 
Vera Cruz, 702 



Vermont, 698 
Vesta, 359 
Vesuvius, 154 
Via Appia, &c. 183 
Villa ot Horace, 139 
Virbius, 424 
Virginia, 215 

Virginia, country in America, 700 
Vitellius, 246 
Vitruvius, 22 
Volcanoes, 53. 113. 125 
Vultur, a mountain, 162 

W 

Wallace, William, 509 
Waltherus, Bernard, 26 
Walworth, 511 
Washington, General, 700 
Wat Tyler, 511 
Waters, 1 1 6 

divisions of, 123 

Wedge, 69 

Welding , action of, 1 1 5 
Wickliffe, 310 

William I. and II. Kings of Eng- 
land, 506. III. 527 

Winds, 55. — 59. hot winds, 649. 
&6 75 

Wolga, 580 

X 

Xanthus, 432 

Xenophanes, 15 

Xenophon, 306. 468 

Xerxes, 327. 334. 349. 614 . 

Ximenes, Cardinal, 487 

Xuthus, 420 

Z 

Zacynthus, Zante, 332 
Zaleucus, 176 
Zeno, 296 
Zemindars, 648 
Zetbes, 420 
Zetbusy 428 
Zisca, 575 
Zodiac, 6 
Zones, 8 
Zoroaster, 623 



A 

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX : 



CONTAINING 

The LATIN NAMES of the Principal Countries, Cities, Rivers, and 
Mountains mentioned in the Greek and Roman Classics ; 
With the Modern Names subjoined j 



The LATIN NAMES of the Inhabitants, and the Adjectives and other 
Words derived from the Names of the Places j 



The most remarkable Epithets annexed : and an Explanation of Difficult 
Words and Phrases : 



A SUPPLEMENT 



SUMMARY of ANCIENT and MODERN GEOGRAPHY* 



By ALEXANDER ADAM, IX. D. 

RECTOR OF THE HIGH SCHOOL OF EDINBURGH? 



3 B 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



It having been thought proper to delay the publication of 
the Summary of Geography and History, although printed and 
entered in Stationers Hall, till new Maps for illustrating it 
should be engraved, it was, in the mean time, suggested to the 
Compiler, that Tables of the ancient Names of Places, with 
the Modern Names contrasted, would be a desirable addition 
to the Work. Perceiving at once the utility of this suggestion, 
he undertook the execution of it with alacrity,' and has com- 
pleted it with such improvements, as, he hopes, will be found 
conducive to promote the great end of his labours,, the facili- 
tating of the acquisition of classical learning, in conjunction 
with general knowledge. 

The tables are so contrived as to serve both for an Index and 
a Supplement to the Book. The modern name is generally 
subjoined to the ancient; and the page of the Book is added 
where a more minute account of the place is given. When no 
page is marked, the Index affords information not to be found 
in the book; for in several parts of it the Compiler, from a 
desire of brevity, satisfied himself with transcribing from a small 
Abridgment, which he printed for the use of his Scholars about 
eleven years ago, without quoting authorities. 

The Maps are on a small scale, that they may answer the 
gize of the Book, and be less liable to be torn. The Ancient 
Maps have been copied chiefly from those of D'Anville, and 
contain the names of many places, which are not inserted in the 
Index, because they seldom occur in the Classics, and some of 
them are only to be met with in Ptolemy, or later geographical 
writers. 

A similar Syllabus of the Names of the Heathen Deities, and 
of the most Illustrious Persons of Antiquity, with their Derivatives 
and Epithets subjoined, would likewise be a work of utility, and 
therefore may perhaps some time hereafter be attempted. * 
Edinburgh, 
nth May 1795. 

r 

* It has since been accomplished in the Classical Biockaphy. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



WITH 

The MODERN NAMES subjoined, of such places as remain, 
or are known. 



ABALUS, -t, f. an island in the 
German ocean, where amber was 
supposed to drop from the trees, Plin. 
37- 2 s. 11. 
ABATOS, -i.f. a small island in the 
Nile, which none but the priests were 
permitted to enter : and where the an- 
nual increase of that river was first per- 
ceived, Se?iec. N. Q. 4. 2. Lucan.x. 
323. 

ABDERA, a maritime town of Thrace, 
p. 345. Inh. Abderit^, Liv. 43. 
4. sing. Abderites Protagoras, Cic. 
N. D. 1. 23. hence Abderitance pectora 
plebis hales, i. e. You are stupid or 
foolish, as the Abderitce were said to be, 
Martial. 10. 25. 4. 

ABELLA, Avella, a town of Campa- 
nia, called Melif era, from its abound- 
ing in apples, Virg. Mn. 7. 740. hut 
not rich in corn, (pauper sulci Ceredlis,) 
Sil. 8. 544. Abellince vel Avellanae 
nuces, hazel-nuts, Plin. 15. 22 s. 24. 

ABELLIiMUM, Avellino, a town of 
Campania, Inh. Abellindtes, -ium. 

ABIl, a people of Scythia, Curt. 7. 6. 11. 

ABNOBA, Abenow, or the Black 
Mountain, in Germany, where the 
Danube rises, Tacit. G. 1.4, 

Aborigines, -urn. the original inhabi- 
tants of the Roman territory, Liv. 1.1. 
Sail. Cat. 6. 

Abos, vel -us, &i Aba, vel -as, m. Abi- 
dag, a mountain in Armenia Major, 
where the. rivers Euphrates and Araxes 
rise. 

Absyrtides, -um. f. Cherso and Osero, 
islands in the Adriatic sea, Plin. 3. 
26 s. 30. Lucan mentions only one 
Absyrtos, 3. 190. 

Abus, the river H umber, in England. 

Abvdos, i. m. Nagara; a town of 
Troas, on the Hellespont; abounding 
in oysters, (ostrifer,) Virg. G. 1. 
207. So near Sestos in Europe, that 
to a person approaching them by sea, 
they appeared one city ; hence Cceperat 



a gemind (sorore quasi) discedere Sestos 
Abydo, Val. Flacc. 1. 285. Inh. Aby- 
deni, Liv. 3 J. 17. & 18. Adj. Aby- 
denus, p. 349. — Also a town in 
Egypt, the residence of Memnon, Plin. 
b. 9. s. 11. now Madfune. 

ABYLA, -<b, Cerita, a mountain in 
Mauritania, near the Prelum Herculenm, 
or Straits of Gibraltar, opposite to Calpe 
in Spain, which now forms the rock of 
Gibraltar, these two mountains were 
called Columns Herculis, the pil- 
lars of Hercules, as being the limits of 
his labours (laborum mctce) . Accord- 
ing to fable, they were united by a con- 
tinued ridge, till that hero separated 
them, and thus opened a communica- 
tion between the Mediterranean and 
Atlantic, Plin. S.procem, Mel. 1. 5. 

ACADEMIA, a place near Athens, 
where Plato taught; whence his fol- 
lowers were called Academici, 294. 
Also, a villa of Cicero's, 1.50. Plin. 31* 

2 S. 3. Adj. ACADEMICUS. 

ACAMAS, -antis, m. Holy Epipha- 
ny ; a prom, of Cyprus ; whence 
that island was anciently called Aca- 
mantis, Plin. 5. 31 s. 35. 

ACANTHUS, Erisso, a town of Ma- 
cedonia, on the Strymonic gulf; whence 
Xerxes drew a canal to the Singitic 
gulf, to avoid sailing round mount 
Athos, 327. 

ACARNANIA, Carnia, a division of 
Epirus or Grcecia Propria, 314. The 
people, Acarndnes, sing. Acarnan. Liv, 
26.24; 31. 14; 33. 16. & 17 ; 36* 
11. & 12; 43. 17, &c. Acarnanica 
conjuratio, lb. 26. 25. 

ACERRjE, Acerra, a town in Cam- 
pania, 149. Inh. Accerant, Liv. 8. 
17. 

ACESINES, a>, Jenaub or Clmnaub, 
a branch of the river Indus, 643. Plin, 
6. 20. & 37. 13. 

ACESTA, Segesta, a town in Sicily. 
270. 

3 B 2 



740 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



ACH/EMENIA, a part of Persia, named 
from its first king Aobaemenes ; whence 
Achcemenius -a, -um, Persian, Horat. 
Od. 3, 1, 44. Epod. 13, 8. 

ACHAIA Propria, Romania Ai.ta, the 
north part of Peloponnesus, 279, put 
by the poets for the whole of Greece, 
Ovid. Met. 8, 268 ; Ep. 17, 209; 
whence Achjei or Ac in vi, the Greeks; 
Achais His, and Achaias -ados, f. 
Grecian 5 Achatdes urbes, Id. Met. 5, 
306; Achaiades matres, Id. pp. 3. 71. 
adj. Achczus, Achaius, or Achat xis. 
When ihe Romans reduced Peloponnesus 
and Grcscia Propria to ihe form of a 
province, they called the whole Achaia ; 
because the Achseans were then the 
principal people, Pausan. 7, 16. 

ACHARNiE, a town of Attica, 303. 
adj. shharnanus. 

ACHATES, ce, a river of Sicily, which 
gave name to the achates, or agate, a 
precious stone, said to have been first 
found on its banks, Plin. 37, 10. 

ACHELOUS, Aspro Potamo, a river 
which divided .ZEtclia from Acarnania, 
312 & 401 ; adj. Acheloius. 

ACHERON, -o-ath, m. & f. a river of 
the Bruttii, 173. and of Epire, 316.; 
the name also of one of the infernal 
rivers, lb. often put for the infernal 
regions, Horat. Od. 1 , 3, 36. or the in- 
habitants of them, Virg.Mn. 7, 312.; 
whence Acherontius, et -imtius, vel 
Acherunticus, -a, -um. 

ACHERONTIA, Acerensa, a small 
town of Apulia, on the top of a hill ; 
hence called Nidus, a nest, Horat. Od. 
3, 4, 14. 

ACHERUSIA, a lake near Cumae in 
Campania, Plin. 3, 5 s. 9.; and in 
' Epire, Id. 4, 1. ; also a cave in the 
Ckersoncsus Taurica, or Grim Tarlary, 
through which Hercules is said to have 
dragged the dog Cerberus from hell, 
Plin. 6, 1. & 27, 2.; Ovid. Met. 7, 
409, &c. : Mel. 1, 19, 55.; called also 
Acherusis, -idis, F. Val. Flacc. 5, 
73.; hence Acherusia templa, the in- 
fernal regions, Liter. 3, 25. Stultorum 
Acherusia vita, unhappy as that of those 
in Tartarus, //•. 1036. Acherusius hu- 
mor, the water of Acheron, Sil. 13, 
398. 

ACHILLEOS DROMOS, or Achil- 
las Cursus, a peninsula near the 
mouth of the Bori^thCnes, where Achil- 
les instituted games, Plin. 4, 12 s. 26. 
p. 449. 

ACHlLLEUM, a town of Troas. 
AC1DALIUS, a fountain iu Orchorao- 



nos, a town of Bceotia, in which the 
Graces were supposed to bathe ; whence 

. Venus is called Mater Acidalia, 
Virg. Mn. 1, 720. p. 305. 

ACILA, Ziden, a town of Arabia on 
the Red Sea, from which they set sail 
for India, Plin. 6, 28. 

ACIRIS, Agri, a river of Lucania, 170. 

ACIS, -is, or -idis, Jaci, a river of Si- 
cily, 258. 

ACO vel Ace, Acre, a town of Phoe- 
nicia, 628. 

ACRADlNA, a part of the city Syra- 
cuse, 260. 

ACRA JAPYGIA, Cape di Leuca, in 
Calabiia, 165. 

ACPwE, Palazzolo, a town of Sicily, 
near the prom. Pachynus ; the inha- 
bitants, Acrexses. 

ACRAGAS, or Agrigentum, Girgev- 
TI, a city of Sicily, on the summit of 
a high mountain, 264, Virg. A. 3, 
703. 

ACRO CERAUNIA, vel. -ium ; or Ce- 
raunii monies, high mountains in Epire, 

318 

ACRO CORINTHUS, f. the citadel of 
Corinfh, 280. 

ACRONIUS LACUS, Unter-sce, the 
lower part of the lake of Constance. 
Mel. 3, 2, 67. 

ACROPOLIS, -is, f. the citadel of 
Athens, 288. 

ACTE, Acta, vel Actica, the country of 
AttVca ; whence Act/eus, -a, -um, 
Athenian, 417. 

ACTIUM, Azio, a small town of Acar- 
nania ; whence Actius vel Actiacus, -a, 
-um, 314. ACTIUM prom. Puma de 
la Civolo, or Capo di Figalo, near 
which Augustus defeated Antony in a 
naval battle, 314. 

ACTIUM CORCYR.E, so called, to 
distinguish it from the former, Cic. Alt. 
7,2. V 

ADDUA, Adda, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, running into the Po on the north, 
135. 

ADOlNIS, is, & idis, m. Nahr-Itra- 
him, a river in Phoenicia. 

ADRAMYTTIUM, Adramitti, a ma- 
ritime town of Mysia, adj. Adramyt- 
tenus, 587- 

ADRIA, vel Hadria, m. the Adriatic Sea 
or Gulf of Venice ; named from 
Adria, f. a town at the top of it, 132. 
Liv. 5, 33. Justin. 20, 1. Mare Adri- 
acum, Adriatic um, v. Adrianum ; but 
we find only Adrianus ager, the ter- 
ritory of the town Adria, Liv. 22, 9. 
Adriani, its inhabitants, Liv.27, 10. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 741 



ADRUMETUM, vel HaHrumetum, a city 
of Africa Propria, 681. Inh. Adru- 
metani. 

ADUATACA, vel Aluataca, Tongres, 
a town of Gallia Belgica, 528. 

ADUATICORUM oppidum, Falais on 
the Mehaige, Caes. 2, 29. 

ADULA, St. Rodharos, a mountain of 
Rhaetia, part of the Alps, in which are 
the fountains of the Rhine. 

Adulis vel Adule. Arkiko, a town of 
Upper Egypt on the Red Sea. Inh. 
Adiditar, Plin. 9, 29. which gave name 
to the hay, Adulitus Sinus. Heie was 
a statue of Ptolemy Everge'tes, with a 
pompous inscription ; called Monumen- 
tum Adulitanum, published at Rome 
by Leo Allatius, a. 1631. 

jEa, a city or island of Colchis, at the 
mouth of the river Phasis ; Pliny places 
it 15 miles from the sea, 6, 4. Hence 
M<sa Circe, Virg. /En. 3, 386, who is 
supposed to have been born or to have 
resided in this country : Mesa carmina, 
magical songs, Ovid. Amor. 1, 8, 5. 
Aries Mane, ib. 2, 15, 10. 

.Ejee, -es, f. the island of Calypso in 
the FretumSendum, Mel. 2, 7. Hygin. 
125. Servius places it near Cereeji. 
Ad. Mn. 3, 286. Hence Calypso is called 
Masa puella, Propert. 3, 11,31. 

JEEM, -arum, was a town of Apulia, 
Liv. 24, 20. 

/Eanteium, the tomb of Ajax in Troas, 
Plin. 5, 30. 

Mas, Mantis, m. a small river of Epire, 
Lucan. 6, 361. called also Aous, Plin. 
3, 23. 

/EDEPSUS, v. -urn, Dipso, a town of 
Eubcea, with hot baths, 

JEgie or Edessa, a city of Macedonia, 325. 

/EDUI, a people of Gaul, inhabiting along 
the river Arar or Soane, 537. 

.EG/EUM MARE, the Archipelago, 
between Europe and Asia ; said to be 
named from Mgeus, 322, or from a 
rocky island between Tenedos and 
Chios, called AEX, from its resem- 
blance to a goat, Plin. 4, 11. or from 
Mgce, a town of Eubcea, Strab. 8. 
p. 386. or from its numerous islands, 
having, at a distance the appearance of 
goats, (dtyuv.) Festus ; Van. de R. 
R. 2, 1, 8. perhaps rather from its 
tempestuous billows (uiyz;). Heiusius 
ad Sil. 1. 468. Tumultus Mgcei, the 
tempests of the Egean sea. Hor. Od. 3. 
29, 63. Ionium Mgceo frangat mare, 
the Ionian would flow into or join 
the Egean sea, Lucan, l, 103. 



jEgates, Mg Fides, or JEguace, three 

small islands over agah.st Lilybaeum. 

269. Sil. 1, 61. 
jEGESTA, a town of Sicily, the same with 

Acesta,<2lQ. Inh. JEgesUi or JEgestani. 
yEGIMURUS, Galetta, an island in 

the bay of Carthage, Liv. 29, 27. et 

30, 24. 

/EGINA, Engia, an island in the Sa- 
ronic bay or bay of Engia; 333. Inh. 
/Eginets:; Adj. Mginelicus. 

/EGINlUM, a town of Thessaly, Liv, 

. 32, 15 ; 36, 13 ; 44, 46; 45, 27. 

/EGIUM, Vostitza, a town in Achaia 
Propria, 28 J . so named because Jupi- 
ter is said to have been nursed there 
by a goat (W ouyoi), Strab. 8, 38/. 
Liv. 28,7. 

/EGOS POTAMOS, or the goat's river, 
in. the Thracian Chersonese, 349- 

jEGUSA, one of the JEgalcs. 

/EGYPTUS, Egypt, 665. Inh. JEgxjp- 
tii, adj. JEgyptius et JEgypliacus. 

/EMONIA or Hxmonia, a poetic name of 
Thessaly ; whence JEmonius, Thessa- 
lian, 320; thus, JEmonius juvenis, 
1. e. Jason, Ovid. Met. 7, 132. 
H&monii equi, i. e. equi Achillis, Ovid. 
Trist. 3, 11, 2 8. JEmonia puppis, the 
ship Argo, Id. Art. Am. 1,6. 

/EMUS, see Hamus. 

/ENARIA vel hiarime, Ischia, an island 
over against Cumse in Campania, 150. 
Liv. 8, 22. 

/ENEA vel /ENIA, Moncasiro, a ma- 
ritime town of Macedonia, said to 
have been built by ./Eneas, Liv. 40, 4. 
see p. 326. Virgil places it in 
Thrace, JEn. 3, 18. see p. 188. Inh. 
/Eneates. 1 

/EN US vel JEnos, Eno, a town of 
Thrace, p. 345. on the eastmost 
mouth of the Hebrus, Mel. 2, 2. Inh. 
/Enii. 

/Enus, the Inn, a river of Rhaetia, 
which flows into the Danube, Tacit. 
Hist. 3, 5. 

/EOLIiE INSUL/E, the Lipari islands, 
275. Hence JEolii career saxi, the 
prison in which /Eolus was sup- 
posed to confine the winds, Lucan. 5, 
609. 

/EOLIS, -Mis, f. vel JEolia, -a, a coun- 
try in Asia Minor, 587. Inh. JEules 
vel JEolii; whence JEolica ratio, the 
/Eolic dialect, Quinctilian, 1, 6, 31, 
JEolica dicta, words of the /Eolic dialect, 
ib. 8, 3, 59. JEolium carmen, lyric 
poetry ; as Sappho and Alcaeus, the 
first lyric poets, were natives of the 
3 B 3 



742 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



island Lesbos, which formed part of 
./Eoiis, and consequently wrote in the 
jEolic dialect, Horal. Od. 4, 3, 12. 
JEoliapuella, Sappho, ib. 4, 9, 12. 
jEoLiutvr Make, the Gulf of Smyrna, 
that part of the Egean sea, bordering 
on iEolis. 

iEoui, a people of Latium ; called also 
JEquicblce vel i, vel JEqidcolani. 

jEqui milium a place in Rome, 218. 

jESEPUS, a river of Mysia. 

iESIS, Esino, a river of Italy, which 
separated Umbria from Picenum, 137. 
Sit. 8, 446. 

iESUS, lEsr, a town of Umbria, on the 
iEsis : Inh. /Esinates, whence JEsinas 
caseus, Plin. 11. 42. 

JESTIMI vel JEstyi, a people of Ger- 
many, inhabiting Estonia, a part of 
Livonia, Tacit. G. 45, p. 568, 

iEsuLA & -urn i a town of Latium, 
Horat. Od. 3, 29. 

iETHALIA vel Elva, Elba, an island on 
the coast of Etruria, Plin. 3, 6. called 
also JEtheria, Plin. 6, 30. 

^ETHIOPIA, a country of Africa, Inh. 
iETHioPES, sing. JEthiops, who had 
curled hair, and their bodies of a black 
colour, from the continual heat, Ln- 
can. 10, 131, & 222. Hence JEthio- 
picus Oceamts, Plin. 6, 30. Mthio piece 
naves, id. 5, 9. — Jupiter JEthiopum 
remeans tellure,S\\. 12, 605. alluding to 
the fiction of Homer, who makes the 
gods to go and feast annually for a cer- 
tain time in Ethiopia, 11. 1, 423. Odyss. 

1. 22. So Statius, Theb. 5, 426. 
iETNA, Gibello, a famous volcano in 

Sicily, 271. Hence JEtnceis habitans 
in vallibus, the inhabitants of the vallies 
round yEtna, Lucan. 6, 293. JEtncea 
tellus, Sicily, Ovid. Met. 8, 260. JEt- 
n<sus pastor, Polyphemus, Id. Font. 2, 

2, 115. JEtnceifr aires, the cyclops, 
Virg. JEn. 3, 678. 

iETNA, Nicolosi, a town at the bottom 
of the south side of the mountain, 
Strab.'6, 268. JEbiensis ager, its ter- 
ritory, Cic. Verr. 3, 105. 

jETOLIA , a part of Grcecia Propria, 312. 
Inh. ^Etoli, 313, Adj. JEtolicus, JE- 
tolus, et JEtoliits ; JEtolicum helium, 
Liv. 28, 5. JEtolius hcros, Diemedes, 
Ovid. Met. 14, 461. Arpi JEtoli, 
built by Diomedes, Virg. /En. 10, 
28. Mtoli Campi, Apulia. Sil. 1, 125. 
et 9, 495. et 10, 185, &c. see p. 186. 
8c 458. 

AFRICA, the third great division of the 
world, according to the ancients, Sallust. 



Jug. 17. called also Libya. Varr.R.R. 
2, ], 6. That part next to Italy, and 
subject to Carthage, was called Africa 
Propria, Inh. Afri, discincti, loose 
robed, Virg. JEn. 8, 724. sing. Afer, 
put for Hannibal, Hor. Od. 4, 4, 42. 
used as an adj. Armentaiius Afer, an 
African herdsman, Virg. G. 3, 344. 
Afer murex, African purple-dye, Ho- 
rat. Od. 2, 16, 35. Afra avis, a 
Guinea hen, Id. Epod.1, 53. Serpenles 
Afri, Id. Sat. 2, 8. 9b. — Africa bella, 
the wars of or in Africa, Sil, 17, 11. 
Scipio Africani's, so called from his 
conquering the Carthaginians in Africa, 
Horat. Epod. 9, 25. Africans, sc. 
leslue, wild beasts from Africa, Cic, 
Earn. 8, 8 Sc 9. Plin. 8, 17 s. 24. 
Liv. 44, 18. Africanas res, ib. 5, 21. 
Fici Africance nobiles, Cato, 8, 1. 

AFRICTJS, -i, m. a wind blowing from 
Afiica between south and west ; pro- 
perly an adj. sc. venlus; as, Africce 
procellce, i. e. ah Africo vento exciiatos. 
Horat. Od. 3, 29, 57. 

Aganippe, a fountain of Bceotia, 304. 

AGAThA, v. -e, Agde, a town in Lan- 
guedoc, on the river Arauris, Erauli, 
Mel. 2, 5. Plin. 3, 4. near an island of 
the same name. 

AGATHOPOXIS, Montpelier, a town 
of Languedoc. 

AGATHYRSI, a people of Sarrnatia, 
who lived east from the mouth of the 
Borysthgnes, and painted their bodies , 
Mel. 2. 1. Virg. JEn. 4, 146. called 
also Hamaxobii, from their living ia 
wagons, Mel. ib. 

AGEN DICUM, Sens, chief town of the 
Seiiones, in Gaul, situate a little above 
the confluence of the lcauna or Yonne, 
and the Sequana or Seine. 

AGR /EI, a people of jEtolia, Liv. 32, 
34. 

Agravonit\£, a people of Illyricum, Liv. 

45, 26. 

AGRIGENTUM, vel Acragas, Gir- 
genti, a town of Sicily ; Agrigenti- 
nus, n. et adj. 

AGRIPPINA COLON IA, Ubiorum vel 
Agrippinensis, Cologne, a town of 
Lower Germany on the Rhine. 

AGYLLA, or ~ce, the ancient name of 
Ccere, now Cervetere, a town of Tus- 
cany, Virg. JEn. 8. 479. adj. Agylli- 
nus. 

AGYRIUM vel Argyrium, San Filipo 
d'Argirone, a town of Sicily, near the 
river Symaethus; Populus AgyrintnsiSs 
Cic. AgyrumSf Plin. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 7*$ 



ALABANDA, -<s, a city of Caria near 
the river Meander, 589. Inh. Alabandi 
vel Alabandeni, Alabandenses or Ala- 
bandeis, Cic. Fam. 13, 56. N. D. 3, 19. 
Liv. 45, 25. Ager Alalandensis, v. 
-deus. Livy tises Alabanda in theplur. 
-orum, 33, 18. So Juvenal, 3, 70. It 
was built by Alabanbus, who was 
therefore worshipped as a God, Cic. 
N.D. 3, 19. 

ALABASTRUM, a town in Egypt, Plin, 
5, 9, near which Alabaster, (alabaslrites, 
-ce, m.) a soft kind of marble, was 
found, Plin. 36, 7 - & 37, 10. 

ALABIS, a river of Sicily, 259. 

ALANDER, a river of Phrygia, Liv. 
33, 18. 

ALANI, a people of Sarmatia, north of 
mount Caucasus, near the river Tanais, 
and the Palus Mathtis, Joseph. B. J. 
7, 29. Claudianin Ryfin. 1,314. Plin. 

4, 12. 

AlataCastra, supposed to be Edinburgh, 
491. 

ALBA LONGA, Palazzo, a town of 
Latium. 146. named Alba from a 
white sow, found by .-Eneas upon his 
landing in Italy, with a litter of thirty 
young. Virg. JEn. 3, 390. et 8, 42. 
Juvenal, 12, 72. Varr. de R. R. 2, 4. 
and Longa from its being extended on 
the ridge of a hill, Liv. 1, 3. which 
was called Albanus Mons, at the foot 
of which is a lake called Albanus 
lacus, Liv. 1, 3. or Albana aqua, Cic. 
de Div. J, 44. There were several 
towns called Alba; one on the north 
side of the lacus Fucinus; the Inh. of 
which were called Albe?ises, to distin- 
guish them from those of Alba Longa, 
Albani, 139. 

ALBANIA, Servan or Shirvan, a 
country of Asia, west from the Caspian 
sea, Plin. 6, 10. 

ALBANIA PORTiE, Tup Karagan, 
defiles, or a narrow passage in mount 
Caucasus, affording an entrance into 
Albania, Val. Flacc. 3, 497. called also 
Caspies pyU. 

ALBION, the ancient name of Britain, 
490. Britain and all the islands round 
it were called Britamiice, Plin. 4, 16s.30. 

ALBIS, Elbe, a large river of Germany, 
Tacit. G. 41. Lucan. 2, 51. 

ALBULA, the ancient name of the river 
Tiber, Virg. Mn.S. 331. Plin. 3. 5s. 9. 

ALBUNEA, a fountain and wood near 
Tibur in Latium, 145. 

ALBURNUS MONS, Albanella, a 
mountain of Lucarria, 172. 



ALCE, Alcazar, a town of Spain, Liv. 

40, 48. 

ALEMANNI, a people of Germany who 
gave the name of Alemannia to the 
whole of that country, Claudian, 4. 
Cons. Honor. 449. first mentioned under 
Caracalla, who conquered them, and 
assumed the siniame of Alemannicus. 
Spariian. in vita ejus, 10. 

ALESIA vel ALEXIA, Alise, a fa- 
mous city of Gaul, 537. Cees. B. G. 
7. 68. &e. Veil. 2, 47. Flor. 3, 
10, 23. 

ALEXANDRIA, Scanperoon, a px'm- 
cipal city of Egypt, 669, Liv. 8, 24. 
Inh. Alexandrini, Liv. 44, 19, 
Alexandrines naves, ships which, brought 
corn and other commodities from Egypt 
to Rome, Suet. Aug. 98. Senec. Ep. 77. 
Plin. Pan. 31. Alexandrina vita atque 
licentia, Cses. B. C. 3, 110. Alexan- 
drine delicicE, boys bred for amusement, 
and encouraged in the use of immodest 
language, QuinctiUan, 1, 2, 7. hence 
called Loquaces delicice, Stat. Sylv. 5, 

5, 66. Also a town of Troas, Liv. 

35, 42. et 37, 55 5 whence Alexan- 
dria laurits, Plin. 15. 30 s. 39. — also 
the name of several other towns. 

ALGIDUS, a mountain and town of 
Latium, 146. whence Algidensis, Plin. 

- 19, 5. 

ALIACMON vel Haliacmon, a river of 
Macedonia, 324*. 

ALIFA vel Allifa, Alifi, a town of 
Samnium, Liv. 9, 38. Inh. Allifani, 
Cic. Rull. 2, 25. Allifates populi^ 
Liv. 9, 42. Allijanus ager, Liv. 22. 
13. & 17. ; 26, 9- — Alifana, sc. po- 
cula, large cups, Horat. Sat. 2, 8, 39; 
such as the old Scholiast, on this pas- 
sage, says, were made at Alifse; whence 
Allifanus Jaficho Hand inamatus ager, 
Sil. 12.5-26. 

ALIPHERA, a town of Arcadia, Liv. 
28, 8. 32,5. 

Allia, a river which joins the Tiber a 
little above Rome, 1 43, whence Alli- 
ensis clades, the defeat of the Romans 
by the Gauls under Brennus, Liv. 5, 
37. &c. Alliensis dies (xv. Kal. 
Sext.) the anniversary of that defeat, 
ever after held as a dies aier vel in- 
faustus, an unlucky day, ib. 6, 1. Tacit, 
Hist. 2, 91. Virz'.Mn. 7, 7H- 

ALLOBROGES, sing. Allolrox; a na- 
tion inhabiting that part of Gaul, now 
called Dauphine : whence Allobrogi- 
cum vinum, Cels. 4, 5. Allobrogici put 
for Allobrogicus, a sirname give© 
3 B 4 



744 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



to Fabius Maximus, for having con- 
quered that nation, Juvenal. 8, 13. 
Fat. Max. 3, 5, 2. et 6, Q, 4. 

ALMO, a rivulet running into the Tiber, 
about a mile below Rome ; in which 
the priests of Gvbe'le, the mother of the 
gods, annually washid her image on the 
25th of IVIa-ch, Ovid. Fast. 4, 337- 

ALOPE, a town of Locris in Greece, Liv. 
42, 56. 

ALOPECONNESUS, a town of the 
Tl.racian Chersonese, Liv. 31, 16. 

ALPES, -turn. f. The ALrs, a range of 
very high mountains separating Italy 
from Gaul and Germany, 535. so call- 
ed, according to Festus, from the white- 
ness of their appearance, being always 
covered with snow [quasi albi mantes) : 
SeePli?i. 16, 3. s. 60. & 31, 3. s. 26. 
Alpince gentes, those who lived among 
the Alps, Liv. 21, 43. Alpici, Nep. 
Hannibal. 3. 

ALPHEUS, Alfeo, a river of Elis, '2 si 
& 260. running near Vishl ; hence Pisa 
in Tuscany is termed Pises Alph'ece, as 
being founded by a colony from Pisa on 
the Alpheus in Peloponnesus, Firg. 
jEn. 10, 179- — Alpheias, -adis.f. the 
fountain Arethusa at Syracuse, as being 
supposed to have a communication be- 
low ground with the river Alpheus, 
Ovid. Met. 5, 587- See p. 260. Firg. 
JEn. io, 179. 

ALS1UM, Statua, a town of Tuscany, 
Plin. 3, 3. Sil. 8, 476. whence Alsi- 
ensis, adj. Cic. Fam. 9, 6. 

ALT! IN I'M, Altino, a town of Vene- 
tia, famous for its fine wool, Martial. 
14,155 Plin. 3, 18; Il)h. Al.TiNA- 
tes, Plin. Ep. 3, 2. J I tinales ores, 
Columel. 7 » 2- 3. 

ALUTA, Alt or Alut, a river of Dacia, 

- which runs into the Danube. 

ALYZIA, a town of Acarnania, Cic. 
Fain. 16, 2. 

AMALTHEA, a villa belonging to At- 
ticus in Epire, Cic. Alt, 1, 13. 

AMANUS, Al.— Lucan, a branch of 
mount Taurus, which separates Syria 
from Cilicia, Cic. Fam. 2, 10. Alt. 5, 
20. Inh. Amanienses, ib. 

AMaMCE PYL/E, a defile or narrow 
pass through Amanus, Curt. 3, 8, 13. 
by which Darius entered Cilicia, at a 
greater distance from the sea than the 
Pylce Cilicix vel Syria, througli which 
Alexander entered Syria, Curt. 3, 4, 2, 
?.< 11. Arriun. 2. p. 94. Plutarch, in 
Alexundro. Polyb. 12, 8. 

AMANTIA, a town on the coast of II- 



lvricum, Cic. Phil. 11, 11. Ces. Civ. 
P. 3, 40. 

AMASINUS, a river of Latium, Firg. 
JEn. 7, 685.^ 11, 547. 

AM ASIA vel Amisia, Amisius jvel Ami- 
sus, the Ems, a river of Germany, 
Mel. 3, 3. Plin. 4, 14. Tacit. Ann. I, 
60. &. 63. flowing by Embden into the 
German sea. 

Amastra, Sil. 14, 267. or Amestratos, a 
town of Sicily ; whence Amestratinus, 
Cic. Verr. 3* 39. et 5, 51. 

AMASTRIS, Amastreh, acityofPaph- 
lagonia, formerly called Sesamum, Plin. 
2, 2. whence Amastriacusj an adj. 
Ovid, in Ibin. 331. 

AMATHUS, -untis, f. Limisso, or Lin- 
meson Antica, a city of Cyprus, sacred 
to Venus, Firg. JEn. 10, 51. whence 
she is called Amathusia, Tacit. Ann. 
3,62. Catull. 61, 51. Ovid. Am. 2, 
15, 15. by which name the island was 
also called, Plin. 5, 31. s. 35. adj. 
Amaihuvtcus vel Amalhusiaats. 

AMAZt)NES vel Amdzfitndes, -um ; a 
nation of female warriors, who are said 
to have dwelt near the river Thermoddn 
in Pontus, Jusiin. 2, 4. Cvrt. 6, 5. 24. 
p. 399, 423. adj. Amazdnius, v. 
icus. 

AMBARRI, a branch of the jEdui, who 
lived on the river Arar, (in Bresse,) 
Cas, B. G. 1,9. 

AMB1ANI, a nation of Gaul, living along 
the river Somme, Ccs. B. G. 2, 4. 
Their chief city Samarobriva, was in 
laie times also called Ambiani, now 
Amiens. 

AMBRAC1A, a city of Thesprotia, in 
Epire, Liv. 38, 3. & 9. which gave 
name to Sinus Ambracius, the Gulf of 
Arta ; Inh. Ambracienses or Ambra- 
ciota> 316. Liv. U8, 43. & 44. 

A MEN AN US, Guidicello, a river of 
Sicily, 258. 

AMERIA, Amelia, a town of Umbria, 
Plin. 3, 14. The osiers of Amcria, 
(Amerina Satix,) were very tough, 
Plin. 24, 9. Col. 4, 30, 4. and there- 
fore used for binding the vine branches 
to the elms or other props; Atone Ame- 
rina -par an I lentx retinacula viti, Virg. 
G. 1, 265. 

AMISUS, v. -wm, Samsoun, a city of 
Pontus, Cic. Manil. 8. Inh. Amueni 9 
Plin. Ep. 10, 9. 

AMITERNUM, a town of the Sabines ; 
139. Inh. Amektinini, Lit'. 28, 45. 
adj. Amiternus et Amitatinus ager^ 
Liv. 21, 62. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



745 



AMPHILOCH1A, the territory round 
Argos Amphilochicum, in Acarnania, 
Cic. Pis. 12. p. 315. called also Am- 
philochi, Liv. 38, 5. 

AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Macedonia, on 
the river Strymon, 327. 

AMPHISSA, the capital of the Locri 
O-zola, so called because surrounded 
on all hands whh mountains, Liv- 38, 
5 Lucan. 3, 172. also a town of the 
Bruttii, between Locri and Caulon ; 
whence Amphissia Saxa, Ov. Met. 15, 
703. 

AMPSAGA, Sussegmar, a river which 
separated Mauritania Csesariensis , on 
the east from Numidia. 

AMtDON, onis, p. 325. a town of Ma- 
cedonia in the district of Pseonia, Juve- 
nal. 3, 69. 

AMPSANCTUS, a valley and lake in the 
country of the Hirpini, in Italy, 157. 

Amyclje, a town in Latium, called Taci- 
tae by Virgil, Mn. 10, 563. because as 
Servius says, the inhabitants embraced 
the doctrines of Pythagoras, who obliged 
his scholars fur some years to keep 
silence, see p. 13. Also a town near 
Lacedaeraon ; adj. Amycljeus, p. 284. 
412. 

ANAGNIA, Anagni, a town of the Her- 
nfoi in Latium, Virg. JEn. 7, 684. 
Inh. Anagnini, Liv. 9, 43. Anagni- 
nus ager, 26, 9. 

Anagyros, v. -is, a place in Attica; 
where a fetid herb, called anagyris, grew 
in great plenty, which the more it was 
handled, the stronger it smelled ; hence 
Anagyrin v. -um commovere, to bring a 
misfortune on one's self, Plin. 27. 4. s. 
] 3. Inh. Anagyrasii, Strab. 9, 398. 

AlMAPAUOMfiNOS, a fountain in Do- 
dona, of curious qualities, 317. 

ANAPHE, an island which suddenly 
emerged from the Cretan sea, near 
Thera, Ovid. Met. 7, 461. 

ANAPUS, & Anupis, a river near Syra- 
cuse, 262. 

ANAS, Guadiana, a river of Spain, Plin. 
3, 1. & 4, 22. 

ANCONA vel Ancon, Ancona, a town of 
Picenum, 137, so called from its situ- 
ation between two promontories forming 
an elbow, (xyxav,) Mel. 2, 4. 

ANCYRA, Angoura or -i, the capital of 
Galatia, 592. Plin. 5, 32. s. 42. 
Also a town of Phrygia Magna y Curt. 
3, 1, 22. adj. Ancyrdnus. 

ANDES, v. -di, Andecavi v. -gavi, a peo- 
ple of Gaul, in Anjou, Caes. B. G. 2, 
36. adj. AnduSf Lucan, 1, 438. 



ANDES, -ium, a village near Mantua, 

where Virgil was born, 135. 
ANDOMADUNUM v. Cantos Lingo- 

num, Langres, a town of Champagne. 
ANDROS, Andro, an island in the Egean 

sea, 337. 

Angitije lucus v. nemus, a grove on the 
west side of the Lacus Fucmus, Virg. 
ELn. 7, 759. 

ANGUI, a people of Germany, north of 
the Elbe, Tacit. G. 40. 

ANIGROS, v. -us, a river of Thessaly, 
in which the Centaurs, being wounded 
by Hercules, bathed their wounds, and 
thus spoiled the waters, Ovid. Met. 15. 
281. 

ANIO, ienis, m. Teverone, a river of 
the Sabines, which joins the Tiber a 
little above Rome, 143. A^nienus, the 
god of the Anio, Stat. Silv. 1, 3, 7. 
Proper t. 4, 1 , 86. adj. Anienus & Am- 
ends: Anienicola, m. one living near the 
Anio, Sil. 4, 225. 

Antandros, St. Dimitri, a town of 
Mysia or Troas, 587. 

ANTEMNA, v. -arum, a town of 
the Sabines, on the same side of the 
Anio, (ante amnem,) with Rome ; Inh. 
Antemnaies, -ium. 

Anthropophagi, cannibals, a nation of 
Scythia that eat human flesh, Plin. 4, 
12 s. 26. et 6, 17 s. 20. &c. 

ATICYRA, veXAnticirrha. Aspro-Spitia, 
a town of Phocis, 309. 

ANTILIBANUS, a mountain of Coele- 
Syria, 594. 

ANTIOCHiA, Antioch, the capital of 
Syria, 594. Inh. Antiochenscs, Caes. 
B. C. 3, 102. adj. Antiochinus, Cic. 
Phil. 11, 7. — also the name of several 

* other cities. 

ANTfPA'FRIS, a town of Samaria, 
Acts, 23, 31. 

ANTIP6LIS, Antibes, a city of Gaul 
on the coast of Provence, about three 
leagues west of Nice. 

ANTIRRH1UM, one of the Dardanelles 
of Lepanto, 313. 

ANTITAURUS, a branch of mount 
Taurus, extending north-east through 
Cappadocia to the Euphrates. 

ANTIUM, Anzio, a city of the Volsci, 
147. Inh. AntiAtes, sing. Antias, 
populus, Liv. 8, 14. adj. Antius, An- 
tianus, et Antialinus. 

ANXUR, uris. m. and n. Terracina, 
a town of Latium. 147. Jupiter 
Anxurus, Jupiter worshipped at Anxur, 
in the form of a boy (q. Axurus J i. e« 
intonsus). Virg. ^En. 7, 799* 



716 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



AoNIA, the mountainous part of Boeotia ; 
Inh. ASnes ; whence Aunius, -a, -urn. 
Boeotian. 306. Aonia humus, Boeotia, 
Ovid. Fast. 1, 490. Aonii, the Boeo- 
tians, Id. Met. 1,313. Aonia: urbes, 
ib. 3, 339. Sorores, the muses, Id. 
Trist. 4, io, 3y. Aonia lyra, i. e. 
musica, Id. Amor. J, 1, 12. Aones 
montes, Helicon and Cithceron, moun- 
tains of Boeotia, sacred to the muses, 
Virg. Eel. 6, 65. Aonius vertex, the 
top of Helicon, Id. G. 3, 11. 

AORNOS, a rock in India, so high as 
to be inaccessible to birds, Curt. 8, 11. 
near the source of the Indus ^ Strab. 15, 
688. Also a place in Epire, the exha- 
lation of which was destructive to birds, 
Plin. 4, 1. whence likewise the lake 
Avernus in Italy got its name, Virg. 
filn. 6, 242. 

Apamea, anciently called Myrlea, now 
Moudania, a city of Bithynia, on the 
Propontis ; adj. Apamceus v. -enus. 
—'Also a cii:y of Phrygia Major, at the 
conflux of the Marsyas and Mseander, 
Cic. Art. 5, 16, &c. formerly called 
Cdcenas, and then Cibotos, Plin, 5, 
'29. or rather increased by the ruins of 
Celsenae, Liv. 38, 13. Strab. 12, 578. 
Afterwards called by way of distinction 
Apamea Cibotos; now Amphion Kar- 
hisar. — Apamea was the name like- 
wise of several other cities. 

APPENINUS, sc. mons, the Appe- 
nine, a ridge of mountains running the 
whole length of Italy, from the Alps in 
Liguria, or the Riviera di Genoa 
to R-hegium, p. 134, 165, & 175, 
whence rivers rise which flow into both 
seas. Appenninigena, vel Appenninicola, 
m. a native or inhabitant of the Appe- 
nines. 

APHE17E, Fetio, a port of Magnesia 
in Thessaly, whence the Argonauts set 
sail, 321, 6c 441. 

APHRODISIAS, Geira, a town of 
Caria j Inh. Aphrodisienses, Plin. 
5, 29. Tacit. Ann. 3, 62. — Also of 
Cilicia, Liv. 33, 20. called Oppidum 
Veneris, Plin. 5. 27 s. 2. 

APHROD1SIUM, Vestiges, a town 
of Cyprus,- and of various other places. 

APIDANUS, Salampria, a river of 
Thessaly, 319. Lucan. 6, 373. 

APJNA, v. -cc, -arum, a town of Apulia, 
near to Tuica ; the names of which 
two towns in the plural came prover- 
bially to signify trifles, or gewgaws, 
Plin. 3, 11 s. 16. Martial, 1, 114, 2. 
& 14, 1, 7. hence Appinarii, triflers, 



buffoons, Trebell. Pull, in Gallien, 
c. 8. 

APOLLONIA, the name of many 
towns; the most famous was in Illyri- 
cum, now Pollina, 329 ; Inh. Apol- 
hniates vel -tee; adj. Apolloniensis vel 
-iaticus. 

AP6NUS, Abano, a hamlet near Pa- 
tavium, with hot baths, salutary in va- 
rious diseases, Sil. 12, 218. Cassiodor. 
Tar. 2, 3 9. supposed also to be pro- 
phetic, Suet. Tib. 14. Lucan. 7. 192. ; 
adj. Aponinus. 

APPII FORUM, Borgo-Longo, a town 
of the Volsci in Latmm, Cic. Alt. 
1, 10. 

APSLS, Crevasta, a river of Illyricum or 
Macedonia, 329. 

APULIA vel Appulia, Puglia, a divi- 
sion of Italy, 158. Inst. Apuli ; adj. 
Apuius et Apulicus. 

AQUiE, Augustce Torballicce, Acqs, a 
town in Gascony famous for its baths. 
— Aquje Helvetica, Baden. — 
Aquje Sexti*:, Aix, in Provence, 
536. — Aqvje Solis vel Calidce, Bath 
in England, 491. 

AQUILEIA, Aquileia, a town of the 
Vene'ti, 135. 

AQUINUM, Aouino, a town of La- 
num, on the borders of Samnium; Inh. 
Aquinates, Cic. Phil. 2, 41. Funis 
Aquinas, a dye of Aquinum, imitating 
real purple, Horat. Ep. 1, 10, 27. 

AQUITANIA, Guienne and Gascony, one 
of the principal divisions of Gaul, 536. 
Inh. Aquitani ; adj. A 'quit amis et A qui' 
tanicits, Tibull. 1, 7> 3. 

ARABIA, an extensive country of Asia, 
5 96. Inh. Arales, sing. Arabs; adj. 
Arabicus, Arabius. v. Arabus. 

ARABICUS SINUS, the Arabian gulf, 
or Red Sea. 

ARACYNTHUS, a mountain of Boeo- 
tia ; called Actaeus, i. e. rocky, or 
near the shore, Virg. Eel. 2, 24. p. 
417- 

ARiE Philenon vel Philenonon, the altars 
of two brothers, Carthaginians, who 
devoted themselves to death for their 
country; the boundary between the 
territories of Carthage and Cyrene, Sal- 
lust. Jug. 19. & 79. Val. Max. 5, 6. 
ext. 4. Mel. 1,7- Strab. 17. 836. 

Arar v. Araris, the Soane, a river so 
slow, that Caesar says, it cannot be 
discerned which way it moves, B. 
G. 1, 10. till it joins the Rhone at 
Lyons. 

ARAUSIO, vel Civitas Arausiensium, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 747 



Orange, a town of Gallia Narlonensis 
in the west of Provence. 

ARAXES, Arras, a river of Armenia, 
593. Alexander built a bridge on it, 
which was carried away by the stream ; 
but that of Augustus stood firm ; to 
which Virgil is supposed to allude, Pon- 
tem indignatus Araxes, Mn. 8, 723. 
There were several rivers of this name. 

ARBELA, -orum, Irbie, a town of Assy- 
ria, near which Alexander finally de- 
feated Darius, 597. 

ARCA, Arka, a town of Phoenicia. 

ARCADIA, a division of Peloponnesus, 
285. Inh. Arcades, sing. Areas ; adj. 
Arcadicus, et Arcadius. 

ARCANUM, a villa of Cicero's near 
Minturoae, Cic. Aft. 5, 1. ad Q. fr. 

&G. 

ARDEA, a town of Latiumj Inh. Ar- 
deates ; Ager Ardeas et Ardeatinus, Ctc. 
N. D. 3, 47. Col. 3, 9. Ardeatina via, 
a way which struck off to the right from 
the Via Appia, and carried to Ardea, 
Festus. 

ARDUENNA, L'Ardenne, a large wood 
in the north part of Gaul, Cess. 5, 3. 
et 6, 27. 

ARELATE, et -urn, et Arelas, -a is, n. 
Arles, a city of Gaul on the Rhone ,* 
Ager Areldtensis, Plin. 10, 42. 

AREMORICA, v. Arnonca, (q. ad 
mare) Bretagne or Brittany, a 
country of France, Coss. 7, 7 a, Plin. 
4, 17. 

ARENACUM, Arnheim, a town of 
Guelderland, on the Waal. 

AREOPAGUS, Mars-kill, a place in 
Athens, where trials were held j Areo- 
pagitce, the Judges, 291. 

ARETHUSA, a famous fountain in Sy- 
racuse, 260. — also the name of several 
other fountains and places. 

ARGEIA, Argia vel Argoiis, a division 
of Peloponnesus, 286. 

Argei v. -a, certain places for perform- 
ing sacred rites in Rome, Liv. 1, 21. 
Ovid. Fast. 3, 791. Varr. L.L. 4, 8. 
Festus. 

ARGENTARIUS, II Monte Argen- 
taro, a hill in Tuscany. 

ARGENT6RA, Strasburg, a town in 
Alsace near the Rhine. 

ARGILETUM, (q. Argi Letum, v. U- 
thum,) a place in Rome, where one 
Argus was slain, Virg. Mn. 8, 346 ; 
adj. Argiletanus, Martial. 1, 4. 

Argolicus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli ; Ar- 
golicus tyrannus, i. e. Eurysteus, Lu- 
can. 9, 367. 



ARGOS., n. et Argi, -orum, the capital 
of Argolis; Inh. Argivi, often put 
for the Greeks in general ; adj. Aigcus 
et Argivus. 

ARGOS HIPPJUM, the ancient nanw? 
of Arp? in Apulia. 158. 

Argos Portus, Porta Ferrara. 

ARGYLLiE, the ancient name of Care ^ 
called by Virgil, Urbs Argyllina, Mn, 
7, 652. et 8, 478. 

ARICIA, La Riccia, a town of Latiura 
on the Via Appia; adj, Aricinus. 
Nanus Aricinum, a grove near Arieia, 
where was a temple of Diana, 147, 
Sublime Nemus, Scyihicce qua regna 
Diance^ Lucan. 3, 86. The priest was 
called Rex, see p. 378. whence Aricia 
is called Nemoralis, Lucan. 6, 74„ 
Ovid. Fast. 6, 59. the priest, Rex ne- 
morensis, Suet- Cal. 35. the temple 3 
Triviee nemorosa regna, Martial. 9, 65, 
3. and the territory adjoining, Nemo- 
rensis, sc. ager. Cic. Att. 6, 1. So 
Villa in Nemorcnsi, Suet. Goes. 46. 

ARIETIS FRONS, or Criu MetdpSn, a 
prom, in the Chersonesus Taurica, op- 
posite to Carempis in Paphlagonia, p. 
591. 

Arimaspi, a people of Scythia, said to 
have but one eye, Mel. 2, 1. Plin. 7 } 
2. Lucan. 3, 280. 

ARIMATHEA, a town of Judaea. 

ARIMINUM, Rimini, a town of Urn- 
bria, at the mouth of the Arimznus, on 
the gulf of Venice ; adj. Arimi?iensis ) 
Horat. Epod. 5, 42. 

ARISBA, a city of Troas, Virg. Mn. 9, 
264. Lucan. 3, 204. 

ARMENIA MAJOR, Turcomans, a 
country cf Asia, 593. ; Inh. Armenii, 
v. Armeni ,* adj. Armenius et Armmi- 
ucus. 

ARMENIA Minor, Aladulia; a division 

of Asia Minor, 590. 
ARNUS, Arno, a river of Tuscany, 

136. 

ARPI, a town of Apulia, 158. ; Inh.^r- 
pini et Arpani. 

ARPINUM, Arpino, a town of the 
Volsci in Latium, the birth-place of 
Marius and Cicero ; Inh. Arpinaies $ 
Mens fundus Arplnas, Cic. Rull. 3, 2. 
Arpinee Charles, the writings of Cicero, 
Martial. 10, 19. 

ARRETIUM, Arezzo, a town of Tus- 
cany ; Inh. Arretini. 

ARSIA, Arsa, a river, which separated 
Jstria from Liburnia or lllyricum. — 
Arsia sylva, a wood in the territory of 
Rome, (in Romano agro,) Liv. % 7. 



748 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



ArsinSe, called also Cleopatris, a town of 
Egypt, on the west side of the Arabian 
Gulf, near its extremity. — Also the 
name of many other t"wns. 

ARTABRUM, Ce/ftVz/m vel Nerium Pro- 
montorium, Cape Fjnisterre, a prom, 
of Gallicia in Spain. 

ARTAXATA, -orum, Ardash, the ca- 
pital of Armenia Major, 593. 

ARTEMISIUM, a town of Euboea, 
336. 

ARVERNI, Auvergne, a nation of 
Gaul : Amernorum civitas, vel Augus- 
tone.mehun, Clermont. 

Ascanius lacus, a lake in Bhhynia, 591. 
Virg. G. 3. 269. 

ASCRA, a village of Boeotia, where He- 
siod was born, 305. whence Ascrceum 
carmen, a poem on husbandry, in imi- 
tation of Hesiod, Virg. G. 2. 170. 
Asccece oves, the sheep of Hesiod, 
Ovid. Fast. 6, 14. 

ASCULUM, Ascoli, a town of Apulia, 
and also uf Picenum, 160. 

Ascuris lacus, a lake in Thessaly, Liv. 
44, 2. 

ASENA, a town in Spain, Liv. 23, 27- 
ASIA, one of the three greatancient divi- 
sions of the world, 586. divided by the 
Romans into Asia cis Tauram, and Asia 
ultra Taurum, Liv. 37,45.et38, 39. 
They sometimes restricted the name of 
Asia to the Roman province, compre- 
hending only Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, 
and Lydia^Ozr. Flacc. 27. : Ep. Farm. 
2, 15.; Nep. Alt. 6. and, as some 
think, to Lydia alone, from Acts 16, 6. 
But the limits of Asia, properly so call- 
ed, were more or less extensive at dif- 
ferent times, Plin. 5,27. — Inh. AS1A- 
TICI, whom Livy calls Mitissimum 
genus hominum, 38, 17 . enfeebled by 
the pleasantness and abundance of the 
country, Liv, 9, 19, 39, 1. et 45, 23. 
— AsiATi'ci Grjeci, levissima genera 
hominum et servituti nata, 36, 17. 
— Asiani, sc. Eqwtes, the Roman 
Equites, who farmed the public reve- 
nues in Asia, Cic. All. 1, 17. Asiani 
et Asiatui oratores, who used a tumid 
and copious style, Cic. Brut. 13. some 
of them a concise and sententious style ; 
for they were divided into different 
- classes, ib. & 95.; Quinctilian. 12, 10, 
1, & 16. — Asiaticus exeniivs, the Ro- 
man army that served in Asia which 
first brought luxury to R >me, Liv. 39, 
6.; Sallust. Cat. 11.; Plin. 33, 11. — 
ASIATICUS, a sirname given to L. 
Scipio, who conquered Antiochus, 



Liv. 37, 58. also AsiagEnes, ib. $f f 

44. 

Asia Palus, a lake in Mysia, Firg. Mi. 
7, 701. 

Asnacs, a mountain in Macedonia, Liv. 

32,5. 

Asopus, a river of Boeotia, 304, and of 

other places. 
ASPA, Ispahan, a town of Parthia, now 

the capital of Persia. 
Aspendus, a town of Pamphylia ; adj. 

Aspendius, Cic. Verr. 1, 20.; Inh. 

Aspendii, Liv. 37, 23.; 38,15. 
Asphaltites Lacus, Almotonah, or the 

Dead Sea in Palestine, 5-95. 
ASSYRIA, Curdistan, a country of 

Asia, 597-; a<!j. Assyrius, sometimes 

co-founded with Syrius, Horat. Od. 2, 

7,8.; & 11, 16. — 3, 4, 32. 
ASTA, a town in Spain, near the mouth 

of theBsetis, Liv. 39,21. Ager As- 

tensis, ib. — Also a town of Liguria, 

now Asti. 

ASTAPA, Estepa la Vieja, a town of 
Bretica in Spain ; Inh. Astapenses, Liv. 
28, 22. 

ASTERIUM, a town of Paonia in Ma- 
cedonia, Liv. 40, 24. 
ASTI1, a people of Thrace, Liv. 38,. 

40. 

ASTRAGOS v. -on, a citadel of Caria, 

Liv. 33, 18. 
ASTU, indecl. the town ; appropriated by 

way of eminence, to Athens, Nep. 7 $ 

6.& 9, 4. ; Cic. Leg. 2, 2. 
Astura. a river of Laiium, Liv. 8, IS. 

in which whs an island of the same name* 

where Cicero had a villa, Cic. Fam. 6, 

19.; Att. 12, 40. 
ASTURIA, a country in Spain; Inh. 

Astures, sing. Astur. ; adj. Asturicus* 
Asturica Augusta, Astorga. Astu- 

rum Lucus, Oviedo. 
Asylum, a sanctuaiy, a place in Rome,. 

193. Asyla, sanctuaries in Greece, 

Liv. 35, 51. 
ATALANTA, an island in theEuripus 

of Euboea, Liv. 35,37. 
ATAX, Aude, a river of Gallia Narbon- 

nensis, Lucan. 1, 403. 
ATELLA v. Attella, Saint Aprino, 

a small town of Campania, 149. 

whence Attellana? /alula-, a kind of 
* farces or interludes, first invented at 

Atclla, a town of the Osci, Liv. 7> 

2. 

ATERNUM, Pescara, a town of Pi- 
cenum, at the mouth of the river Ater~ 
nus, the south boundary of Pic«- 
num. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



749 



(&THAMANE5j sing. Athamas, a people of 
Epire, Lucan. 3, 188. 

ATHENE, Athens, called Doctee, Ovid. 
£p. 2, 83. Palladia;, as having been 
called after the Greek name of Pallas, 
Mel. 7, 723. Facuce, as being devoted 
to literary repose, Horat. Ep. 2, 2, 81. 
Inventrices omnium doclrinarum, Cic. 
Orat. l, .4.; Inh. ATHENIENSES, 
.not only of the city, but also of the 
whide country; adj. Alheniensis ; and, 
more rarely, Athenaeus, Lucret. 6, 
749. Pliny says of the Athenians, in 
his time, Celeres sunt et supra vires au- 
daces, 45. 23. Lileris ver bisque solis 
wlent, 31, 44, & 24. 

Athen^um, a fortress of the Etolians, on 
the confines of Macedonia, Liv. 38, 1. 
et 39, 25. 

ATHESIS, Adige, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, 135. 

ATHOS, vel Athon, m. Agios Oros or 
Monte Santo, a high mountain of 
Macedonia, 327. 

Atina, an ancient town of Campania, 
Virg. Mn. 7, 630; Inh. Antinates ; 
Acer Atinas, ib. 11, 869. Atinas Cam- 
pus, Cic. de Div. 28. 

ATLANTIS, a fabulous island, mention- 
ed by Plato as larger than both Asia and 
Africa, In Timceo, 475. which some 
take for America, p. 683. Plin. 6, 31. 
s. 36. 

ATLAS, -antis, m. a lofty mountain of 
Mauritania ,* whence Atlanticum mare, 
v. esquor, the Atlantic ocean, Cic. 
Somn. Scip. 15 ; HoraL Od. 1, 31, 14. 
Atlanteus finis, the boundaries of At- 
las, or the extremities of the earth, ib. 
34, 11. Allantia regno, Sil. 13. 37. 

ATTHIS, the country of Attica, 287- 
Atticus, -a, -um, belonging to Attica, 
Attic. Attica elcquentia, a correct man- 
ner of speaking, Quinctil.prooem. 6, et 
12, 10. hence Atticismos, ib. 6, 3, 
107 ; et Atticissare, Plaut. Men. prol. 
12. (Attica terra, Liv. 28, 8 ; 31, 14, 
& 26.) 

AttrebAtes, a people of Gaul, who pos- 
sessed the territory of Artois, 538.— 
Also a people of Britain, 491. 

Aturus, v. -is, v Atturis, Adour, a 
river of Gaul, which runs into the Bay 
of Biscay near the Pyrenees, Lucan. 1. 
420. 

AVANTICUM, v. Avenficum, Avenche, 
a city of the Helvetii, Tacit. Hist. 1, 
68. 

AVARICUM, Bourges in Berry, a 
town of the Bituriges on the Jvara, 



Evre or Yevre, which falls into the 

Loire, Cess. 7, 13. 
AVEMIO, Avignon, a town of Provence 

on the Rhone. 
AventInus mons, one of the seven hill* 

of Rome, 140. 
Avernus Lacus, in Campania, 151. 
AUDE'NA, a river of Gallia Cispadana, 

which runs into the Macra, Liv. 41, 

23. 

Aufidus, Ofanto, a river in Apulia, 
160. 

AUFIDENA, Alfidena, a town of the 
Samnites; Inh.Aufidenates, Liv. 10,12. 

AUG IN US mons, a mountain of Ligu- 
ria, Liv. 39, 2. 

AUGUSTA Emerita, Merida, a town 
of Lusitania, on the Anas, or Guadi- 
ana, founded by a colony of the Eme- 
riti, or soldiers who had served out their 
time. 

AUGUSTA Prcetoria, Aoust in Pied- 
mont. 

AUG USTA Rauracorum, Aoust on the 
Rhine. 

AUGUSTA Suessionum, Soisson, in the 

Isle of France, on the Aisne. 
AUGUSTA Taurinorum, TURIN, the 

capital of Piedmont. 
AUGUSTA Trevirorum, Treves, on the 

Moselle. 

AUGUSTA Veromanduorum, St. Quin- 
tin, a town of Gaul, situate between 
the Somme and Oyse, in Picardy. 

AUGUSTA Vindelicorum, Augsburg, a 
town in the east of Suabia, situate at 
the confluence of the Wertach and 
Leek, on the confines of Bavaria. 

AUGUSTA BONA, Troves or Trois, 
on the Seyne, in Champaigne. 

AUGUSTODUNUM, Autun, the ca< 
pital of the iEdui, on the Arroux, in 
Burgundy. 

AUGUSTOMAGUS, Senlis, in the 

Isle of France. 
AUGUSTORITUM, Limoges, a town 

of Aqnitania. 
AULEHCI, a people of Gaul, divided 

into several tribes, extending from the 

Seine to Amorica, now le Maine, le 

Perche, and Evreux. 
AULIS, Megalo-Vathi, a town of 

Boeotia, on the Euripus, 305. 
AULON, a hill near Tarentum, 169. 

Also the name of several other places. 
AURASIUS Mons, Gebel Aubas, a 

mountain in the south of Numidia. 
AUREA CHERSONESUS, Malya or 

Malacca, a peninsula of India beyond 

the Ganges. 



750 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Aurunci, a people of Italy, Plin. 3. 5. 

AUSUR, Serchio, a river of Tus- 
cany, which falls into the Arnus be- 
low Pisa. 

AUSETANI, a people of Spain, Liv. 21, 
23, 61.; 29,2.; 34, 20. Ausetanus 
ager, ib. 39, 56. 

Ausones, ancient inhabitants of Italy, 
Plin. 3, lo.; Firg. Mn. 11, 252.; 
hence Ausonia, Italy, Stat. Silv. 3, 2. 
20. Ausonia terra, Virg. Mn. 4, 349. 
Ausonia lingua, the Latin, Ouu/. Tn's/. 
5, 7, 61. Ausonidce, -arum, the Ita- 
lians, Firg.Mn. 10, 563. Ora Ausonis, 
-idis, the coast of Italy, Ot'icZ. .Fas/. 2, 
94. Aquarum Ausonidum pater Erida- 
nus, of the Italian rivers, 9, 187. 
The Ausones were conquered by the 
Romans, Liv. 8, 16. their town Ausona 
taken, and their nation utterly extir- 
pated, Id. 9, 25. 

AUSTRI regna, the southern regions, 
where the south wind (Auster) pre- 
vails, Lucan. 9, 320. Regna projecta 
sub Austro, ib. 8, 442. Mollis Auster, 
the warm south or southern region, ib. 
8, 833. Hence Australe caelum f the 
southern part of heaven, ib. 182. In 
Austrum divexus tether, ib. 3, 250. 
Australis polus, the south pole, Cic. 
Tusc. 1, 28.; Ovid. Met. 2, 132. 
Australes nimbi, Id. Pont. 4, 4, 1. 
Australis cingulus, i. e. plaga vel zo?io, 
the south temperate zone, Cic. Somn. 
Scip. c. 6. Austrini calores, the heat of 
the south sun, Firg. G. 2, 271. Au- 
strmus polus vel Fertex, the south pole, 
Plin. 5, 19. et 2, 6S. 

AUTRlCUM, Chartres, the capital 
of the Carnutes, on the river Eure, in 
Orleanois. 

AUTURA, the Eure, a river of Gaul, 
which falls into the Seine on the south 
side. 

Auximon v. -urn, Osimo or Osmo, a town 

of Picenurc, Lucan. 2, 466. 
Axenos, the ancient name of the Black 

Sea, i. e. unhospitable, 351. 
AXIUS, Vardari, a river of Macedonia, 

324. Liv. 39, 54. 
Axona, Aisne, a river of Gaul, which 

joins the Isara, and then both fall into 

the Seine. 
AZORUM, a town of Tripolis, a district 

of Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, Liv. 42, 

53. et 44, 2. 
Azotus, Asdod or Ezduud, a city of the 

Philistines, 595, & 630. 
BABYLON, Babil, the capital of Ba- 
bylonia or Chaldaea, 624. Plin, 6, 



26 s. 30. ; Curt. 5, 1. ; Propert. 3, 9, 
21 ; adj. Balylonius, v. -icus, et -iucus, 
Plautus has Babyloniensis, True. 1,1, 

66. Also a town of Egypt, on the 

eastern branch of the Nile, called Bu- 
bastos. 

BACTRA, -orum, vel Zariaspa, Balk, 
the capital city of Bactria or Bactriana • 
Inh. Bactri ; adj. Bactrianus. BAC 
TROS, Dehash, a river which gave 
name to the country, Lucan. 3, 267. 

BACUNTIUS, Bazzuet or Bosna, a 
river of Pan nonia, which runs into th 
Save near Sirmium. 

B/ECOLA, a town of the Ausetani, in the 
east of Catalonia, Liv. 27, 18, et 28, 
13. 

BiETIS, Guadi-al Kiber, or the 
great river, in Spain ; whence Bjetica, 
sc. Provincic, one of the three divisions 
of ancient Spain, 483, Liv. 28, 2. 
Lana Bcetica, wool celebrated as of the 
finest kind, Martial, 8, 28. Bcelicce 
Lacernce, cloaks made of that wool, ib. 
14, 133. Btticalus, drest in such a 
cloak, ib. 1, 97- Bcetlcola vel B&li- 
gena, -ce, m. one who lived or was 
born near the Baetis, Sil. 1. 146. et 9, 
234. 

BAGRADA v. -as, Megerda, a river 
of Africa Propria, 632. Lucan. 4. 

.588. 

BALE, Baia, a town of Campania, 151.; 

adj. Baianus. 
Balari, a people of Sardinia, Liv, 41, 

6, & 12. 
BALBUS, a mountain of Numidia, Liv. 

29, 31. 

BALEARES, v. BalearUes Insulce, Ma- 
jorca and Minorca, 485. Baleares 
funditores, Balearian slingers, Cces. B. 
G. 2, 7. Funda Balearis, Virg, G. 1, 
309. v. Balearica, Ovid. Met. 2, 727- 
Baleare ie.lum, Sil. 7> 29/. Balearicum 
mare, Plin. 3, 5. 

BALEPATNA, Patan, a city of 
India. 

BAMBYCE, the ancient name of the 
city Hierapolis in Syria, called hy the 
Syrians Magog, 5,23. 

BANTIA, St. Maria pe Vanse, a 
town of Apulia, 162. adj. Bantinus. 

Baphyrus, a river of Thessaly, at the 
foot of mount Olympus, Liv. 44, 6. 

BARATHRUM, a deep pit at Athens, 
into which criminals were thrown head- 
long, Diomed. 1. hence put for any 
abyss or gulf, Serv. in Fvg. Mn. 3, 
420. — also for the infernal regions, 
Val.Flacc, 2. 86. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



1$l 



Barbosthenes, a mountain of Laconics, 

Liv. 35, 27, & 30. 
BARCE, BARCA, a town of Cyr-maica, 

afterwards called Ptclemais, Plin. 5, 5. 
BARCINO, Barcelona, now the capital 

of Catalonia in Spain. 
BARDO, a town of Spain, Liv. 33, 21. 
Bargusii, a people of Spain on the Ibe- 

rus, Liv. 21, 19, & 23. 
BargylijE, a town of Caria, Liv. 32, 

33. on a bay called Bargylieticus sinus 

Liv. 37, 17. 
BARIUM, Bari, a town of Apulia, 162. 
BASILEA, a town of the Rauraci, sup- 
posed to be Basil, a city of Switzerland 

on the Rhine, 530. 
BASANIA, a town of Macedonia, Liv. 

44, 30. 

JBASTARNjE, a nation of German ori- 
ginal, who dwelt east of the Vistula, 
569. Tacit. G. 46.; Liv. 40, 5, & 57 ; 
41, 19. 

BATAVA CASTRA, Passau, a fortress 
of Vindelicia, now a town of Bavaria, at 
the conflue nee of the Danube, Inn, and 
Ills. 

BATAVORUM insula, Holland, C<ss. 
4, 10.; adj. Batavus, shortened by 
Lucan, 1, 431. but lengthened by 
Silius Italicus, 3, 608, and Martial, 6, 
82, & 14, 176. 

BAULl, a villa near Baiae, 150. 

BEBRYCIA, the ancient name of Bi- 
thynia; Inh. Bebryces, sing. Bebryx 
Val. Flacc. 4, 157, & 315.; adj. Be- 
brycius. 

Bedriacum, Cividale, or Caneto, a vil- 
lage of the Cenomanni, between Verona 
and Cremona, 135. Tacit. Hist. 2, 23. 
sixteen miles from the confluence of 
the Addua and Po, ib. 40. 
BELERIUM prom. Lands-end in 

Cornwall, 492. 
BELGiE, the bravest nation of the 
Gauls, Cces. 1, 1. their Country BEL- 
GICA. a third part of Gaul, according 
to Julius Caesar, and fourth part, ac- 
cording to the division of Augustus, 
535. Belgium is put by Csesar for 
e part of Gallia Belgica, B. G. 5, 44, 
& 8, 46, & 47. There was also a peo- 
ple in Britain called Belgm, 491. sup- 
posed to be descended from those of 
Gaul, Cces. 5, 12. 
BELLOVACI, the bravest nation of the 
Beiges, Cees. B. G. 2, 4, et 8,6. pos- 
sessing the country of Beauvais in the 
Isle of France. 
BfiLUs, Nahr-Halon, a small river of 
Gallilee, near Ace Plolemais, abound- 



ing in sand proper for the manufacture 
of glass, Plin. 5, 19. and where the arc 
of making glass was first discovered, ib. 
36, 26. 

Benacus Lacus, Laco di Garda, a lake 
in the territory of Verona, whence the 
river Mincius flows, Plin. 9, 22. s. 38. 
Virg. G. 2, 160. Mn. 10, 206. 
BENEVENTUM, Benevento, a town 
of the Samnites, 157; a«j. Beneventa- 
nus ; Inh. Beneventani. 
BERiEA, Cara Veria, a city of Ma- 

■ cedonia, 325.; Liv. 44,45; 45.29. 
Berecyntus, a mountain of Phrygia., 
and a town or tract of country, where 
Cybele was worshipped, Plin. 5, 29. et 
16, 15 s. 28. whence she was called 
Berecynthia, Virg. Mn. 9, 82. et 6 S 
785. 

Berenice, a port of Egypt on the Red 
Sea, near the tropic of Cancer, where 
merchandise from India was debarked, 
and carried over land on camels to 
Coptos, Plin. 6, 23 s. 26 et 6, 29 s. 
32 f. Also a town in Cyrenaica, like- 
wise called HesperiSj Mel. 1, 8. near 
which were the famous gardens of the 

Hesperides, Plin. 5, 5. -There were 

several towns in different countries call- 
ed Berenice. Berenicis, tdis, a tract 
of Cyrenaica, round the city Berenice^ 
Lucan. 9, 523. 
Bergistani, a people of Spain between 
the Iberus and Pyrenees, Liv. 34. 
16. 

Bergos, v. Bergi, -orum, supposed to be 
Berghen, the capital of Norway, Plin. 
4, 16 s. 30. 
Berytus, Berut, a town of Phoenicia, 
Plin. 5, 23. where was a celebrated 
school for jurisprudence. 
BESSI, a fierce people of Thrace, Liv. 39. 
53.; Ovid. Trist. 8, 10, 5.et 4, 1, 67. 
adj. Besicus, Cic. Pis. 14. 
Beturia, a part of Baetica in Spain, 

Liv. 39, 30. 
BEUDI, a town of Phrygia Major, Liv. 
38, 15. 

BIBRACTE, the capital of the jEdui, 
which under Augustus, assumed the 
name of Augustodunum. 
BIBRAX, Bievre, a town of the Rherni, 

Cces. 2, 6. 
BIBROCI, a people of Britain, Bray in 

Berkshire, Cces. 5, 21. 
Bisaltye, a people of Macedonia, 327. 
Liv. 45, 29. Gens Bisaltica, Liv. 35. 
29, & 30. 

Bistones, a people of Thrace, Plin. 
4. 11. j Lucan, 7, 569. around the 



752 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



lake Bistohis, 345. hence Bistonides, 
Thracian women, Horat. Od. 2, 19, 20. 
Bistonisora, Thrace, Ovid. Ep. 16, 344, 
Bistonius tyrannies, Diomedes, who 
fed his horses on human flesh, Lucan. 

2, 263. BistonicB aves, cranes, ib. 3, 
200. 

B1THYNIA, a country of Asia Minor, 
591.; adj. Bithynus et -lens ; Inh. Bi- 
thyni. 

Bituriges, the people of Berry in Gaul, 
Ctes. B. G. 7, 13, & 27. 

BODERIA or BODOTRfA, the Firth 
or Forth of Scotland. 

BCEOTIA, a country of Grsecia Pro- 
pria,- 303. ; adj. Bceotus, Bceotiics et 
Bceoticus. 

BOIEMUM, Bohemia. 

BOII, a people of Gaul, Plin. 4. 18. 
who emigrated into Italy or Cisalpine 
Gaul, 135. ; Liv. 5, 35. 

BOLA, v. -ce, a town of iEqui, in La- 
tium, Virg. Mn. 6, 775. 

BONNA, Bonn, a town now in the 
Electorate of Cologne, Tacit. Hist. 4, 
19; Inh. Bovnenses, ib. 20. 

BONONIA, Bologna, a city of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, on the Rheno, {Bononiensis 
amnis, Plin. 16, 36.) which runs into 
the Po ; anciently called Felsina, Plin. 

3, 15. ; Liv. 33, 37. Colonia Bononi- 
ensis, Tacit. Ann. 12, 58. — Also the 
name of some other places. 

BORA, a mountain of Macedonia, Liv. 
45, 9. 

BORBETOMAGUS, Worms, a city of 
the Palatinate, on the west side of 
the Rhine. 

BORCOVIUM, Berwick, at the mouth 
of the Tweed in Scotland. 

BORYSTHENES, the Dnieper, or 
Nieper, a river of Sarmatia, 354. 

Bosphohus vel Bosporus, any narrow 
pari of the Sea which an ox or heifer 
may swim over ; applied chiefly to two, 
the Thracian and Cimmerian, Vatr. R. 
R. 2. 1. 8. Bosporani, those who 
lived near the Bosporus Cimmerius, or 
Straits of Caffa, Cic. Manil 6, whence 
Mithridates is called Bosporanus rex. 
Tacit. Ann. 12, 15. Bosporium mare, 
Ovid. Trist. 2, 298. 

BOVIANUM, Boiang, a town of Sam- 
mum, ] 57. 

BRATUSPANTIUM, Beau v a is, a 
town of the Bellovaci, in the isle of 
France. 

BRICA or Briga, the Celtic term for a 
town. 

Bkigantes, a people of Britain, 491. 



BRIGANTIA, Bregentz, a town of 
Tyrol, at the east end of the lake 
of Constance, which is hence called 
Brigantinus Lacus, Plin. 9, 17 s. 

29. 

Brigantinus Portus, Corunna, or the 
Groyne, in Spain. 

Briniates v. Friniates, a people of Li- 
guria, Liv. 39,2.; 41,19. 

BRITANNIA, Britain, the largest 
island with which the Romans were ac- 
quainted, Tacit. Agric. 10. ; Inh. Bri- 
tanni, and, In later authors, Brittones, 
Juvenal, 15, 124. or Brittones, sing. 
Britlo v. Brito, Martial. 11, 21. 
Auson. Epigr. 110. adj. Britannusv. 
Britannic us. Apuleius calls Britain and 
Ireland Britannicce, sc. insulte, dvee ; 
De mundo. But Caesar always appro- 
priates the name of Britannia to Bri- 
tain, and distinguishes it from Hilernia, 
Ireland, B, G. 5, 13. Flavi Briianni, 
having yellow hair, Lucan. 3, 79- 

BRIVATES partus, Brest, in Brittany, 
the principal harbour for the navy of 
France. 

BRIXELLUM, Buescello, a town of 
Italy on the Po, where Otho slew him- 
self, Tacit. Hist. 2, 39, & 46. 

BRIXIA, Brescia, a town of the Ceno- 
manni, 132. Inh. Brixentes, Plin, 
Brixiani. Liv. 21, 25. 

Bructeri, a people of Germany, Tacit. 
Ann. 1, 60, & 13, 56. Hist. 4, 21, 
G. 33. 

BRUNDUSIUM, Brundisi, a cele- 
brated part of Calabria, 162. adj. Brun- 
dnsinus. 

BRUTTII, a division and people of an- 
cient Italy, 173. adj. Bmttius. 

Bucephala, a city built by Alexander in 
India, on the river Hydaspes, in me- 
mory of his horse Bucephalus, ArriaJU 
5,19.; Curt. 9, 1.; Plin. 6, 20 s. 23. 

BULLIS, -vlis, a town of Illyricum ; Inh. 
Bulliin, Liv. 44, 30. Bullinus ager, 
ib. 36, 7. 

Burdi g.ala, Bourdeaux, a trading 
port town of Aqnitania, on the lake of 
the sea, formed by the mouth of the 
Garonne, the birth- place of the poet 
Ausonius; Inh. Burdegalenses. 

Burgundiones, a tribe of the Vindili t 
or Vandals, a nation of Germany, Plin. 
4, 14 S. 28. 

Busiris. Bum, a town in Lower Egypt, 
on a branch of the Nile called from it 
Busiriticus flavins, built by the tyrant 
Busiris, where was a splendid temple 
of his, Herodot, 2, 69. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 753 



ButhrOtum, v. -us, Butrinto, a sea-port 
of Epire, PUn. 4, 1. ; Virg. JEn. 3, 
293. Inh. Buthrotii, Cic. Att. 16, 16. 

BUXENTUM, Policastro, a town of 
Lucania, Liv. 32, 39. ; 34, 45. ; 39, 
23. 

BYRSA, the citadel of Carthage, 678. 
Liv. 34, 62. Virg. A. l, 367. 

C 

CABALLIO, or Caldlio, Cavaillon, a 
town of the Cavares on the Druentia, 
or Durance, in Provence. 

CABILLONUM, Challons, a town of 
the JEdui on the Saone, Cces. 7. extr. 
Inh. Cabillvnes, sing* Cabillo. 

Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes, named 
from its founder Cadmus, 3o3, adj. 
Cadmeus, v. Cadmeius. Theban. 

Cadurci, a people of Aquitania, inha- 
biting Quercy, a district of Guienne, 
celebrated for its fine flax, (Linum 
Cadurcum,) Plin. 19. 1. hence Ca- 
durcum is put for the linen coverlet of 
a couch or the like, Juvenal, 7, 221. 
or for the bed itself, ib. 6, 536. 

C^cina, a river of Etruria, Plin. 3, 5. 

Cecubus Ager, a district of Latium, 
Plin. 2, 95. adjoining to the Bay of 
Cajeta, Strab. 5, 233. which produced 
excellent wine (Ccecubum vinum,) Piin, 
3, 5. s.9. et 14.6.; Horat. Od. 1, 
37, 5. 

CmnIna, a town of the Sabines, Ovid. 

Fast. 2, 135. ; Inh. Cceninenses, Liv. 1, 

10. Nomen Ceeninum, the people of 

Caenina, Liv. 1, 10. 
Cenomanni, a people of Cisalpine Gaul, 

135. 

OERE, indecl. anciently called Ar- 
GYLLiE, now Cer-Veteri, a city of 
Etruria, 136. Inh. Cterites, Liv. 6*, 5.; 
sing. Cares, Ceeritis, Virg. JEn. 8, 
597> or Ccerelxs, ib. 10. 183.; Cczres 
populus, Liv. 7,20.; Cterites tabulee, 
the registers in which the names of 
those Roman citizens were written, who 
were deprived of the right of suffrage, 
Gell. 16, 13. hence Cterite cerd tligni, 
worthy of that mark of ignominy, 
Horat. Ep. 1. 6, 62. adj. Cjereta- 
Nus, Ceeratanus amnis, a river running 
past Caere, and thence into the Tuscan 
sea. Plin. 3, 5. s. 8. 

CESAR-AUGUSTA, anciently Saldula, 
Saragossa, a city of Spain on the 
Ibfirus. 

C^ESAReA, a maritime city of Pa- 
lestine, formerly Tunis Stratonis. 



Plin. 5,13. called Caesarea by Herod in 
honour of Augustus, Joseph. B.J. 1, 
16. — The name also of many other 
cities, adj. Ccesariensis* 
C«sarodunum, Tours, a town of the 
Turdnes, now the capital of Tourain iu 
France. 

Cjesaromagus, a name given to Bra- 
turpantium; also Chelmsford in Eng- 
land. 

CaIcus, a river of Mysia, Plin. 5, 30. 
Virg. G. 4, 370. 

Cajeta, Gaeta, a sea-port town of La- 
tium, 148. Virg. Mn. 7, 1. 

CALABRIA, Calabria Citra, a coun- 
try of Italy, 163. ; Inh. Calabri, 
sing. Calaber, -bra, - brum* So Cala- 
bricus. 

CALAGURRIS, Calahora, a town of 
the Vascones in Old Castile, on the 
Ebro, 483. ; £?u.39> 21. j Inh. Cala- 
gurritani) Plin. 3, 8. 

Calatia, a town of Campania; Inh. 1 
Caialini, Liv. 9, 2, el 22, 61. 

Calauria, v. ea, an island in the Saronie 
gulf, 287- 

Calbis, a river of Carta* 

Caledonia, the ancient name of Scot- 
land, adj* Caledonius, pi. Caledonii t 
the people. 

CALES, -imn, Calvi, a town of Cam- 
pania, in the territory ef which (ager 
Calenus.) Cic. Att. 8, 3. was pro- 
duced excellent wine (vinum Calenum), 
Juvenal, 1, 69. hence Pressum Calibus 
ducere Liberum, to drink Calenian 
wine, Horat. Od. 4, 12, 14. So Prelo 
domitam Caleno tu bibes uvam, ib. 1 <■ 
20. 9. Premant Caltnam fake vilem, 
let them lop off the exuberant branches 
with a pruning hook, ib. 1, 31, 9. 

Caleti, v. -es, the people of the Petysde 

. Caux in Normandy, Cees. B. G. 2, 4. 

CALLiECI, the people of Call^cia, now 
Gallicia, in the north of Spain, 484„ 
edj. Callaicus for Hispanicus. 

CALLICtjLA, a hill of Campania, which 
bounded the Ager Faieraus on the north* 
Liv. 22, 15, & 16. 

CALLE, Oporto, a city of Portugal, at 
the mouth of the Douro, 483. 

Callivolis, Gallipoli, a town of Thrace, 
on the Hellespont, 350. Of Cala- 
bria, 165. and of several other coun- 
tries. 

CALLIRH6E, a fountain near Athens, 
291. Piin. 4. 7. s. Q. ; Stat. Theb. 12, 
629. ; Another in Judiea, famou*. for 
its medical qtiahties, Plin. 5, 16. nea$ 
a cognominal town, Joseph. 17, 8. 
3 C 



?54 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



CALOR, Calore, a river of Samnium, 
157. 

CALPE, a mountain in Spain, Cic. Fam. 
lo, 32. one of the pillars of Hercu'.cs, 
now the rock of Gibraltar, or Gebel- 
Tarik ; near it was a harbour of the 
6ame name, called also Carteja. 

CALYCADNUS, a river of Cilicia, Plin. 
5, 27- 

CALtDON, a town of ^Ecolia, 312. 
Calydonius heros, i. e. Meleager, 433. 
Ovid. Met. 8, 324. matres Calydonides 
Eveninee, so called because Calydon was 
divided by the river Evgnus, ib. 527. 

Calypsus Insula, near the Lacinian pro- 
montory inBruttii, 179. 

Camalodunum, Colchester or Maiden, 
the first Roman colony in Britain, 491. 
&495. 

CAMARACUM, Cambray, a town of 
French Flanders. 

CAMARINA, a town of Sicily; and 
near it a lake of the same name, 263. 

Cambeiutum, a town of the Iceni in Bri- 
tain, almost on the spot where Cam- 
bridge now stands. 

Camerinum, a town of Umbriaj Inh. 
Camertes, sing. Camers ; In agro 
Camerti, Cic. Syll. c. 19. Cohortes Ca- 
nter lium, Id. Balb. c. 22. adj. Came- 
rinus vel Camertinus, ib. 20. 

CAMICUS, Fiumi di Platani, a river 
of Sicily, near a town of the same name, 
now Platanella, 267. 

Camirus, a town of the island Rhodes, 
341. 

CAMPANIA, a country of Italy, 148. 
Chief town CAPUA, ib. Inh. Cam- 
pani ; Campanus morbus, certain ex- 
crescences, (verrucarum genus) which 
grew on the face, Horat. Sat. 1,5, 62. 
Campana mpellex, earthen ware, such 
as used to be made in Campania, ib. 1 , 6, 
13 8. Peristromata Companica, fine co- 
verlets fur couches, Plaut. Ps. 1,2, 12.; 
Stitch. 2, 3, 5-3. — Campas, -alis, an ef- 
feminate Campanian, ib.Trin.2,4, 144. 

CANARIA, o le of the Canary islands, 
683, Plin. 6. 32. S. 37. 

CANDAV1A, a mountain of Epire, 
Lucan. 6, 331. 

Caninefates, a people of Holland, Plin. 
4, 15. ; Tacit. Hist. 4, 15. 

CANNyE, a village of Apulia, 161. 
Clades Cannensis, the memorable defeat 
of the Romans at Cannae by Hannibal. 
Liv. 22, 43—50. 

Can opus, a town of Egypt, at the west- 
most mouth of the Nile ; hence called 
Cawpicum ostium, Mel. 2, 7. now 



Ma a die ; said to have been founded 
by the Spartans, and named from the 
pilot of Menelaus, ib. Tacit. 2, 60. 
hence called Amyclcsus, Sil. 11, 433. 
and Pelicans, from a colony of Mace- 
donians, Virg. G. 4, 287. remarkable 
for the luxury and profligacy of its in- 
habitants, Se?iec. ep. 51. ; Strab. 17, 
801.; Juvenal. 15, 46.; Stat. Sylv. 
3, 2. 111. so that the strongest thing 
Juvenal could say against the corrupt 
morals of Rome was, that even the Ca- 
nopians condemned them, Et mores 
urbis damnante Canopo, 6, 84. 
CANTABRI, sing. Cantaber, a warlike 
people of the north of Spain, Horat. 
Od.2, 6, 2. ; 2, 14, 1.: Sil. 3, 326. 
whence Cantabriais oceanus, the bay of 
Biscay. 

CANTIUM, Kent, in England; Inh. 
Cantii, Ccbs. B. G. 5, 13. et 14. 

CANUS1UM, Canosa, a town of Apu- 
lia, 160, noted for a manufacture of 
a dusky reddish kind of cloth, a gar- 
ment of which was called Canusma, sc. 
vesiis, Martial. 14, 127, and one 
dressed in it, Canusinatus, ib. 9. 23.; 
Suet. Ner. 30. 

Capena, Civitella, a town of Etru- 
ria, between Veji and the Tiber, Liv. 

5, 10. Inh. Capenates. sing. Ca- 
penas, ib. 8. hence Luci Capeni, Virg. 
/En. 7. 697« Porta Capena, one of 
the gates of Rome, through which the 
road passed that led to Capena ; called 
also Porta Appia, because the Appian 
way went through it ; termed Ma~ 
dida, Juvenal, 3,11. because an aque- 
duct was carried over it, Martial. 1, 
47. 

CAPHAREUS, a promontory of Euboea, 

335, & 453. 

CAPITOL I UM, a celebrated temple of 
Jupiter, on the mons Tarpeius at Rome, 
adj. Capitolinus. 

Cappadocia, a country of Asia Minor,. 
590. Inh. Cappadoces ; s. Cappadox ; 
adj. Cappadocus, vel -ins. This coun- 
try furnished Rome with a large sup- 
ply of slaves, whence Mancipiis lo- 
cuples Cappadocum rex. Hor. Ep. 1 , 6, 
39. and as the Cappadocians were 
called Syri by the Greeks, Herodot. 1. 

6, & 72, hence Syrus is often put 
for the name of a slave in Plautus and 
Terence. 

CAPRARIA, Cabrera, an island about 
twelve miles south of Majorca, Plin. 
3. 5. s. 11. Also one of the Canaries, 
now Gomera, Plin. 6, 32. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 755 



CAPREiE, Capri, an island in the 
Tuscan sea, near the prom, of Surren- 
tum, 155. 

Capr;e f alus , a lake near Rome, Liv. 

1, 16. 

CAPSA, a strong town of Numidia ; Inh. 
Capsenses, Sallust. Jug. 89. 

Capua, see Campania. 

CARAL1S, -is, v. -es, -ium, Cagliari, 
the capital of Sardinia, Liv. 23, 40. 
Mel. 2, 7. Flor. 2, 6. Caralitanus ager, 
Plin. 27, 6. Caralitanus sinus. 

CARAMBIS, Kerempi, a prom, of 
Paphlagonia, 591. Plin. 4, 12. et 6, 2. 

CARDIA, afterwards Lysimachia, a 
town in the Thraeian Chersonese, now 
Hexamili, from the breadth of the 
isthmus, which is here reckoned six 
miles; hence Etmenes Cardianus, Nep. 
c. 1. 

Carduchi, a warlike people, the Curds 
or Kurdes, along the Tigris, on the 
confines of Armenia and Assyria, 632. 

CARTA, Aidinelli, a country of Asia 
Minor, 588. Inh. Car es, Virg. JEn. 
8, 725. sing. Car. Nep. 14. 1. A 
certain kind of figs from Caria, called 
CaricjE, sc. Jicus, were in great esti- 
mation, Plin. 13, 5. In Care pericu- 
lum, a proverbial saying, when a thing 
is in danger, but of no great value, Cic. 
Flacc. 27. 

CARINiE, a street in Rome, where 
Cieero had a house which he inherited 
from his ancestors, Cic. ad Q. Fr. 

2, 3. 

CARISIlCUM, Cressy, a town in 
Picardy. 

Carmana, Kerman, the capital of 
Carmania, a country on the south-east 
of Persia. The inhabitants Carmani. 
Lucan. 3, 250. were also called Iththy- 
ophagi, because they lived mostly on 
fish, Plin. 7, 34. Mel. 3, 8. 

CARMELUS, Car mel, a mountain be- 
tween Syria and Judaea, 628. Tacit. 
Hist. 2,78. Suet.Fesp.b. 

CARNI, a people inhabiting from the 
Alpes Carnicce to the Hadriatic ; now 
Carniola. 

CARNDTES v. -ti, a people of Gaul, 
between the Loire and Seine, now 
Chartrain : — Carnutum civitas, i. e. 
Autricum. Chart res. 

Carpates Monies v. Alpes Bastarnicce, 
Krapac, or the Carpathian mountains , 
between Poland, Hungary, and Tran- 
sylvania. 

Carpathus, Scarpanto, an island east 
from Crete, which gave name to the 



Mare Carpathium, 341. called Gurges 
Carpathius, Virg. G. 4, 387. 

CARRIE, Kara, a town of Mesopota- 
mia, famous for the defeat and death of 
Crassus, Plin. 5, 24. Lucan. 1. 104. 
■ — named from the river Carra, near 
which it stood. 

CARSEOLT, a town of the JEqui ; Inh. 
Carseolani. There was a law at this 
place (lex Carseolana), which forbade 
keeping a live fox, from a story similar 
to that of Samson's foxes, Ovid. Fast. 
4, 683 — 708.. 

CARStJLyE, now in ruins, a town of 
Umbria; adj. Carsulanus, Plin. Ep. 

• 1, 4. 

CARTA, a town of Hyrcania. 

C ARTEJ A, a town near Gibraltar in Spain, 
thought to be the same with Calpe. 

CARTENA, Tenez, a town of Mauri- 
tania. 

CARTHAGO, Carthada or Carche- 
don, - Carthage, the capital of Africa 
Propria, now in ruins, 678. Inh. Car- 
ihaginienses et Pceni; (fraudulenti.et 
mendaces, non genere, sed naturd loci 9 
quod propter partus suos, muliis et va~ 
riis mercatorum sermonibus ad studium 
fallendi, studio questus vocabantur, Cic. 
Rull. 2, 94.) adj. Carthaginiensis et 
Punicus. 

CARTHAGO NOVA, Carthagena, a 

city of Murcia in Spain. 
CARtTRA, Rare, a town of Phrygia 

Major. 

CARY^E, a town of Arcadia, Liv. 34, 1 6 ? 
whence Caryatides columnee, statues of 
matrons in long robes, Viiruv. 1, 1. 
also a town of Laconia, where was 3, 
temple of Diana, Stat. Theb. 4, 22 5» 
hence called Carydtis. 

GARY AND A, Karacoion, an island 
on the coast of Caria. 

CARYSTOS, v. -us, Caristo, a town 
on the southern extremity of Eubcea, 
335. but Lucan places it on the Euri- 
pus, 5, 232. Carystion m armor, Plin. 
36, 6. Carysiice columnce, Plin. Ep. 5, 
6. 36. Tibul. 3, ill. Inh. Carystii, 
Liv. 31, 45, ; 32, 16. 

CASCANTUM, Cascante, a town of 
the Vascones, on the Iberus ; Inh. Cas- 
cantenses. 

CASILlNUM, Casilino, a town of 
Campania, 140. Inh. Casilinenses, Cic. 
Inv. 2, 7. et Casilinates, Val. Max. 7» 
6, 2. 

CASlNUM, Casino, a town of the 
Volsci, beyond the Liris Ager Carinas, 
Liv. 22, 13. Inh. Casinaies, 

a C a 



156 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Casius mons, Cape del Kas, or ihe 
Chisel, a mountain of Egypt near Pelu- 
shim, resembling heaps of sand, and 
projecting into the sea, where was a 
temple of Jupiter Casius, near which 
Porapey was slain, and a tomb after- 
wards erected to him, Strab. 16, 760. 
Plin. 5, 12 s. 14. Lucan. 8, 460, &c. 
Some mention here a town, Casium, 
Catich. The country was called Cassio- 
tis, 'Idis. 

CASPERIA, Aspra, a town of the Sa- 

bines, Virg. Mn. 7, 714. 
CASPIUM MARE, the Caspian Sea, 

585. 

CASPIUS mons, a part of mount Taurus, 
between Media and Armenia, in which 
a narrow defile was called PoRTiE Cas- 
tlM, Strab. 11. 522. et Caspiacce, 
Stat. Silv. 4, 4, 64. Some confound 
these with Portce Caucasia, Plin. 6, 
lis. 12. The circumjacent countries 
are called Caspia Regno, Virg. iEn. 6, 
798. The people Caspiani, Curt. 4, 
12, 9. Nep. 14, 8. Mel. l, 2. 

CASSANDRIA or Potidcea, a town in 
Macedonia, 326, Inh. Cassandrenses. 

CASSIOPE, Cassope, a to*n ofEpire, 
318, and of Corcyra, 332. Inh. Cas- 
sioptei. 

Cassiterides insults, the Scilly 
Islands, Lands-End, and the Lizard 
Point, 492. 

CASTALIUS fans, vel Castalia , sc. aqua, 
a fountain at Delphi, 306.: whence 
Cast&ltdes, the muses, Martial. 7, 11. 

Casthan^a, a town of Thessaly, Plin. 
4, 9 s. 16; whence the Nuces Casta- 
net are supposed to be named. 

Castellum Menapiorum, Kessel, a 
citadel of Belgica, on the Maese. 

Castellum Morinorum, Mount- 
Cassel, in Flanders. 

Castellum Cattorum, Hesse Cassel. 

Castra Hannibalis, Roccella, a town 
of the Bruttii, 178. 

Castrum In ui, i. e. Panos v. Fauni, the 
Fort of Inuus, a small town of the 
Rutuli. Virg. Mn. 6,775. Castra and 
castrum, in the lower ages, were an- 
nexed to the name of many towns, see 
p. 491. 

Castulo, Caxlona, a town of Spain on 
the Baetis, Liv. 24, 41. ; Sit. 3, 99, 
&391.; Inh. Castulone)ises, Piin. 3, 3. 
Castulonensis Saltus, a forest near Cas- 
tulo, Liv. 22, 20. 

Catabathmqs Magnus, Akabet-Asso- 
lom, the great descent or declivity be- 
tween Cyrenaica and Egypt, where the 



country suddenly sinks into a waller, 
Plin. 5. b.extr.-, Sallust.Jug. 17. which 
Sallu>t makes the boundary of Africa, 
lb. 19. 

Catadupa, -arum, vel Nili Cataract ce, 
the two cataracts of the Nile, the greater 
in Ethiopia, and the lesser in Egypt, 
674. The neighbouring inhabitants, 
Catadupi, Plin. 5,9 s. 10. were sup- 
posed to be deprived of hearing by the 
noise, Cic. Somn. Scip. 5. 

Catana, vel Catine -es ; and Catana, a 
town of Sicily, 258. ; adj. Calanius, v. 
Catanensis vel Calcenensis. 

Cataractes, Doden-soui, a river of 
Pamphylia. 

CATT1, a people of Germany, 566. 

Caturiges, the people of Chorges in 
Gaul, who lived towards the source of 
the Durance, Cces. B. G. 1, 10.; Ptin. 
3, 20 s. 24. 

Cavares, v. -i, a nation of Gaul, the 
Comtat, in Provence. 

CAUCASUS mons, a very high range of 
mountains in the north of Asia, hanging 
over both the Euxine and Caspian seas, 
and blocking up the Isthmus between 
them as a wall, Strab. 1 1 , 497. inhabited 
by savage nations, to which Dido alludes, 
Virg. Mn. 4, 366. In the remotest part 
of Iberia, towards the north, is a narrow 
passage through these mountains, named 
Caucasian portce vel Piles, now Tatar' 
Tapa, which was closed with a gate, and 
defended by a fortress, called Cum ania, 
Plin. 6, 11 s. 12. Through this defile 
the Sarmatians, called Huns, are said 
to have made their way into the terri- 
tories of the Romans. 

CAUDIUM, a town or Samniura, near 
which the famous defile called Furcce 
Caudince, 157 & 227. 

CAULON, a town of the Bruttii, 178. 

CAUNUS, Kaiguez, a town of Caria, 
in the Percea Rhodiorum ; Inh. Caunii, 
so unhealthy in summer, that it was said 
of them, that the dead walked alive, 
Strab. 14, 651. The figs of this place 
(Cauneee Jicus) were held in high esti- 
mation by the Romans. Cicero men- 
tions the cry of a person selling these 
(qui Cauneas clamitabat) at Brundu- 
sium, as a very bad omen to Crassus, 
when going against the Parthians, (cj. 
Cave ne eas,) de Divin. 2, 4. 

Cayci, Ckaycive\ Chauci, the people of 
Friesland and Groningen, Lucan. 1. 
463. See Chauci. 

CAYSTER, v. Caystrus, Kitcheck- 
Meinder, a river of Ionia mueh fre- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 757 



quented by swans, Ovid. Met. 5, 386. 

whence Caystrius ales, a swan, Ovid. 

Trist. 5, 1, 12. 
€£BA, Ceva, a town in Piedmont ; 

whence caseus Cebanus, Plin. 1 1 , 4 s. 97 • 
CEBENNA mons, the Cevennes, a 

chain of mountains which separated the 

Arverni from the Helvii, Caes. 7, 8. 

Gevennici monies, Mel. 2, 5. extending 

almost from the Garonne to the Rhone, 

and dividing Gaul, as it were, into two 

parts, ib. 

GEBREN, a river of Troas 5 whence Ce- 
Irenit, -Idis, i. e. Hesperie, the fabulous 
daughter of this river, Ovid. Met. 11, 
769j Stat. Silv. 1, 5, 21. 

CEBKUS vel Ciabrus, Zebris or Zibriz, 
a river running from south to north 
inio the Danube at Cebrum, Ziber, the 
common boundary of Messia Superior 
and Inferior. 

CECROPIA, the city of Athens, named 
from its first King Cecrops, Plin. 7, 
56, or the country, Catull. 62, 79. 
whence Cecropia arx, the citadel of 
Athens, Ovid. Met. 6, 70. et 15, 427. 
partus, its harbour, ib. 6, 446. Cecropia 
puella, i. e. Minerva, or a vestal virgin, 
chaste as Minerva, Martial, 5, 2, 8. 
Cecropius lepor, Attic wit, ib. 4, 23, 6. 
Cecropiee prcelath fronde Minerva, bear- 
ing in their hands a branch of laurel, 
Lucan. 3, 306. Cecroptdce, -arum, the 
Athenians. Cecropis, -idis, an Athe- 
nian woman. Juvenal, 6, 186. 

CEL.jEN.ZE, formerly the capital of 
Phryffia, Liv. 38, 13. on the river 
Marsyas, ib. Sf Lucan. 3. 236. 

CELENNiE, a fort of Campania, Virg. 
Mn.7, 739. 

CELTiE, the people of one of the three 
divisions of ancient Gaul, CeeS. 1, 1. 
their country, Celtica, Plin. 4. 17- s. 
81. Celtica rura, Sil. 1, 46. Celticum 
prom, vel Artabrum, Cape Finisterre. 

Celtiberi, the chief people of Hispania 
Tarraconmsis, properly the Celt<s, set- 
tled on the Jberus. As an hexameter 
verse does not admit of this word, the 
poets use a peri phrase, thus Celtte mis- 
centes nomen Iberis, Lucan* 4, 10-. so 
Sil. 3, 339. Celtiberia, the coun- 
try; adj. Celtilrricus. 

CENiEUM, a promontory of Euboea, 
where was a temple of Jupiter.; hence 
called Cevceus, Ovid. Met. 9. 136. 

CE^ABUM vel Geuabum v. -us, Or- 
leans, a town of the Carnutes on the 
Loire, Cats. 7, 3.; Lucan. 1, 440. 

CENCHREA vel -arum, Ksnkri, 



the port of Corinth, 280, adj . Centhrams, 
Stat. Theb. 4, 60. 

Cenomani, a people of Cisalpine Gaul, 
Plin. 3, 19 s. 23. 

CENTAURI, the Centaurs, a fabu- 
lous people of Thessaly, half-men and 
half-horses, 439. Lucan. 6, 386. adj. 
Centaureus, Horat. Od. 1, 18, 8. Cen- 
tauricus, Stat. Achil. 1, 266. Cen- 
tauromachia, -ce, the fight of the Cen- 
taurs with the Lapiihce; put for Thes- 
saly, where the Centaurs dwelt. Plaut. 
Cure. 3, 75. — Centaurus, i, f. the 
Centaur, the name of a ship, Virg.Mn. 

5, 155. 

CEIMTRONES, the people of Tarantaise, 
in Savoy, Cees. B. G.l, 10; Plin. 3. 
20, also a tribe subject to the Nervii, 
(as it is thought, near Courtray in Flan- 
ders,) C<es. 5, 38. 

CENTUMCELLUM v. -<s, Civita 
Vecchia, a port of Ftruria, the work 
of Trajan, who had a villa there, Plin.Ep. 

6, 31. now the Pope's chief port, 147. 
Centuripe, -es; vel -arum, Cen- 

torlu, a town of Sicily at the foot 
of iEtna ; Inh. Centuripxni, Plin. 3. 
8, ; Cic. Verr. 2, 58. 

CEOS v. Cea, Zia, one of the Cyclades, 
337.; adj. Ceusv.Cams. 

CEPHALEMA, Cefalonia, an island 
and town in the Ionian sea, 332. 

Cephal/edis v. -urn, Cefalu, a town in 
the north of Sicily; Inh. Cephahdi- 
tani, Cic. Verr. 2, 52. 

Cepheni, a people of ^-Ethiopia, Ovid, in 
lbin. 526. seep. 396. 

CliPHlSSUS vel Cephisus, a river of Bce- 
otia, 305. flowing from mount Parnas- 
sus, hence called futidicu, Lucan. 3, 
175. Ovid. Met. 3, 19. Cephisides 
undce, ib. 1, 369. Another near A- 
thens, 292. 

CFRAMlCUS, a principal division of 
Athens, 291. also a tract of ground 
without the city, 294, Cic. Alt. 1, 10. 

CERAMICUS SINUS, Kebamo, a bay 
of Caria over against the island Cos, 
named from Ceramus, a town on the 
south side of it, Plin. 5, 29. s. 39. 

Cekasus, -untis vel Pharnacia, Kere- 
soun, a town of Pontus ; whence the 
cherry tree (cerasus, -i) was first 
brought to Rome by Lucullus, Plin. 
15, 25, et 16. 18. et 17 . 14; Mar- 
celt in. 22, 13. exlr. 

CERAUIS II mmtes vel Ceraunia, sc. pro- 
montoria v. juga, high mountains of 
Epire, 31 8. Mount Taurus is also 
GiSWiCerauniuSfPlin.5, 27 i f 37,Grtr, 
iQ 9 



758 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



and those mountains which project into 

the Caspian, Mel. 2, 2. 
CERCINA Kerkeni, an island adjacent 

to the Syrtis Minor in Africa, Slrab. 

17, 834.; Liu. 83, 48.; Plin. 5, 7; 

Tacit. Ann. 1, 53. 
CERILLI or Carillce, Cirella, a town 

of the Bruttii, near the river Laus, 

Strab.6,<225. Sil. 8, 580. 
CERINTHUS, Zero, a town of Eu- 

bcea, on the north-east side, Slrab. 10. 

pr. 

CERNE, an island without the pillars of 
Hercules, on the west coast of Africa, 
Diotimas apud Slrab. 1, 47. supposed 
by D'Anville to be Arquin, near Cape' 
Blanca. But the ancients were not 
agreed either about the situation or size 
of this island, as of Atlantis or Atlas, 
Plin. 5, 1. & 6. 31 s. 36. 

Cerketani, a people of Spain, inhabit- 
ing the district now called Cerdagne or 
Cerdana, in Catalonia, Plin. 3, 3. 

CESTIUS Pons, a bridge at Rome, which 
joined the island in the Tiber to the 
Regio Transtiberina, as the Pons Fabri- 
cius joined it to the city. 

CETIUS Mons, Kahlenberg, a moun- 
tain separating Noricum from Pannonia. 

Cileronea, a town of Boeotla, 305. 

Chalcedon, Kadi-keni, or the burgh of 
the Kadi, a town of Bithynia, opposite 
to Byzantium, 591. 

CHALCIS, Egripo or Egrivo, a town of 
Eubcea ontheEuripus, 336.; whence 
ChalciScus Eurlpus, Cic. N. D. 3. 10. 
and Chalcidica arx 9 'i.e. Cumce, in Italy, 
founded by a colony from Chalcis, Virg. 
Mn.6, 17. Chalcidicus versus, i.e. of 
Euphorion, a native of Chalcis, Virg. 
Mn. 10, 50.— Also the name of seve- 
ral other towns. 

CHALDiEA, Keldeu, the same with 
Babylonia or Assyria; Inh. Chald^i, 
Plin. 6, 28. famous for the study of 
astronomy, and for their pretended skill 
injudicial astrology. Cic. Divin. 1,1.; 
hence Chald.eus, an astrologer, Cato, 
R. R. 5, 4. ; and Chaldaicis rationibus 
cruditus, skilled in that art, Cic. Div. 
2, 47. 

Chalybes, a name given to the Chuldcei 
and other nations of Asia, from their 
being employed in the manufacture of 
iron and steel, Slrab. 10, 549.; Xeno- 
pkon. Anabas. 4. Also a nation of 
Spain, Justin. 44, 3. 

CHALYBON, a city of Syria, thought to 
be the same with Aleppo. The country, 
was called Chalybonitis, and also Chalci- 



dice, from a lake near that city, called 
Chalcis, now Old Alep. 

CHA0N1A, a division of Epire, 318.; 
Iuh. Chaones, Plin. 4. pr. Nep. 13, 
2.; whence Chaonice columbce, the pro- 
phetic pigeons of Dodona, Serv. ad 
Virg. Eel. 9, 13. Chaonia glans, the 
fiuit of the oak, which abounded there, 
Id. G. B. 8. consecrated to Jupiter; 
hence Chaonii palris glandes, ib.2, 67. 
Chaonius viclus, acorns, which were 
supposed to have been the food of men 
before the invention of husbandry, 
Clandian. de rapt. Proserp.3, 47. hence 
called prim.ee fruges, Lucan.6, 426. 

CHARYBDIS, a famous whirlpool in the 
F return Siculum, 256. 

CHAUCI, a people of Germany, inha- 
biting East Friesland and Bremen. 

CHELIDONIUM prom. v. Sacrum, v. 
Tauri, Cape Kelidoni in Lycia, Plin. 

. 5, 27.; Mel. 1. 15.; Liv. 33, 41. 
near which are the Chelidonice insulee, 
dangerous to mariners, Plin. 5,31. 

Chersonesus, a peninsula near Alexandria 
in Egypt, Hirt. Alex. B. 10. 

CHERSONESUS AUREA, Malacca; 
— CIMBRICA, Jutland ; — TAU- 
RICA, Crim-Tartary, Cic. Alt. 6, 1. 
— THRACIA, simply called the Cher- 
sonesus, Cic. ad Brut. 2. ; Nep. 
Milt. 1. ; Liv. 31, 16. ; Herodot. 6. 
33. & 7> 58.: or Hexamilium now 
Hexamili, from its breadth, being six 
miles; Inh. Chtrsonesenses, Cic. Pis. 25. 

CHERUSCI, a nation of Germany, be- 
tween the Weser and the Elbe, Cces. 
6, 9. 

Chidorus or Echedorus, a small river of 
Macedonia, near Thessalonlca, 325. 
which was not sufficient to afford water 
for the army of Xerxes, Herodot. 7, 127. 

CHlMiERA, a volcano in Cragus, a 
mountain of Lycia, 589. 

CHIOS, Scio, an island in theEgean sea, 
between Lesbos and Samos, 342.; Inh. 
Chii, Cic. Arch. 8. Chium sc. vinum, 
Chian wine, Horat. Sat. 2, 3, 115. 
Chius cadus, a cask of this wine, Id. Od. 
3, 19, 5. 

CHOASPES or Eulcsus, Karun, a river 
running past Susa, said to be the only 
water which the Persian kings drank 
of, Herodot. 1. ISO.; Plin. 6, 27, 
hence called Regia hjmpha, Tibull. 4, 
1, 140. It rises in Media, and sink- 
ing into the earth, runs for some space 
below ground, ib. 

CHRYSAS, a river of Sicily, which falls 
into the Symsethus, Cic. Verr. 4, 44. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, U% 



Chrysopolis, Scutari, the port of 
Chalcedon. 

CIBAL^E, v. -is, Swilei, a town of 
Pannonia, north-west of Sirmium, where 
Licinius was defeated by Constantine, 
Eulrop. 10. 4. the birth-place of the 
Emperor Gratian, Marceliin. 30, 24. 

Cibyra, Buruz, a city of Phrygia ; Inh. 

- Cibyratce, expert hunters; whence 
Cibyratce pantherce, Cic. Verr. 4, 13.; 
Att. 5, 2. adj. Cibyr aliens, Cic. Att. 
1,21. &c. a place of considerable trade, 
Horat. Ep. 1, 6, 33. 

Cicones, a people of Thrace, along the 
Hebrus, whose matrons tore Orpheus to 
pieces, 371, Virg. G. 4, 520. 

CILICIA, Caramania, a country of Asia 
Minor, 589; Inh. Cilices, sing. adj. 
Cilix crocus, Lucret. 2, 410, Cillci 
crocus editus arvo, Virg. Culex. 400. 
fem. Cilissa terra, Ovid. Ib. 200. 
Ciliciensis provincia, Cic. Fam. 13, 57. 
CUicium, a kind of coarse cloth made of 
goats' hair, sackcloth, first used in 
Cilicia, Van: R. R. 2, 11, 12. A nar- 
row passage through mount Taurus into 
Syria, formed the famous defile, called 
Pylce or Porta: Cilicice. See Amanicce 
pylcs. 

CIMBRI, a German nation who inhabited 
the ChersonesusCimbrica, or Jutland, 566. 

CIMlNUS, mount Viterbe in Tuscany; 
near it Lacus et Saltus Ciminius, Virg. 
/En. 7, 697. Liv. 9, 26. 

CIMMERIT, a people near Baia;, who 
were supposed never to see the light of 
the sun, 152. Cic. Acad. 4, 10.; Tz- 
bull 4, l, 64. 

CIMMERIUM, a town in the strait be- 
tween the Euxine sea and Pains Mceotis, 
Mel. 1, 19.; whence it got the name 
ofBosphorus Cimmerius;a.ud whence also, 
as it is thought, the modern Crim. The 
strait is called FretumMos^tidos, Lucan. 
3, 277. Sic slat iners Scythkas astrin- 
gens Bosphorus itndas, cum glacie, Sfc. 
when frozen in winter, ib. 5, 436. 

Cimolus, Argentiera, one of the 
Cyclddes, Ovid. Met. 7, 463 ; whence 
Cimolia terra, s. creta, fuller's earth, 
Plin. 35, 16. Cretosa rura Cimoti, the 
chalky lands of Cimolus, Ovid. Met, 
. 1, 463. 

CINGA, Cinea, a river of Spain near 

Ilerda, Cam. C. B. 1, 48. 
CINGOLUM, Cingoli, a town of Picen- 

um, Cces. C.B. l, l ] 5. ; Cic. Att. 7, 

11.; Inh. Cingulani, Cingulanus ager } 

& Cingula Saxa, Sil. 10, 34. 
Cinyfhus, v. Cynips, Cyniphis, a river 



of Libya, between the two Syrtes, Plin. 
5,4.; whence Cinyphii hirci, rough, 
Virg. G. 3, 312. Cinyphius maritus s 
an he-goat, Martial. 7, 94. Cinyphius 
chelydrus, a water-snake, Ovid. Met. 
7, 272. Cinyphius Juba, king of 
Mauritania, whose dominion extended 
over Libya, ib. 15, 75 5. Cinyphicu pes- 
tes, Libyan serpents, Lucan. 9, 787. 

CIRCiEUM prom. Monte Circello, the 
prom, of Circeji, a small town in the 
south of Latium, 147.; Inh. Cir- 
ceienses, Cic. N. D. 3, 19.; Liv. 6, 17. 
hence Circceum jugum, Virg. Mn. 7 S 
799.: terra, ib. 10. Circceum littas 9 
Ovid. Met. 14, 248. vel Littora Circes, 
ib. 247. Circwa arva, ib. 348. 5 
mcenia, 252, tellus, ib. 15, 718. 

Circumpadani Campi, the country on 
each side of the Po, Liv. 21, 35. 

Circus Maximus, a circular place in 
Rome, for exhibiting games, chariot- 
races,, and spectacles ; Circenses ludi s 
the games performed there. 

CIRRHA vel Cyrrha, a town of Phocis, 
309. contiguous to rocks (scopulosa), 
Lucan. 3, 172.; adj. Cirrhceus. 

CIRTA, Constantia, the capital of Nu- 
midia, 682. 

Cispadana Gallia, that part of Cisalpine 
Gaul south of the Po, 134. 

Cisrhenani Germam, the Germans on 
the left or west side of the Rhine near- 
est Rome, Cces. 6, 2. 

CISSIA, the district of Susiana, in which 
Susa stood, Herodot. 5, 49. 

CITELERON, -d?iis, m. a mountain of 
Bceotia, sacred to Bacchus, 304. Virgo 
G. 3, 43. 

Citium, Chiti, a towrr of Cyprus, 592, 
CLANIS, Chiana, a river of Tuscany, 
which falls into the Tiber, Tacit. Annah 

l, 79.' -Clanius, Lagnio, a river 

of Campania, 149. Virg. G. 2, 225. 
CLAROS, v. -its, a grove near Colophon 
in Ionia, where was a temple of 
Apollo, hence called Clarius, Virg a 
Mn. 3, 360. ; Tacit. Ann. 2, 54;, $i 
12, 22. 

CLASTIDIUM, Schiatezzo, a town of 
Liguria, Liv. 32, 29. 

CLAUDIA Aqua, the first water brought 
to Rome, by an aqueduct eleven miles 
long, the work of Appius Claudius the 
Censor, A. U, 441, Liv. % 29.; Eti- 
trop. 2, 4. — Claudia tribus 3 Virg, Mn* 
7, 708. 

Clazomenje, Vourla, a town of Ionia, 
near Colophon ; Inh, Clazommii^ Lit* 
38, 39, 

8C 4 



760 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Cleone, t. -a, a small town of Argolis, 
near which Hercules slew the Nemean 
lion, Ovid. Met. 6, 417. hence called 
Cleoneeus leo, Sil, 3, 34. Sidus Cleo- 
nceum, the constellation Leo, Stat. 
Sylv. 4, 4, 28. 

Clegpatris. See Arsinoe. 

CLIMAX, or the Ladder, a narrow pass, 
formed by a brow of mount Taurus, 
projecting into the sea, 589. Strab. 14, 
666. 

Clitoris, v. -ium, a town of Arcadia, 
near which was a fountain whose waters 
caused a disgust of wine, Ovid. Met. 
15, 322.; Plin. 32, 2. 

Clitumnus, a river of Umbria, the waters 
of which had the quality of rendering 
cattle white, Plin. 2, 103.; Serv.in 
Firg. G. 2, 146. 

Cluilia Fossa, a place five miles from 
Rome, Liv. 1, 23. et 2, 39. 

CLUPEA vel Ctypea, et plur. Clypece, 
Aklibia, a maritime town of Africa 
Propria, about 22 miles east from Car- 
thage, named from the resemblance of 
the hill under which it stood to a shield, 
Sil. 3, 243. called by the Greeks Aspis, 
for the same reason, Strab. 17 ,p. 834. ; 
Lucan. 4, 586.; Liv. 27, 99. ; Cees 9 
Civ. 2, 23.; Afr. 2. 

CLUS1UM, Chiusi, a town of Tuscany, 
at the south end of the Pains Clusina, 
the lake of Clusium, extending to Ar- 
retium, and communicating with the 
Arnus and Clunis. Clusina; oree, Virg. 
Em. 10, 655. 

CNIDUS, a town of Caria, where Venus 
was worshipped, Horat. Od. 1, So, l.j 
adj. Cnidius, ib. 2, 5, 2o. 

COASTRjE, a people of Asia near the 
Palus Mcedtis, Lucan. 3, 246. called by 
Pliny Choatras, 6, 7. 

COCINTUM, Cape Stilo, a promontory 
of the Bruttii. 

Cocytus, a river in the infernal regions, 
• Firg. G. 3, 38. et 4, 479.; Mi. 6, 
297. et 323. whence Cocytia virgo, the 
Fury Alecto, ib. 7, 479. 

CODANUS sinus, the Baltic sea, Plin. 
4, 13. 

CGELESYRIA, i. e. Cava Syria, a coun- 
try of Asia, 594. 

CCEL1US mons, one of the seven hills of 
Rome; whence Porta Caliomontana, 
one of its gates. 

COLCHIS, -Ms, f. a country of Asia, 
on the east end of the Euxine sea; Inh. 
Colchi; adj. Colckicus, Col chits, v. 
Colchiatvs — Colchis, -idis, is put for 
Medea, Horat. epod. 16, 58. j Juvenal. 



6, 640.; Ovid. Amor, 2, 14, 28. or 
is used as an adj. thus, Gens Colchis, 
Flacc. 5, 418. Colchiacee herbce, ma- 
gic herbs, Ovid. Sabin. 1,37. Colchet 
vel Colchica vemna, Horat. Od. 2, 
13, 8. 

Colias prom. Agio Nicolo, a promon- 
tory of Attica- 

COLLATIA, a town of the Sabines, 
139, on an eminence; hence Area 
Collaiinee, Virg. /En. 6, 744. Pene- 
tralia Collatina, the house of Collatinus, 
the husband of Lucretia, Ovid. Fast. 2, 
787- Porta et via Collatina, which led 
to that town. 

Coll ina porta, one of the gates of Rome, 
at the Collis Quirinalis ; whence i^s 
name, Quid. Fast, 4, 872- Rem.Am* 
549. 

COLONS, a town of Troaa, Nep. 
4, 3. 

COLONIA AGRIPPINA, Cologne, a 
city of Germany on the Rhine ; Eoues- 
tris, Noyon, on the lake of Geneva ; 
Morinorum, Terrouen, in Artois ; 
Norbensis, Alcantara, in Lusitania j 
Trajana, v. Ulpia, Kellen, a village 
in Cleyes ; Valentja, Falentia, in 
Spain. 

Colophon, a city of Ionia, 588. Inh. j 
Colophonii, Coloplw?iius Idmon, Ovid. 
Met. 6, 8. 

COLOSSI, a town of Phrygia Major ; 
Inh. Colosseni, v. -enses. Flos Colossi- 
nvs, Plin. 21. 9 s. 27. 

COLLBRARIA , Monte Colubre, a small 
desert island, east from Spain ; though* 
by some to be the same with Ophiusa, 
Plin. 3. 5 s. 11. 

COLUMNiE Hercvlis, two pillars erected 
by Hercnle3, on Abyla and Calpe, two 
mountains, one on each side of the 
Straits of Gibraltar, to mark the limits, 
of his labors or conquests. The 
mountains themselves are also called 
by this name. Strabo mentions various, 
opinions concerning this matter, b. 3, 
p. 170, &c. — Columnje Protei, the 
limits of Egypt, where Proteus reigned, 
near the place where Alexandria after- 
wards stood, Virg. JEn. 11, 262. ac- 
cording to Homer, in ihe island Pharos, 
Odyss. 4, 351. 

COM AN A, -ce, a city of Pontus, in Asia 
Minor, Hirt. B.Alex. S-i. Inh. Cumani. 
ib. 35. Comana, -orum, a town of 
Cappadocia, ib. 66. 

COM AREA, Cape Comorin, in India. 

Commagkne vel Comagene, a part of Sy- 
ria, 593. adj. Comagenus. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 761 



COMMORIS, a village or fort of Cilicia, 
Cic. Fam. 15, 4. 

COMPSA, Consa, a town of the Hir- 
pini in Italy ; Inh. Compsani. 

COMUM, Como, a town of the Orohii. 
Plin. 3, 18. at the south end of the 
lake of Como, in the duchy of Milan ; 
Ager Comensis, Liv. 33, 36. Inh. Co- 
menses, ib. 37. Caesar transplanted 
thither a colony ; whence it was called 
Novum Comum, Suet. 28. and the Inh. 
Novocomenses, Cic. Fam. 13, 35. 
It afterwards, however, resumed its old 
name, Plin. Ep. 1, 3. — the birth-place 
of Pliny the younger. 

Concana, Cangas de OniSf according 
to some, Santilana, a town of Cantabria 
in Spain; Inh. Concani, noted for 
their ferocity, esteeming the blood of 
horses a delicious drink, Horal. Od. 
3, 4, 34. Virg, G. 3, 463. Sil. 3, 
361. 

CONCERDIA, a town of the Veneti in 
Italy: also the name of other places. 

CONDATE, vel civitas Rhedonum, Ren- 
nes, the capital of Brittany in France : 
also the name of other towns. - " 

CONDIVICNUM, Nants, the ca- 
pital of the Namnetes of Brittany in 
France. 

CONDRUSI, a people of Belgica, inha- 
biting the district of Condrotz, in the 
bishopric of Liege. 

CONE, an island at the mouth of the 
Danube, Lucan. 3, 200. supposed to be 
the same wiih the insula Conopon of 
Pliny, 4, 12 s. 24, extr. 

CONFLUENCES, Coblentz, a town 
at the confluence of the Rhine and 
Moselle. 

Coniaci, a people of Cantabria, at the 
head of the Iberus, Strab. 3, 156. 

CONIMBRlCA, Coimbra, a city of 
Portugal. 

CONSENTIA, Cozenza, the capital 
of the Bruttii ; Ager Consentinus, its 
territory, Liv, 28, 11. Inh. Comeutini, 
Cic. Fin. l, 3. 

Constantjnopolis, Stamboue or Con- 
stantinople, the capital of Turkey in 
Europe, 3 50. 

Contra-Acincum, Pest, a town of 
Hungary, on the south-side of the 
Danube. 

COPA1S, -Idis, Livadja Limne, a lake 
in Boeotia, 304. 

KOPTOS, Kvpt, a town of Egypt, 
situate on a canal communicating with 
the Nile ; about 300 miles from Alex- 
andria. Plin, 6 ; 23. the great emporium 



of Indian commerce, ib. 5, 9. Strab. 
16, 781. et 17, 815. called Calidaby 
~ Juvenal, 15, 28. as being in the torrid 
zone. 

CORA, a town of Latium j whence Co- 
rani et Cnranus ager. 

CORCULoNIS monumentum, Gronin- 
gen, as it is thought. 

CORCYRA, Corfu, an island in the 
Ionian sea, 330. fnh. Corcyrcei. Bellum 
Corcyrcewn.Neip. 2,2. Te Corey rcsum 
Cressia turba putet, ths people of Crete 
once had such an antipathy to the Cor- 
cyreans, that when any one of them 
was found in Crete he was killed, Ovid, 
lb. 512. Corcyrcei pomaria regis, the 
gardens or orchards of Alcinous, Mar- 
tial. 8, 68, 1. 

CORAX, a very high mountain of 
iEtolia, Liv. 36, 3o. 

Corbuba, Cordova, a celebrated city 
of Bcetica on the north side of the 
Baetis, 483. Inh. Cordubenses, Hirt. 
B. Alex. 57. Cordubensis conventus, ib. 
et Plin. 3, l. 

CORDYLA, a port of Pontus, Plin. 6, 
4. supposed to be named from certain 
small fishes caught there, {cordylce, v. 
-i), Plin. 9. 15. Martial. 13. 1. 

CORFINIUM, Sanferino, the capital 
of the Peligni, Sil. 5, 522. Lucan. 2, 
478. three miles from the river Avernus, 
Cces. Civ. B. I, 16. Inh. Corfinienses, 
Plin. 3, 2. 

CORINTHUS, the capital of Achaia 
Propria, 280. Inh. Corinihii; adj. Co- 
linthius: Ms Corinthiumj plur. Corin- 
thia, sc. vasa, vessels of Corinthian 
brass, Martial. 9, 58. whence Corin- 
thiarius, a name of reproach given 
to Augustus, as being too fond of such 
vessehj Suet. Aug. lO.Corinthiacussinus, 
the gulf of Corinth, Liv. 26, 26. et 8, 
7. Terns Corinthiacce, Ovid. Trist. 1, 
9, 9- Fons Corinthiensis, the fountain, 
Pirene, Plaut. Aul. 3, 6, 23. Littus> 
Cor'mtkiense, Tacit. Ann. 5, 10. 

Corioi.i, a town of the Volsci, Liv. 2, 
33. whence Martius got the sirname 
of Corioldnus, ib. Cic, Alt. 9, 10. See 
p. 211. 

Coritum seu Contus, rather Corythum, 
v. -us, Cortona, a town and moun- 
tain of Etruria, Virg. JEn. 3, 170. 
Corythia arx, Sil. 5, 123. Sedesprisci 
Corythi, named from its founder Cory- 
thus, a king of Etruria, ib. 4, 721. 
supposed to have been the father of 
Dardaims; who, according to Virgil, 
went from thence to Troy, see p, 187° 



762 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX,, 



hence Venerat Antiquis Corythi de 
fnibus, &c JEo. 10, 719- Corythi 
urles for urbs, ib. 9, 10. possessed by 
a colony of Lydians, ib. 11. See Cor- 

TONA. 

CORONE, a town of Messenia, which 
gave name to the Sinus Coronceus, the 
gulf of Coron. Plin. 4, 5 s. 7. 
Coronea, a town of Boeotia, 305. 
CORSICA, an island in the Tuscan Sea, 
278. noted fur producing bitter honey, 
which was ascribed to this island's 
abounding with yews and hemlock. Ovid. 
Amor. 1, 12, 10. Inh. Corsi, Plin. 
3, 7 s. 13. adj. Corsicus — called by 
the Greeks Cvrnus, Plin. 3, 6 s. 12. 
Inh. Cyrnii, Plin. 7, 2. whence 
Cyrnece taxi, Virg. Eel. 9, 30. 
CORTONA, formerly Corton, Corto- 
na, an ancient city of Etruria, Dionys. 
1, 20, & 26. to the north of the 
Thrasimen lake, Liv. 9, 37, 22, 4. 
called Cory t ham by Virgil, hence Cor- 
tonienses monies, ib. 
Corybantium oppidum, a town in the 
island Samothrace, where Cybele was 
worshipped, 346. whence Cqrybantes 
was used as a general name for her 
priests, Horat. Od. 1, 16, 8. and. Co r 
rybantia (era, for the brazen cymbals 
on which they beat in their sacred 
rites, Virg.Mn.3, 111. hence Cory - 
lantiare, to rage, or to be frantic like 
the Corybantes, Plin. 11, 27 s. 54.; 
Strab. 10, 473. 
Corycus, Curco, a town of Cilicia, 
Cic. Fam. 12, 13. near which was a 
cavern or hollow, and a grove (Cory- 
cium antrum et nemus) , which produced 
saffron highly esteemed, Plin. 5. 27 s. 
22.; Mel. I, 13. hence Crocus Cory- 
cius, Horat. Sat. 2, 4, 68. ; Lucan. 

9, 809. 

COS vel Coos, Lango, an island on the 
coast of Caria, famous for the manu- 
facture of silk or cotton of a very fine 
texture, called Coje vestes, 342. 
In Cois me, sc. vestimentis, to be dressed 
in such cloaths, Ovid. Art. Am. 2. 
298. — CoUM VINUM, Plin. 14, 8 s. 

10, et 15, 17. Fcecula Coa, the lees of 
Coanwine, Horat. Sat. 2, 8, 9. 

COSA, v. -ce, a maritime town of Etru- 
ria, Virg. Mn. 10, 168. whence Cosa- 
nus portus, Liv. 22, 11. ager, Cic. 
Att. 9, 6. vel Cosanum, Cses. B. Civ. 
l a 34. 

COTHON, a small island surrounded 
with an euripus, serving as a harbour 
for diips, adjoining to the citadel of 



Carthage, 678, Serv. in Virg. Mn. I, 
431. 

Cottii regnum, a petty kingdom among 
the Alpes Coltice, Suet. Tiber. 37, et 
Ner. 18. 

CRAGUS, a mountain in Lycia, sacred 
to Apollo, Ovid. Met. 3, 645. woody, 
and therefore called viridis, Horat. Od. 
1, 21. 

Craneum, a grove near Corinth, 281. 

CRANON, a town of Thessaly inTempe, 
Liv. 26, 10. whence Cranonius ager, 
'Liv. 42, 44. 

CRATER, Bassin, or the gulf of Na- 
ples. 

CRATHIS, Crati or Crater, a river of 

Lucania, 170. 
Cremera, a river of Tuscany, falling 
into the Tiber, a little to the north of 
Rome; near which the Fa bii were cut 
off by the Vejentes; hence called Cre- 
mera Legio, Juvenal. 2, 155. Cremera 
rapax, rapid, swelled with rain, Ovid. 
Fast. 2, 205. 
CREMMYON, or Cromyon, a place not 
far from Corinth, 302, where Theseus 
slew a sow of a prodigious size, Ovid. 
Met. 7, 455. 
Cremona, a town north of the Po, near 
Mantua, Virg. Eel. 9, 28. Inh. Cre- 
monetises. Tacit. Hist. 3, 19. 
CRETA, vel Crete, -es, Candia, a large 
island in the south part of the Egean 
sea, 338. Inh. Cretes, sing. Cres, 
fem. Cressa paella, Propert. 4, 7, 57. 
Cressa ne careat. pulchra dies notd, i. e. 
Candida, Let the day be distinguished 
by a white mark, as all lucky days were 
in the Roman calendar ; or, Let it be 
marked with chalk, (cretd, brought 
from Crete,) Horat. Od. 1, 36, 10. — 
Adj. Creticus, Cretensis, Cressius, et 
Crelceus. Cretis, -idis, f. Nympha 
Cretides, Cretan nymphs, Ovid. Fast. 
3, 444. Cretea humus, Ovid. Ep. 10. 
106. Cretea orce, Virg. TEn. 3, 117- 
Cressia prodigia, a fierce wild bull, 
which laid waste the fields of Crete, 
caught by Hercules, Virg. Mn. 8, 
294.— The original inhabitants of Crete 
were railed Curetes, Serv. in Virg. 
Mn. 3, 131, whence Curetted tccta, the 
houses of the Cretans, Sil. 15, 308, or 
Cretenses,. Martial 9, 21, 7. 
Crimisus, v. Crvilsus, Caltabellotta, 

a river of Sicily, 267. 
CR1SSA, a town of Phocis, which gave 
name to the Sinus Crissavs, or gulf of 
Salona, a part of the Corinthian gulf, 
soy. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



763 



CRITHOTE, vel Erichtho, a town of 

the Thracian Chersonesus, Nep. 13, 1. 
Criu-Metopon, or the Ram's Front, 

see Arietis frons. 
CROTON, Crotona, a city of the 

Bruttii, 180. Inh. Crotoniatce, adj. 

Crotoniensis. 
CRUSTUMERIUM, a town of the Sa- 

bines, Crustumeri put for the town, 

Virg.Mn.7, 631. Crustumlni, Liv. 

whence Crustumhms ager, Liv. 41, 9. 

Crustumina Iribus, ib. 42, 34. Crus- 

iumia pyra, a ruddy kind of pears, 

Virg. G. 2, 88. 
CRUSTUiVilUM, Conca, a river of 

Umbria, between Arimmum and Pi- 

saurum, called rapax, rapid, Lucan. 2. 

406. 

Crypta Neapolitana, a subterrane- 
ous passage cut through mount Pausily- 
pus, between Naples and Puteoii, 153. 

Ctesiphon, El-Modain, a city of 
Assyria, on the east side of the Tigris, 
opposite to Seleucia, Plin.fi, 26. 

CULARO, called afterwards Gratia- 
nopolis, from the Emperor Gratian, 
now Grenoble, the capital of Dau- 
phine in France. 

CUM/E, v. Cyme, a town of Cam- 
pania, 149, adj. Cumceus, v. Cumamis. 
Cumanus ager, Cic. Rull. 2, 26. Cu- 
manum, sc. pr tedium, a villa of Pomi- 
pey's near Cumae, Cic. Att. 4, 10. and 
of Verro, Cic. Acad. 1, 1. Cum ana, 
sc. patina, an earthen plate, made at 
Cumae, Apic. 4, 2. Cumcea Sibylla, the 
Sibyl of Cumae, Ovid. Met. 15, 712, 
Virgo, ib. 14, 135. Cumceam anum 
consulere, i. e. Lyhros sibyllinos adire, 
to inspect them, Id. Fast. 4, 158. 
Cumceos in annos vivere, to live to the 
age of the Sibyl, Id. Pont. 2. 8, 41. 

CUNEUS, the point of Algarve, a 
promontory in Lusitania, Plin. 4, 22 s. 
35. The adjoining country was also 
called Cuneus, because it was spread 
out in the form of a wedge, Mel. 3, 1. 

CURES, -ium. Curese, a principal 
town of the Sabines, 139. whence the 
Romans are said to have been called 
Quirites; and Romulus, Quirinus, 
Macrob. Sat. 1, 9.; Serv. in Mn. 1, 
292, or, according to Ovid, from Curis, 
which in the Sabine language, denoted 
a spear, Fast. 2, 477. Sea quia Romanis 
junxerat ilk Cures, i.e. Sabinos, ib. 480. 
Turba Curensis, the people of Cures, 
Ovid. Fast. 3. 94. 

Cretes, urn, vel Curetce, the ancient 
inhabitants of Crete, Ovid. Met. 4, 



282.; Fast. 4, 210. Terra Curctis, 
-Idis, Crete, Mel. 8, 153. see Creta. 

CURIA, Coire, a town of the Rhaeti, 
now the capital of theGrisons. 

Curias, Gavata, or Dalla Guile, a pro- 
montory of Cvpru?, on the south. 

CURIOSOLtfiE, v. ytes, the inha- 
bitants of lower Brittany, in France, 
Cces. 2, 34. et 3, 11. 

Curtius Fons, a fountain, forty miles 
from Rome, the water of which was 
conveyed by an aqueduct so high, as 
to be distributed through all the hills 
of the city, Plin. 36, 15. 

CUSUS, Vag, a river of Hungary, which 
falls into the Danube on the nonh. 

CUTILIA, v. -ee, Cot:la, a town of 
the Sabiues, near a lake (lacus Cuti- 
liensis,) of remarkably cold water, Plin. 
31, 2. in which was a floating island, 
Id. 3. 12 s. 12. ; Senec. Q. Nat. 3, 25. 

Cyane, Pisma, a remarkable fountain, 
a few miles from Syracuse, 262. 

Cyane*; Insula, the Pavonare, two 
small islands, or rather rocks, in the 
Euxine sea. about twenty stadia from the 
north mouth of the Thracian B osphdrus, 
said in fible to meet and dash against 
each other; which was owing to their 
different appearance, as one approaches 
or recedes from them ; called also Sym- 

' plegades, or Syndromades, 3 52. fnstabi- 
les CyaJieastransirefOv'id.Tnst. 1 . 9, 34. 

Cyclades, a circular cluster of islands 
in the Egean sea, 336. Virg. Mn. 3. 
127. sing. Cyclas, Sil.4, 24 7. 

Cyclopes, a fabulous people of Sicily, 
of gigantic size, and having but one 
eye in the middle of the forehead, 273, 
& 454. Cyclopia tela, thunderbolts 
made by the Cyclops, Claudian. R. 
Pros. 1,27. Cyclopia saxa, rocks on 
the coast of Sicily, Virg. Mn. 1, 201. 

CYDNUS, a river of Cilicia, 590, Curt. 
3, 4, 7. ; Justin. 11.8. 

CYDON1A, v. Cydon, Canea, a city 
of Crete, 339.; Inh. Cydonidtce, Liv. 
37, 60. vel. Cydones, Lucan. 7, 229. 
sing. Cydon, Virg. 12, 858. ; adj. Cy- 
donius, v. -eus. Cydonece pharetrte, 
Cretan quivers, Ovid. Met. 8, 2 2. Cy- 
donia spicula, Cretan darts, Virg. Eel. 
10, 59. Cydoneum comu, a Cretan 
bow, Sit. 2, 109. 
Cylene, a high mountain of Arcadia, 
where Mercury was born, Virg. Mn, 
8, i39, hence called Cyllenius, Lucan. 
1, 663. Proles Cyllenia, Virg. Mn. 4, 
2 5 8 . Ignis Cyllenius, the planet Mercury , 
Id. G. 1, 337. Fides Cyllenea, the 



764 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



lyre invented by Mercury, Horat. Epod. 

13, 13. Cyllenea testudo, Ovid. Art. 

Am. 3, 147. Cyllenis (-idis,) planta, 

the foot or feet of Mercury, Ovid, 

Met. 5, 176. 
CYME, a city of ^Eolia, Liv.37, 11* J 

Nep.7, 7.; Inh. Cymasiy ib. 38, 39. 

Cymceus fundus, Cic, Flacc. 20. 
Cynosarges, a gymnasium near Athens, 

295. 

Cynoscephalje, a place in Thessaly, 
where Flaminius defeated Philip, king 
of Macedon, 323. 

Cynossema, the tomb of Hecuba, 348. 
Cynthos, a mountain of the island 
Delos, Virg. /En. 1, 498. on which 
Apollo and Diana were born ; whence 
Apollo was called Cynthius, and 
Diana Cynthia, 337. Crastinus Cyn- 
thius, to-morrow's sun, Ovid. Fast. 3. 
346. 

CYPARfSSA, Arcadia, a town of 
Messenia, Liu. 32, 31, on the Sinus 
Cyparissius, Plin. 4, 5. 

CYPRUS, a noble island in the east end 
of the Mediterranean, 592. sacred to 
Venus, FLor. 3, 9. whence she is called 
Gypris, -Idis ; Inh. Cyprii, Nep. 
9, 4.; adj. Cyprius et Cypricus. Ms 
Cyprium, copper, Plin. 33, 5, et 36, 
26. Vas Cupreum, v. Cyprium, a 
vessel made of copper, Plin. 23. 3. 

CyreNjE, v. -e, a celebrated city of 
Africa, the capital of Cyrenaica, 
677- Cic. Plane. 5.; Sil. 3, 252. whence 
Cyrenozus et Cyrenaicus, -a, -urn, Cic. 
Tusc. 1,42.; Acad. 4, 42.; Inh. Cy- 
kenenses, Plaid. Rud. 3, 2, pr. } 
Tacit. Ann. 3,70. 

Cyrni's et Cymceus, see Corsica. 

CYRUS, Kur, a river of Iberia, 592. 

Cyrrhfstica, v. -e, a district of Syria, 
contiguous to Cilicia, Cic. Ail. 5, 18. 
named frum its capital Cyrrh'.m, Plin. 
5, 23 3. 19. 

CYTA, a town of Colchis, the native 
place of Medea ; whence she is called 
Virgo Cilcza, Flacc. 6, 156. or Cyteeis, 
-tdis, Propert. 2. l, 73. j Inh. Cytcei. 
Val. Flacc. 6. 426. 

Cythera, -orum, vel -a, -ee, Cerigo, 
an island opposite to Malea, a prom, 
of Laconica, sacred to Venus, 332, 
whence she is called Cytherea. Virg. 
JEn. l, 262. and Cylhercis, -tdis, vel 
tdos, Ovid. Met. 4, 288. ; adj. Cy- 
theriatus et Cylhtreius ; Cythereiddes 
eolumbte, pigeons sacred to Venus, ib, 
J5, 386, 

10 



CYTHNUS, Thermia, one of the Cy~ 

clades, 338. 

Cytorus, v. -urn, Kudros, a town of 
Paphlagonia, near a mountain of the 
same name, which produced excellent 
boxwood, Virg. G. 2, 437, hence called 
^2m/er,Catull. 4, 13. Jugum Cytorium, 
ib. 12. Cytoriacus petten, a comb of 
boxwood, Ovid. Met. 4, 31 1. 

Cyzicus, v. -um } a city of Mysia on the 
Propontis, 586. ; Inh. Cyziceni, etadj, 
Cyzicenus. 

D 

DACIA; a large country north of the 
Danube, now Moldavia, Wallachia, and 
Transylvania, 355. ; Inh. Dad, sing. 
Descendens Dacus ab Istro, Virg. G. 2, 
397.; adj. Dacus, Dacius, et Dacicus. 
Dacicus was a title assumed by Do- 
mitian, on account of his pretended 
conquests in that country, and inscribed 
on his coins, Juvenal. 6, 204. 

Dactym Idjei, the priests of Cybele, 
near mount Ida, 355. Strab. 10, 473. 

DAHjE vel D\&, a nation of Scythia 
south end of the Caspian sea. Virg. 
Mn. 8, 728. ; Sil. 13, 764. ; Lucan. 
7, 429. now the Dahistan. 

DALMATIA, a part of Illvricum, or 
the east side of the Adriatic sea, 352.; 
Inh. Dalmatce, a fierce people subdued 
by Augustus, Suet. 20. Dalmata sup- 
plex, Ovid, ad Liv. 389. adj. Dalma- 
ticus triumphus, Horat. Od. 2, 1 . 16. 
Dalmatica, sc. vestis, a kind of 
garment, first made in Dalmatia, and 
afterwards worn at Rome ; hence Dal- 
maticatus, dressed in it, Lamprid. in 
Commodo, 8. 

DALMIUM, v. Dalminium, a town of 
Dalmatia, which gave name to the na- 
tion, Strab. 7, 315. 

DAMASCUS, Demesk, a city of Syria, 
629. called ventosa, by Lucan, from 
its unsheltered situation, 3, 215. ; adj. 
Damasenus ; whence Damascene, the 
country. Mel. J , 11. 

DAMASIA, afterwards called Augusta, 
now Augsbourg, in Swabia, on the 
Leek. 

DAMNII, a people of Britain, thought 

to be those of Clysdai.e. 
DAMNONIl, those of Devonshire; 

whence Damnonium, vel Ocrinumpro- 

montorium, Land's End. 
DANAl, a poetic name of the Greeks, 

392. Virgil et Ovid.pas$im. RcsDanaa* 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 765 



the Grecian state, Ovid. Met. 13, 59, 
Danaee classes, ib. 92. 
DANAPRIS, the Nieper, a name given 
to the Borysthenes, in the middle ages ; 
as Danaster, the Neister, was given to 
Tyras. 

DANUBIUS, the Danube, one of the 
noblest rivers in Europe, 5 73. 

DANUM, Doncaster, in Yorkshire, as 
it Is thought. 

DAPHNE, a delightful grove near An- 
tioeh, 594, often the scene of volup- 
tuousness ; hence Daphnici mores, luxu- 
rious. 

DA FANTASIA, Moustier, or Mo- 
tier, a town of the Centrones, an Alpine 
nation of Gallia Be/gica, called also 
. Forum Claudii. 

DA. L DANIA, a name of Troas or Troy, 
Virg. Mn. 2, 324. ei 3. 156. Ovid. 
Trist. 1, 9, 25. from its first king Dar- 
danus, Virg. JEn. 6, 650. et 7, 206. 
et 8, 34. hence Dardanus a Trojan, ib. 
4, 661. Dardani, v. Dardanidce, the 
Trojans, ib. 2, 72, & 242, et 3, 94, et 
5>. 45. ; Plin. 33, 3. Matres Darda- 
nides, the Trojan matrons, Ovid. Met. 
13, 413. Dardanius Paris, Virg. Eel. 
2, 61. Hits Dardanides, -ce, Trojan, 
Ovid. Fast. 6, 419. Dardanides furit, 
i. e. iEneas, Virg. Mn. 10, 545. so 
12, 775. — Dardania is also put for 
Samothracia, Plin. 4, 12. 

DARDANI, a fierce people of Meesia, 
Plin. 4, 1 .adjoining to Macedonia, Liv. 
26, 25, et27, 33. and always hostile to 
it, ib. 31, 28. f/40, 57. 

DA^DANIUM prom, a promontory of 
Troas, named from Dardanus v. -um, a 
small town, 70 stadia from Abydos, 
Strab. 13, 595. whence the two castles 
built on each side of the strait by Ma- 
homet IV. in 1659, were called the 
Dardanelles. 

Darii tons, a bridge made by Darius on 
the Danube, where it begins to divide 
into several mouths, Herodot. 4, 89. 

DAH10BRIGUM, a town of the Veneli, 
now Vennfs in Brittany. 

DAULIS, -idis, a town of Phocis, 310. 
Homer 11. 2, 27. situate on a lofty 
eminence, Liv. 32, 18, the country 
Daulia or Daulis, Plin. 4, 3. s. 4. 
Daulia rura, Ovid. Met. 5, 275. Avis 
Daulias, rudis, i. e. Progne, {Vide 
p. 310. & 419.) 

DAUNIA, the ancient name of the north 
part of Apulia, now Capitimata, 158. 
whence Daunia regno, Sil, 9, 500. 
Daunian campi, ib. 12, 429. Daunia 
Camcsna, the Daunian muse, i. e, the 



poetry of Horace, who was born in 
Apulia, Horat. Od. 4, 6, 27. Daunia, 
gens, iheRutuli, so named from Daunu3 
the father oi Turnus, Virg. JEn 8, 
146. Daunius heros, Turnus, ib. 12. 
723. Daunia dea, Juturna, the siste? 
of Turnus, ib. 12, 785. made a god- 
dess by Jupiter, to compensate the in- 
jury he had done her, ib. 139, &c. but 
before that called by Ovid Nais, a 
water nymph, Fast. 2, 606. presiding 
over a fountain called by her name. 

DAUNUS, Carapelle, a small river 
in Apulia, 158. 

Decapolis, i. e. Regio decern urbium, a 
district of Judaea, Plin. 5, 18, et Deca- 
politana Regio, ib. 

DECELIA, Biala Castro, a village of 
Attica, 301. which the Lacedemonians 
fortified by the advice of Alcibiades, 
Nep. 7, 4. 

Decumates Agri, certain, lands in Ger- 
many, which were subjected by the 
Romans to the payment of the tenth 
part of their produce, Tacit. G. 29. 

DELIUM, a towu of Borotia, Liv. 31, 45. 
with a temple of Apollo like that of 
Delos, 306. hanging over the Eurlpus 
Liv. 35, 51. 

DELOS, v. -us, the central island of the 
Cyclades, 336, the birth-place of Apoll© 
and Diana ; whence Vales Delius, A- 
poilo, Virg.JEn. 6, 12. Ornalus jbliis 
Deliis, i. e. with a crown of laurel, that 
tree being sacred to Apollo, Horat. Od. 
4, 3, 7. Dea Delia, Diana, ib. 4, 
6, 33. Nemoralis Delia, Stat. Theb. 

9, 627. Deliaca vasa, brazen ves- 
sels made in Delos, which were held in 
great estimation, 337* Deliacus Galli- 
narius, a breeder of hens, for which the 
Delians were celebrated, Cic. Acad. 2, 
16 &18. 

DELPHI, Castri, the capital of Phocis, 
306. Orbis in medio positi, Ovid. Met. 

10, 167.; adj. Delphicus.— Delphica, 
sc. mensa, a kind of marble table with 
three feet, Cic. Verr. 4, 59. first made 
at Delphi, Plin. 33, ll. — Delphis, 
-idis, the priestess of Delphi, Martial, 
9, 43. 

DELTA, that part of Lower Egvpt in- 
cluded between the two extreme 
branches of the Nile and the Mediter- 
ranean, so called from its resemblance 
to the fourth letter of the Greek alpha- 
bet (A), 669. Cess, de Bell. Alex, 
c. 27. 

DEMETRIAS, a town of Thessaly,321. 

also the name of some other places. 
Duobrica, Miranda de Ebro, a towts 



766 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



of Spain, on 'the north side of the 
Ebro. 

DERBE, Alah-Dag, a town of Ly- 
caonia, Inh. Derbetes, sing. Derles, 
Cic. Fam. 13, 73. 

DERTONA, Tortona, a town of Mi- 
Ian. 

DERTOSA, Tortosa, a town of Cata- 
lonia, on the north side of the Ebro. 

DERVENTIO, Derwent, a river of the 
Brigantes in Yorkshire, on which was 
the town Deruenlun, Auldby. 

DEVA, Chester, on the Dee. 

Deucaledonius oceanus, the sea on the 
north-west of Scotland. 

DIA, Stan-Dia, an island near Dium, 
the most northern promontory of Crete, 
838 ; also one of the Cyclades, the same 
with Naxos, Plin. 4, 12. 

-DI ANIUM promontorium, Cape Martin, 
in Valentia of Spain. 

DIBIO, Dijon, the capital of Burgundy 
in France. 

DICTAMNUM, or Dictynna, a promon- 
tory in the north of Crete. 

DICTE, a mountain of Crete, 338. 
where Jupiter was nursed (sub Dic- 
tceo antro, in a cave of mount Diete) 
Firs:. G. 4, 153. whence Dictcece 
nymphce, Cretan nymphs, Virg. Eel. 
6, 66. Dictceus rex, Jupiter, Id. G. 
2. 536. or Minos, Ovid. Met. 8, 43, 
Dictcea rura, the Cretan fields, ib. 3, 
2. Arva, Virg. ./En. 3, 171. Saltus, 
ib. 4,72. 

Didyme, Saline, one of the Lipari 
islands, 276. 

DIGENTIA, a rivulet of the Sabines, 
running past the villa of Horace, Horat. 
Ep. 18, 104. 

Dindymus, pi. -a, -orum, a mountain 
of Phrygia, Virg. Mn. 6, 617, where 
Cybele was worshipped, hence called 
Dindymene, Hor. Od. 1, 16, 5. 

DIN I A, Digne, a town of" Provence. 

DiOCLEA, or Doclea, a town on the 
coast of Dalmatia, Plin. 3, 23. the 
country of the emperor Diocletian, who 
was originally called Djocles, Eutfop. 
9, 19. 

Diotvl ede/e Insidce, two small islands in 
the Hadriatic, near mount Gargamis, 
159- 

DIORICTUS, a place of Acarnania, 

where a cut was made to make Leuea- 

dia an island, Plin. 4, ] . 
DIOSCURIAS, -ados, vel Dioscuriada, a 

town of Colchis, Plin. 6, 28. 
DioscorIdis Insula, Socotara, an island 

to the south of the mouth of the Arabic 

gulf. 



Diospolis, i. e. Jovis urbs, a city of the 
lower Egypt, which gave name to the 
district called Nomos Dios Polltes, Plin. 

5, 9. 

Dipylon, one of the gates oi Athens, 
294. 

DIRCE, a celebrated fountain near Thebes, 
called Cadiriea Dirce, from Cadmus 
who founded Thebes, Lucan. 3, 175. 
whence Dircceus, Theban, 304. Sic 
semine Cadmi emicuit Dirccsa cohors, a 
troop of armed men sprung up from the 
dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus, Lucan. 
4, 550. 

DIRCENNA, a very cold fountain near 

Bilbilisin Spain, Martial. 1, 50, 17. 
DIVA, the river Dee at Aberdeen. 
DIUM, a strong town in Macedonia, 

Liv. 44, f. Also the name of various 

other places. 
DIVODURUM, Metz, the capital of 

Lorrain. 

DOBUNI, the people of Gloucester and 
Oxfordshire. 

Dodona, a town of Molossis in Epire, 
317, near which was a large grove of 
oaks, (Dodonice, Dodoncece, vel Dodo- 
nides quercus,) whence Dodona is put 
for these oaks, which, before the use 
of corn, afforded food for men, Virg. G. 

1, 149, and were supposed to utter pre- 
dictions, Lucan. 6, 427.; Ovid. Trist. 
4, 8,23. 

Dolopes, a people of Thessaly, Lucan, 

6, 384. Piiny says of ^Etolia, 4, 2. 
their country was called Dolopia, Liv. 
36, 33. Servius makes the Dolopes 
the companions of Pyrrhus, and the 
Myrmidones of Achilles at Troy, Mn. 

2. 7. adj. Dolopeius, Flacc. 2, 10. 
Don usa or Donysa, one of the Cyclades, 

Virg. JEn. 3, 125. 

DORION, a city of Thessaly, where 
Thamvras, having challenged the Muses 
to a contest at singing, and being van- 
quished, was deprived of sight, Stat. 
Theb. 4, 1S2. ; Hygin. Astron. 2, 6.; 
Propert. 2, 22, 19.; Lucan. 6. 352. 

Doris, -Idis, vel Dorica, apart of Grcecia 
Propria, 312. called Teirapolis, from it* 
four cities, Strab. 9, 434. ; Inh. Dores, 
-iwn, Dorii vel Dorienses ; whence Do- 
rica castra, the Grecian camp, Virg. 
Mn. 2, 27. — Also a part of Caria, He- 
rodot.l, 144. Dondis sinus, Plin. 5, 29. 

Domscus, v. -uui, a place in Thrace, 
where Xerxes numbered his army, 345. 

DOHYLEUM, Eski-Shehm, a town of 
Phrygia ; Inh. Dorykci, Plin. 5. 29. vel 
Dory lenses, Cic. Flacc. 17. 

DRAVUS, the Drave, a river of No- 
4 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



161 



sicum, which falls into the Danube at 
Mars a. 

Brepanum, Trapani, a maritime town 
of Sicily, 269; adj. Drepanitanus, 
Cic. Verr. 2, 57.-— Also the name of 
several other places. 

DRi'LO, Drina, a river separating Ma- 
cedonia from Dalmatia, and falling into 
the Adriatic at Lessus or Alessio. 

DRINUS, Drin, a river which separates 
Servia from Bulgaria, and joins the 
Save. 

DRUENT1A, Durance, a river of Gaul, 
which falls into the Rhone between 
Aries and Avignon. Sil. 3, 468. 

DRUNA, the Drome, a river of Gaul, 
falling into the Rhone below Valentia. 

Dry opes, a people said to have inha- 

' bited various places. — Epire, Strab. 7> 
-321. — Thessaly, Doris, Corinth, ib. 8, 
373, and Troas, 13, ib. 586. Pliny 
places them in Epire, 4, 1. SoLucan. 
3, 179. 

Dubis vel Alduadubis, the Daux, a river 
of Burgundy, which falls into the Soane 
i near Chalone. 

DUBRIS, Dubrce, v. t, Dover, a town 
of Kent, opposite to Calais in France. 

DULICHIUM, a small island near Ithaca, 
subject to Ulysses, 331. who is there- 
fore called Dulichius Dux, Ovid. Met. 
14, 226. Rem. Amor. 272. Didichice 
rates, his ships, Viig. Eel. 6, 70. Du- 
lichius cards, his dog Argus, Martial. 
11, 70, 8. 

DUMNONIUM vel Ocriaum Promonto- 
rium, the Lizard Point, on the south- 
west of England, 

DUNUM, a Celtic word denoting a hill 
or eminence. 

DURIUS, the Duero or Doiro, a river 
of Portugal. 

DURNIUM vel Durnovaria, Dorches- 
ter, a town of the Durotnges in Bri- 
tain. 

DuRNOMACUS V. -UTTl, DuRMAGEN, a 

town of Belgica, on the Rhine, below 

Cologne. 
DUROBRIVIS, Rochester. 
DUROCASSES, Dreux, in the country 

of the Carniites, Ciiartrain, the chief 

seat of the Druids in Gaul, C&s. 6, 

13. 

DUROCATALAUNUM, Chalons, on 

the Marne, in Champaigne. 
DUROCORNOVIUM vel Corinium, Ci- 
rencester, in G'oucestershire. 
DUROCORTORIUM, a town of the 
Rhemi, in Gaul, now Rheims, in 
Champaigne. 



DUR0L1TUM, Rumford, or Leiton ia 
Essex. 

Dy.\I2E, a town of Achaia, Liv. 27, 31.; 

Inh. Dymcei, ib. 32, 22. Dymeeus 

ager, ib. 27 , 3 1 . Dymenses funditores, 

ib. 30* 29. 
DYRACCHIUM, Durazzo, a town of 

Ulyricum or Macedonia, 329. Inh. 

Dyracchini, Liv. 44, 30. Cic. Att. 3, 

22. 

DYRAS, a river of Thessaly, near Ther- 
mopylae, 320. 

E 

EBLANA, Dublin, the capital of Ire- 
land, as it is thought ; Inh. Eblanii. 
EBORA, Evora, a town of Portugal. 
Eboracum, York. 

Ebudje v. -des, the western isles of Scot" 
land ; called by a more modern name, 

Hebrides. 

Eburones, the people of the Ligeois, 
Ccbs. B. G. 2, 4. et 6, 5. Eburovices 
Aulerci, the people of Evreux, in 
Normandy; ib. 3. 17. 

EBUSUS, Ivica, one of the two Pityusee 
insulce, near the coast of Spain, to the 
south-west of Majorca; celebrated for 
its pasturage and figs ; about a hundred 
miles in compass, Plin. 3, 5. et 15, 19. 

Ecbatana, -drum, Hamedan, the capital 
of Media, Cic. Manil. 4. 

ECETRA, a town of the Volsci; Inh, 
Ecetrani Volsci, Liv. 2, 25. & 
3, 4. 

Echine, v. Echlnudes, small islands of 
Greece, at the mouth of the river 
Achelous, 331. Ovid. Met. 8, 588. 

ECHINUS, Echinou, a town of Thes- 
saly, Liv. 32, 33. 

Ecnomos, Monte Licata, a mountain of 
Sicily, 264. 

EDESSA vel Mg<z, a city of Macedonia, 
325. also a town of Mesopotamia or 
Arabia; Inh. Edesseni, Plin. 5, 24. 
Tacit. Ann. 12, 12. 

EDETA vel Leria, Leria, a town of 
Celtiberia in Spain ; the country Ede- 
tana, along the river Sacro or Xucar, 
Plin. 3, 3.; Inh. Edetani, or Sede- 
tani, Liv. 28, 24. ; 29, 1. ; et 34, 20. 
Sil. 3, 371. 

EDESSJE portus vel Odyssece, a town of 
Sicily, near the prom. Pachynus, 263. 
Cic. Verr. 5, 34. 

Edonis, tdis vel Edonica, the country 
between the rivers Strymon and Nessus, 
. 328.; Inh. Eddnes vel Edoni, often put 
for the Thracians; adj, Edonus v. -ius $ 



768 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Thracian : Matres Edomdes, Thracian 
matrons, i. e. Bacchce or priestesses of 
Bacchus, Ovid. Met. 11, 69.; sing. 
Edonis, Propert. 1, 3, 5. or Edonis, 
Lucan. 1, 674. Q , 

Egeri/e lucus et funs, a grove and foun- 
tain near Rome, where Nurna held 
secret meetings, as he gave out, with 
the nymph or goddess Egeria, (called 
his wife, Liv. 1, 21. Ovid. Met. 15, 
482. Fast. 3, 275. or mistress, Ju* 
venal. 3, 12.) and with the Muses, 
Lib. ib. Numa therefore consecrated 
this grove, and a temple he built in it, 
to the Muses, ib. on which account the 
place is called Ad Camoenas, Martial.' 
2, 6, 16. Juvenal calls it Vallis Ege- 
rice, ib. 17. 

EGNATIA vel Gnatia, a town of Apulia, 
162. 

ELjEA, a town of jEolis, in Asia 
Minor, Liv. 36, 43. on the Sinus 
Elditicus. 

El/eus vel Eleus, -untis, f. a town of the 
Thracian Chersonese, Liv. 31, 16.; 
37, 9. ; Inh. Eieuntii. 

Elea or Velia, a town of Campania, 172. ; 
Inh. Eleutce ; sing. Eleates Zeno, Cic. 
Tusc. 2, 21. & 22. Nat. D. 3, 34. 
whence EleaticiPhilosophi, the followers 
of Zeno, Cic. Acad. 4, 42. 

ELATIA v. ea, a town of Phocis, Liv. 28, 
7.5 32, in. & 14. — also of Thessaly, 
Liv. 42, 54.; Inh. Elatiertses. 

ELAVER, Allier, a river of Aquitania, 
which falls into the Loire on the south. 

Electrides Insula, certain islands in 
the Adriatic, supposed by the Greeks 
to produce Amber, Mel. 2, 7. but 
Pliny says none such existed, 3, 26 s. 
30. & 37, 2 s. 11. He, however, in- 
forms us, that one Sotacus believed, 
that in Britain, amber dropt from the 
rocks, ib. and he himself mentions some 
islands in the German sea, called Glos- 
saries or Electrides, which produced 
amber, 4. 16 s. 80, St 13 s. 27. See 
p. 569. 

Elephantine vel Elephantis, -zdis, an 
island in the Nile, near the lesser cata- 
ract, 668. 

ELEUSIS v. -in, -inis, a village of Atti- 
ca, sacred to Ceres, whence she is called 
Eleusinia Mater, 301. 

Eleuthkr/e, a town of Boeotia, between 
Megara and Thebes, Plin. 4, 7.; & 
34, 8. 

Eleuthkros, a river of Syria, at the foot 

of Mount Libanus, Plin. 9, 10. 
EtsuTHERocalcES, a people of Cilicia, 



who had never been subject to king's^ 
Cic. Atl. 5, 20. ; Fam. 15, 4. 

Elimea regio vel Elimedtis, -Mis, a dis- 
trict of Macedonia, Liv. 42, 53. et 45, 
30. Some place it in IHyricum ; Inh. 
Elimei vel Elimcei. 

Elis, "is vel -idis, vel EleA, a division of 
Peloponnesus ; also its chief city, now 
Belvedere, 281. Cic. Fam. 1 3, 26. ; 
Liv. 27, 32. ; Inh. Elei ; whence Eleus 
ager, ib. et Eleus Campus, Virg. G. 3, 
202. vel Elii, Cic. deDiv. 2, 12. whence 
Eliadesequte, Virg. G. 1, 59. 

ELYMAIS, -idis, a part of Assyria, Plin, 
6, 27. 

EMATHIA, a part of Macedonia, 325, 
hence Emathia portus, the harbours of 
Macedonia, Virg. G. 4, 390. Emathii 
campi, the Macedonian plains, Ovid. 
Met. 5, 314. Emathius dux, Alexan- 
der the Great, Id. Trist. 3, 5, 39. 
Emathia tecta, Alexandria in Egypt, 
built by Alexander, Lucan. 10, 58. — 
It is also often put for Thessaly, 320. 
whence Emathii campi, the plains of 
Pharsalia, Lucan. 1, l,et 6,620. vel 
Emathia arva, 7> 191, ei 846. Acies 
Emathice, the battle of Pharsalia, 8, 
531. plur. the troops that fought in it. 
1, 688. Emathice funest a dies, the day 
of the battle, 7. 427. Pharsalos Emu- 
this, -zdis, 6, 350. Lucan frequently 
confounds Thessaly with Macedonia, 
and Pharsalia with Pbilippi; so some- 
times the other poets, see p. 323. 

Emerita Augusta, Merida, a city iu 
Spain, Plin. 4, 22. adj. Emeritmsis, ib. 

EMPORLE, Ampurias, a town of Spain 
in Catalonia, Lit;. 34, 9-; 26,19-; 28, 
42. Emporia regio, ib. 29; 25, et 33. ; 
Inh. Emporitani, ib. 34, 16. Em- 
porium ad Placentiam, a town of Italy, 
Liv. 21, 57.; Ad Tiberim, 35, 10, 
et 41, 27. 

Enchelia, an ancient town of IHyricum, 
on the confines of Epire, supposed to 
have been named from Cadmus and 
his wife Harmonie v. -ia, being there 
converted into serpents, Lucan. 3, 189.; 
Inh. Enchelii v. -ce, said to be the de- 
scendants of Cadmus and Harmonia, 
Strab. 7, 126. 

ENGYIUM, Gangi, a city of Sicily; 
Inh. Engini, Cic. Verr. 3, 43, et 4, 
44. 

EnIpeus, a river of Macedonia, 324. Virg. 

G. 4, 368. 
ENNA vel Henna, Castro Janni, or 

Castro Gi^vane, a town of Sicily, 272.; 

Inh. Ennenses, Liv, 24, 37. Snr 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



769 



ftensis ager, Cic>— sacred to Ceres, who 
is therefore called Ennensis, Cic. 
Verr. 3, 49. c^Henn^a, Sil. I, 214. 
~-Henncea Diva, i.e. Proserpine, Sil. 
1, 93. who was carried off from the 
grove of Enna by Pluto, Cic. Verr. 4, 
104. 

ENTELLA, Lavagna, a river of Ge- 
noa ; also a town of Sicily, on the river 
Crimisus ; Inh. Entellini, Cic. Ferr. 
3, 42. 

EoRDiEA, a district of Macedonia, Liv. 
31, 39.; 33, 8. & 42, 53.; Inh. 
Eord^i, Liv. 45, 30. 
EOUS orbis, the eastern part of the world, 
Ovid. Fast. 3, 406". Eoce ferrce. Art. 
Am. 3, 537. Eoce undce, the eastern 
ocean, it. 6, 478. Eoce partes, ib. 1. 
140. Eoi Indi, Amor. 2, 6, 1, or 
simply Eoi, ib. 1. 15, 29. from Eos, 
Edis, f. the morning, Fast. 4, 389. 
Eous, i. e. Lucifer, the morning star, 
Virg. G. 1 , 2 8 8 . Eoce domus Arabum, 
Virg. G. 2, 115. Eoce aciesy the east- 
ern troops, i. e. the Ethiopians, Id. 
JEn. 1. 489. 
EPETIUM, Viscio, a town of lllyrieum ; 

Inh. Epetini. 
EPHESUS, Aiosoluc, the capital of 
Ionia, now in ruins, 582. adj. Ephesius 
et Ephesinus. Lilerce Ephesice, letters 
which were supposed to contain some 
magic power, Piin. 36, 14. 
Ephyra vel Ephyre, an ancient name of 
Corinth, 280. whence Ephyrea marnia, 
Dyracchiuin, founded by a colony from 
Corinth, Lucan. 6, 17. Ephyreia cera, 
vases of Corinthian brass, Virg. G. 2, 
264. Ephyre'iades puellce, the girls of 
Corinth, Claudian. de B. Get. 629. 
Epidamnus vel -um, the ancient name 
of Dyraechinm, which the Romans 
dropped, as being ominous, (q. ad 
damnum), Plin. 3, 23. to which Plautus 
alludes, Men. 2, 1, 42. 
EPIDAURUS vel -um, Pidavra, or 
Malvasia Vecchia, a city of ArgoTis, 
celebrated for its horses, (domitrix 
equorum), Virg. G. 3, 44. sacred to 
jEsculapius ; whence he is called Epi- 
daarius, 287 . — also a town of lllyrieum, 
now Regusi Vecchio ; and of Laconica, 
Malvacio Vecchio. 
EPIDIUM, Isla, one of the western 
isles of Scotland ; or, as others think, 
the Mull, of Cantire, Ptolemy. 
Epig5ni, the descendants of those he- 
roes who fell in the first Theban war, 
432. 

Epiphanea v.-w, Surpendkar, a town 



of Cilicia, near Issus, Cic.Fam. 15, 4.» 
Plin. 5, 27. — another of Syria on the 
Euphrates, Plin. 5, 24. 

EPiPoLiE, a part of Syracuse, 260. 

EPIRUS, Albania, and Canina or Chi- 
mera, 214. celebrated for its horses, 
Virg. G. 3, 121. Eliadum palmas 
equarum, sc. misit, produced mares, 
which gained the prize at the Olympic 
games, ib. 1, 59. Inh. Epirolce, Nep. 
13, 2. "Stng. Epirotes, ib. 21, 2. 
hence Epirdlicce possessiones, ib, Attic. 
14. 

EQUUS TlMCUS, Cast el Franco, 

a town of the Hirpini, 157. 
ERANA, a village of Cilicia, on mount 

Amanus, Cic.Fam. 15, 4. 
Erasinus, a river of Argolis, which 

sinks below ground, and rises again, 

Plin. 2, 103. ; Ovid. Mel. 15, 276. 
ERBESSUS vel Herbessus, Monte Bu 

bino, a town of Sicily, north of Agri- 

gentum ; Inh. Herbenses, Liv. 24, 

30. 

EREBI stdes, the infernal regions, Virg* 

G. 4, 471. vel Erebus, JEn. 6, 247. 

Erebi umbrae, ib. 4, 26. 
ERETRIA, a city of Eubcea, 336. Inh. 

Eretrienses; adj. Eretrius et Erelria- 

cas. 

Eretum, a village of the Sabines, Virg. 
JEn* 7,1 '11. Eretinus ager, Tibull. 4, 
8, 4. 

Ericusa, Alicudi, one of \he Lipari 
islands,' 276. 

Eridanus, the poetic name of the Padus 
or Po, supposed to flow from a river in 
the infernal regions, Virg. JEn. 6, 659. 
compared by Lucan to the Rhine and 
Danube, 2, 408, &c. Aratus men- 
tions an Eridanus in heaven, Cic. in 
Arat. 145.; so Claudian de Cons, Ho- 
nor. 6, 175. 

ERYMANTHUS, a woody mountain of 
Arcadia, where Hercules slew a huge 
wild bear, 398. A river of the same 
name flows from it into the Aipheus, 
Plin. 4, 6, hence Erymatithia hellua, 
Cic. Tusc. 2, 8. A per Erymantkius, 
ib. 4, 22. vel Erymanthceus, Flacc. 1, 
374. Ursa Ery man this, -tdis, i. e. 
Callisto metamorphosed into a bear, 
Ovid. Met. 2, 499. but Statius uses 
this expression for any Arcadian bear, 
Theb. 9, 549. 

ERYTHlA v. -ea, an island near Gades 
in Spain, or the island Gades itself; 
supposed by some to have been the 
abode of Geryones, Plin. 4, 22. ; MeL 
3, 6.; Propert. 4, 10, 1.; Sil. 16* 
3 D 



770 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



195. hence Victor abit, secumque loves 
Erytheiada preedum abstulit, sc. Hercu- 
les, Ovid. Fast. 5, 649. et Erytheiadas 
loves, ib. 1, 543. 

ERYTHILE, Erethri, a town of 
Ionia, 587. whence Sibylla Ery- 
thR/BA, who, according to Varro, 
brought the Sibylline verses to Tar- 
quin. Serv. in Vxrg.Mn. 6, 36. Ery- 
thrceum prom. Liv, 44, 28. ; Inh. Ery- 
thrcei, ib. 38, 39. — Also a town of 
JEtolia, ib. 28. 

ERYTHRiEUM MARE, that part of 
the Indian ocean which washes Arabia 
and Persia, Herodot. 1, 180. et 189.; 
3, 93.; et 4, 37. said to have been 
named from a King Erythras, Plin. 
6, 23 s. 28.; Curt. 8, 9, 14.; Mel. 
3, 8. erroneously called by the Latins 
Rubrum mare, ib. The Persian and 
Arabian gulfs were part of the Mare 
Erythratum, but not that sea itself. 
Pliny seems to restrict that name to the 
gulfs themselves, 6, 24. Eryihrtei la- 
fillip pearls found in that sea, Stat. 
Silv. 4, 6, 18.; TibulL 3, 3, 17- 

ERYX, yds, San Giuliano, a mountain 
of Sicily (supposed to be also called 
Erycus, Cic. Verr. 2, 8. et 47.) , sa- 
cred to Venus ; hence called Erycina, 
269. Erycino in vertice, on the top 
of Eryx, Virg.JEn. 5, 759. There was 
on the side of the mountain a strong 
town of the same name, Liv. 21, 10. 
et 41. ; 28, 41. 

ESQUILIjE v. Exquilice, Mons Esquili- 
nus vel Esquilius, one of the seven hills 
of Rome ; whence Porta Esquilina, 
Liv. 2, 11. et tribus, Plin. 18, 3. Ex- 
qvihisjE alites, ravenous birds, which 
came to devour the bodies of criminals, 
who were commonly executed at the 
Esquiline gate, Horat. Epod. 5. 100.; 
Tacit. Ann. 2, 32. 

Essebones, a nation of Scythia, near the 
PalusMcedtis, Plin. 4, 12.; adj. Esse- 
donius. 

EsTiiEoTis, a district of Thessaly, 320. 
Esula, a town of Latium, Horat. Od. 3. 
29, 6. 

ETRURIA vel Hetruria, Tuscany, a 
country of Italy, 136.; adj. Hetruscus; 
Inh. Etrusci et Tusci, Virg. JEn. 
10, 429. 1 1, 629. Etrusca acies, the 
Tuscan army, ib. 8, 503. castra, 10, 
148. See Tusci. 

EUBOEA, Negropont, an island to the 
east of Boeotia, 335.; adj. Eubceus 
et Euboicus, applied not only to Eu- 
hceif but to Cum<&, founded by a co- 



lony from Euboea. Carmen Euboicum, 
the verses of the Cumoean Sibyl, Ovid. 
Fast. 4, 257. Rupes Euboica, the rock 
of Cumse, Virg. Mn. 6, 42. But Eu- 
loicce cautes, the rocks of Eubcea, il. 
11, 260. 

Evenus, Tidari, a river of iEtolia, 
adj. Eveninus. 

Evesperides, a people of Africa, on 
the side of the Syrtis Major, Herodot. 
4, 171 & 198. 

EUGANEI, a people of Italy, near the 
head of the Hadriatic, driven back to- 
wards the Rhetian Alps by the Trojans 
and Veneti, Liv. 1, l.j adj. Euganeus. 

EUMENIA, a city of Caria, Plin. 5, 29. 

Euonymos, one of the Lipari islands, 
276. 

EUPATORIA vel Magnopolis, Tchen- 
ikeh, a town of Pontus, Strab. 12, 
556, — Another of Paphlagonia, on the 
Amlsus, Plin. 6, 2. ■ 

EUPHRATES, Euphrates, or Fr at, 
a celebrated river of Asia, which rises 
in Armenia, and empties itself into the 
Persian gulf, 625. annually overflow- 
ing its banks, and fertilizing the coun- 
try, Cic. Nat. D. 2, 130. the boundary 
of the Roman empire on the east ; 
hence Euphrates movet b,ellum, i. e. tke 
Parthians, Virg.G. 1, 509. ibat jam, 
mollior undis, i. e. the nations through 
which it flowed were subdued by Au- 
gustus, Mn. 8, 726. G.A, 560, &c. 

Eur i pus, the narrow strait between Boe- 
otia and Euboea, 335. 

Edromus v.-to, vel Euromensium op- 
pidum, a town of Caria, Liv. 32, 33. et 

* 33, 30. 

EUROPA, Europe, one of the three 
great divisions of the ancient world, 
Plin. 3, l.j Lucan. 3, 275. Europce 
atque Asia? orbis, Virg. JEn. 7, 222. 
Europd at que Asia pulsus, i. e. from 
Italy in Europe, and Troy in Asia, ib. 
1, 385.; adj. Europeans, Nep. 18, 3. 
But Dux Europceus is put for Minos, 
the son of Europa, Ovid. Met. 8, 23. 

Europus, a town of Macedonia on the 
Axius, Plin. 4, 10. 

EurOt as, Vasilipotamo, the river 
which runs past Lacedsemon, Liv. 35, 
29, p. 283. 

Eurotos v. -as, a river of Thessaly, 
which joined the Peneus, but was sup- 
posed not to incorporate with it, 319. 

Eurymedon, -ontis, a river of Pamphy- 
Jia, 589. Liv. 33, 41. & 37, 23. 

Euxinus Pontus, the Black sea, 351. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. m 



F 

Fabaris, Farfa, a river of the Sabines, 

Virg.Mn. 7,715. 
FABRATERIA, Faevaterra, a town 

oftheVolsci, Cic. Fam. 9, 24.; Inh. 

Fabraterni, Plin. 3, 5. 
FABRICIUS PONS, Ponte Giudco, or 

Ponti di quatro capi, one of the bridges 

on the Tiber at Rome, Horat. Sat. 2, 

3, 36. 

Facelina, Sedes Dicmce, a small place 

in the north of Sicily, £7/. 14, 260. 

called also Fascelince Templa Diance, Lu- 

cil. For the cause of this name see Serv. 

in Virg.Mn. 2, 117-; Hygin. 261. 
FiESULiE v. -a, Fiesale, a town of 

Etruria, Sallust. Cat. 27. ; Sil. 8. 478. ; 

adj. Fasulanus; Inh. Fesulani, Cic. 

Mur. 24. 

FALERTA, Fallerona, a town of Pi- 
cenum ; Inh. Falerienses vel Falari- 
enses, Plin. 3, 13 s. 18. 

FALERII v. -ium, Palari, a town of 
Etruria, on the right side of the Tiber; 
Inh. Falisci, s. Phalisci, said to be 
sprung from the Athenians or Arrives, 
Plin. 3, 5. called Mqui, just r by Virgil, 
because the Romans borrowed from 
them the laws of heraldry, or the laws 
observed in proclaiming war, (jura 
fecialia,) and some other supplements 
to their twelve tables, Serv. in Virg. 
Mn. 7, 695. — Faliscus ager ; Liv. 
10, 12, 16. Fenter Faliscus, a kind of 
sausage made at Falerii, Martial. 4, 46. 
Falerii was famous for rich pasture; 
hence Falisca herba, Ovid. Fast. 1, 84. 
gramen, Id. Pont. 4, 8, 41. Faliscce 
pressepes, Cat. R. R. 4. & 14. 

FALERNUS ager, a district at the foot 
of Mount Massicus in Campania, cele- 
brated for its wine, Liv. 22, 14. Mar- 
tial mentions a mons Falernus, 12, 57. 
There were several contiguous hills, 
the west part of which was called Gau- 
ms, the east Massicus, and the north 
Falernus. Flor. 1,15. now Monie Bar- 
bara, as being in a great measure barren. 

— — Falernum, sc. prcedium, a villa 
in that district, Cic. Phil. 13,5. 

FAVENTIA, Faenza, a town of Ro- 
mania in the Pope's territory ; Inh. 
Faventini, Plin. 14, 15. Martial. 2, 74. 

FELTRIA, Feltri, a town in the terri- 
tory of Venice ; Inh. Feltrini. 

Fenestella, a gate of Rome, Ovid. Fast. 
6, 578. 

FENNI vel Fmm, the inhabitants of 



Eningiav. Finningia, Plin. 4, 13. Tacit. 
G. 46. supposed to be Finland. 
Ferentinum, Ferentino, a town of the 
Hernici in Latium ; Inh. Ferentini, Sil. 
8, 394. or Ferentinates, Liv. 9, 
42. & 43. near which Ferentino; (sc. 
Decs) lucus, Liv. 1, 50, 52. Fereiitina 
aqua, 51. Ferentinum caput, the source 
of that stream, ib. 2, 33. 
Ferentum vel Forentum, Forenza, & 
(own of Apulia, Horat. 3, 4, 15. Inh. 
Ferentani, Liv. 9, 16, & 20. 
FERoNii-E Mues ct Lucus, the temple 
and grove of the goddess Feronia, in 
the district of Capena (in Capenate, sc. 
agro), Liv. 33, 26. Virg. Mn. 7, 697, 
— Another about three miles from 
Anxur or Terracina, Virg. Mn. 7, 
799. with a sacred fountain in the 
grove, Horat. Sat. 1, 5, 24. 
FESCENNIA, -iorum vel -ium, (Ga- 
les e or Citta Castellata,) a town of 
Etruria, near Falerii, Plin. 3, 5 f. 8. 
where, Servius says, nuptial songs and 
those petulant verses called Versus Fes- 
cennmi vel carmina Fescennina, were 
first invented, Mn. 7, 695. 
Fibrenus, a river which runs into the 
Liris, and through Cicero's farm, at 
Arpinum, Cic. Legg. 2, 1. 
Ficana, a town of Latium, near Rome, 

Liv. l, 33. 
FICARIA, Serpentera, a small island 
in the Sinus Caralitanus or bay of Cag- 
liari, on the east side of Sardinia, Plin, 
3, 7- 

FICULEA or Ficulnea, a town of the 
Sabines or of the ancient Latins, Liv* 

1, 38. beyond mons Sacer. The way 
which led to it was called via Ficulnen- 
sis, afterwards Nomentana, Liv. 3, 52° 
Cicero had here a villa, (Ficulnense 9 
sc. praedium,) Att. 12, 34. 

Fiden^e v. -a, a town of the Sabines., 
Inh. Fidenates, Liv. 1, 14, & 27- J 

2, 19.; 4, 17, & 21.; .33, 34. Fide- 
lias bellum, ib. 1, 15. 

F1DENTIA, Borgo-di-san-Domino, a 
town of Gallia Cispadana, between 
Parma and Placentia, Fell. 2, 28. Inh. 
Fidentini, Plin. 3, 15 s. 20. 

FIRMUM v. -ium, Fermo, a town of 
Picenum, Cic. Att. 8, 12.; Fell. 1, 
14. Inh. Firmani, Plin. 7, 8. their 
sea-port was called Castellum Firma- 
norum, ib. 

Fiscellus, monte della Sibella, a hill of 
the Sabines, Sil. 8, 518. where the 
Nar rises, Plin. 3, la. 

Flaminia porta, Porta del Popolo, 

3D 2 



in 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



one of the gates of Rome, opening to 
the via Flammia, which led to Arimi- 
num, 183. 
FLANATICUS sinus, the gulf of Car- 
nero, a bay of Liburnia, named from 
the people, Flanates, Plin. 3, 19, & 
21. 

Flavina, a town of Etruria, near So- 
racte, Sil. 8, 492. hence Flavinia 
arva, Firg. Mn. 7, 696. 

FLEVUS v. -urn, the right branch of 
the Rhine, which at its mouth spread 
out into a large lake, called FLEVO, 
now ZUIDER ZEE, or the Zuider 
sea, Mel. 3, 2.; Plin. 4, 15 s. 29.; 
Tacit. Ann. 2, 6. the river was again 
contracted before it joined the ocean, 
and got the name of HELIUM, Plin. 
ib. which may be still recognised in 
Ulie. — A fortress built here was called 
FLEVUM Frisiorum, Tacit. Ann. 
4, 72. 

FLORENTIA, Florence, the capital of 
Tuscany, on the Arno ; Inh. Floren- 
tine Plin. 3, 5 s. 8.; Tacit. Ann. 1. 
79.; Flor. 3, 21. 

Fons Solis, a fountain in Cyrenaica, so 
called from its shifting its degrees of 
heat and cold with the motion of the 
sun, Plin. 2, 103. 

FORMIC v. -ia, a maritime town of 
Latium, forty stadia south-east of Ca- 
jeta, Liv. 8, 14.; 38, 36. antiently the 
abode of the Lcestrigones, p. 454. cele- 
brated for its wine, (yinum Formia- 
kum) Horat. Od. l, 20, 11. called 
Mamurrarum urbs, Horat. Sat. 1, 5, 
37- from an opulent family of that 
place, Plin. 36, 6. Near this was a 
villa of Cicero's, (Formianum,) Cic. 
Fam. 11, 27, & 16, 10. where he was 
assassinated, p. 148. 

FORMIO, Risano, a river of Istria, 
the ancient boundary of Italy to the 
east, Plin. 3, 18 s. 21. which was 
afterwards extended to the river Arsia, 
ib. 19 s. 23. 

FORTUNATE INSUL/E, the Canary 
islands, 683. Plin. 6, 31, & 32. 

FORULI, a village of the Sabines, Firg. 
Mn, 7, 714. 

FORUM APPII, a town of the Volsci, 
on the Via Appia, Cic. All. 1, 10.; 
Inh. FoROArpn, Plin. 3, 5 s. 9 m. — 
Forum ALLJENI, Ferrara, Tacit. 
Hist. 3, 6.— Forum AURELII vel Au- 
relium, Montat.to, a town of Etruria, 
Cic. Cat. 1, 9. — Forum CLAUDII, 
Oriolo, also in Etruria. — Foram 
CORN ELI UM vel Cornelii, Imola, 



in Romania, the Pope's territory, Cic. 
Fam. 12,5.; hence Forocornellensisuger, 
Plin. 3, 16. — Forum Domitii, Fron- 
TlGNANio : Fronligniac, . in Languedoc, 
—Forum FLAMINII, San Giavan- 
ne in Umbria ; Inh. Foro-flami- 
nienses, Plin. 3, 14 — Forum GAL- 
LORUM, Castel Franco, in the 
territory of Bologna, Cic. Fam. 10, 30. 
— Forum JULII, Frejus, in Pro- 
vence, Cic. Fam. 10, 17. called Forc- 
juliensium colonia,Tach. Agric. 4. Also, 
Friuli, in the territory of Venice, 
called Forajuliensis civitas, Cic. 
Fam. 12, 26.— Forum VOCONII, 
Gonsaron, between Marseilles and 
Antibes, Cic. Fam. 10, 17. — Various 
other places were called FORA, market 
towns or boroughs, Sallust. Jug. 47. 
where the Roman praetors or governors 
of provinces held courts of justice, (fa- 
rwn vel convention agebunt,) Cic. Verr, 

4, 48.; 5, 11. Vatin. 5. Fam. 3, 6, & 
8. Att. 5, 21. hence those towns were 
called CONVENTUS, as well as Fo- 
ra, Cic. Ferr. 2, 20. Ligar. 8. Thus 
Spain was divided into so many towns, 
where these judicial meetings (Juridici 
Convent us) were held, Plin. 3, Is. 
3. so Ccbs. Civ. B. 3, 21, St 32. and 
all those who were obliged to go to a 
certain city to get justice, were said to 
be of such and such a conventus ; thus, 
Celtici, qui Lusitaniam attingunt, His- 
paliensis conventus ; Turduli, jura Cor- 
dubam peiunt, Plin. ib. 

FOSI, a people of Germany, near the 
mouth of the Elbe, Tacit. G. 36. 
thought to be the Saxones of Ptolemy, 
p. 567. 

FOSSA v. -cz y the straits of Bonifa- 
cio, between Corsica and Sardinia, 
also called TAPHROS, Plin. 3, 6 s. 

15. 

FOSSA DRUSI vel Drusiana, a canal 
cut by Drusus from the Rhine, below 
the separation of the VVahal, to the 
Issel, for eight miles, Tacit. Hist. 5, 
23. Suet. Claud, l. See p. 535. 

FOSSA MARIANA, a canal cut by 
Marius, in his war with the Cimbri, 
from the east branch of the Rhone 
to Marseilles, now called Galejon, 
Mel. 2, 5.; Strab. 4, 183. Pliny 
calls this work Foss;e Marii, 3, 4 s. 

5. as if there had been more cuts than 
one, as Suetonius calls the canal of 
Drusus. 

FREGELLiE, Caprano, a town of 
the VoUci iu Latium on the Luis, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



773 



Liv. 8, 22.} Inh. Fregellani, Liv. 
27, 10, 26, & 27. Fregellanus ager, 
Cic. Fara. 13, 76. Arx Fregellana, 
Liv. 9, 18. 

FHENTO, Fortore, a river of the 
Frentani, whence their name, 158. 
and that of the country, Regio Fren- 
tana. Plin. 3, 11. ; Liv. 9, 45. 

FRETUM, put by way of eminence, for 
Fretum Siculum, the Straits of 
Messina, Cees. B. Civ. 1, 29.; Cic. 
Att.2, 1.5 Flor.l, 26. extr. hence 
called Fretense Mare, Cic. Alt. 
10, 7- 

FRISII, Frisons, the people of Fries- 
land, Tacit. Ann. 1, 60.; Hist. A, 15. 
& 72. divided into Majores and Mi- 
nores, Id. G. 34. 

Frusino, Frusilone, or Frqsinone, a town 
of the Volsci, Juvenal. 3, 223. Inh. 
FrusTnates, Ziu. 10, 1. ; Fundus 
Frusinas, Cic. Att. 11, 4, & 13. 

Fucinus Lacus, Lago di Celano, a 
lake in the country of the Marsi, 158. 

Fulginum v. -ium, v. -ia, Foligno, a 
town of Umbria, Sil. 8, 462. Inh. 
Fulginates, Plin. 3, 14 s. 19. sing. 
Fulginas, Cic. 

FUNDI, Fondi, a town on the Via 
Appia, near Cajeta, Horat. Sat. 1, 5, 
34. ; Inh. Fundani, Liv. 8, 14, & 
19. ; 38, 36. Fundanus AGER, 
Cic. Rull.l, 25. et Lacus, Plin. 3. 
5. Montes Fundani, Tacit. Ann. 4, 
59. 

G 

GABELLUS, La Secchia, a river run- 
ning into the Po, on the south, oppo- 
site to the Mincius on the north, Plin. 
3, 16. 

GABII, now extinct, a town of Latium, 
Liv. I, 53. Gabina whs, Ovid. Fast. 

2, 709.; Inh. Gabini, Liv. 6, 21. 
Gabina via. the way which led to it, 

3, 6. Gabinus cingtus, a particular 
manner of tucking up and girding 
round the toga, Liv. 5, 46. j 8, 9. ; 
10, 7-; Virg.Mn.*}, 612. Gabina: 
Junonis arva, the territory of Gabii, 
where Juno was worshipped, ib. 682. 

GADES, -ium, vel Gadis, -is, Cadiz, 
an island and town of Spain at the mouth 
of the Baetis, Plin. 4, 23 s. 37. called 
remotce by Horace, Od. 2, 2, 11. and 
Terrarum Jinis, Sil. 17, 642. Solis culri- 
lia, because the sun was there supposed 
to go to bed, Stat. Silv. 3, l, 183. 
where was a temple of Hercules, liv. 



21, 21.; 24, 49.; 26, 43.; 28, I.; 
Inh. Gaditani, Liv. IS, 13 — 37, 
Gaditana Provincia, Liv. 28, 2. 

GiETULIA, 682, the country of the 
G.fcTUU the first inhabitants of Africa, 
Sallust. Jug. 18.; Plin. 5, 4. adj. 
G&tulus et Gcetulicus. 

GAL ATI A, vel Gallogrcecia, a country 
of Asia Minor, 592.; Plin. 5, 32 s. 
42.; Inh. Galat<$:, Cic. Alt. 6, 5.; 
Lucan. 7, 540.; adj. Galaticus, 
Col. 2, .9, 8. Livy almost always calls 
the country Gallogr^cia, and the 
inhabitants Gallwgr/Eci, 38, 12. 
40. 

GALESUS, Galeso, a river near Ta- 
rentum, 167. 

GALLIA, Gaul or France, 534. di- 
vided into TransalpIna, or Ul.teriq.Rj 
north of the Alps, and Ci salpina or 
Citerior, a part of Modern Italy. 
Gallia Transalpina was also called 
Com at a, from the people wearing 
their hair long ; and the southern pan 
of it Narbonensis, from NARBO, 
now Narbonne, its capital : also 
•Braccata, from the use of trousers 
or breeches, Plin. 3, 4. see p. 542. 
Exclusive of Provincia Roraana, or 
Narbonensis, Transalpine Gaul was di- 
vided into three parts, Belgica, Cel- 
tica, and Aquitania. — GALLIA 
CISALPINA, or Cilerior, was di- 
vided into Transpadana and Gisfa- 
dana, • by the Padus or Po running 
through it; both of them, in latter 
times, called Togata, from the inha-- 
bitants having obtained the rights of 
Roman citizens, and, of consequence, 
permission to wear the Roman toga. 

The Gauls (Galli) were ealled by 
the Greeks Gal at J! ; and by them- 
selves Celt^ ; adj. Gallicus et Gal- 

liganus. GALLICUS AGER, 

properly denoted the territory between 
Picenum and Ariminum, whence the 
the Galli Senbnes were expelled, and 
which was divided among Roman citi- 
zens, Liv. 23, 14.; 39, 44. Thus 
Cicero is to be understood when he 
joins Ager Gallicus et Picenus, Cat. 2. 
and so Caesar, when he joins Gallia et 
Picenum, B.C. 1, 29. That tract of 
country is called Gallica Provincia, 
Suet. Claud. 24. — — • A war against 
the Gauls was called by the Romans 
Gallicus Tumultus, Liv. 7, 9, St 
11, &c. as being more formidable 
than that against any other nation^ 
Cic. Phil. 8 , 1. 

3 D 3 



77* GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



GALLINARIA silva, a wood in Cam- 
pania, between the mouths of the Vol- 
turnus and Liturnis, 149. a frequent 
receptacle for robbers, Juvenal. 3, 
307- 

GALLUS, a river in Phrygia, whence 
the priests of Cvbele are said to have 
been named Galli, because, when 
they drank of it, they became furious, 
Ovid. Fust. 4, 361. 

GANGES, -is, m. Ganges, a very 
large river of India, 658. said by Lu- 
can to have been the boundary of the 
conquests of Alexander ; and, what 
seems strange, to be the only river that 
runs east, 3, 230. called Tepidus, 
Ovid. ib. 138. spatians JLumine lato, 
Trist. 5, 3, 23. — Terra Gangetis, -idis, 
India, Id. Amor. 1 ; 2, 47- Gangelica 
tigris, an Indian tiger, Met. 6, 636. 
Gangeticus Sinus, the bay of Bengal. — 
Gangarid.^e, a people living near the 
Ganges, Curt. 9, 2. Virg. G. 3, 27- 
But Valerius Flaccus makes the Gan- 
garidce a people of Scythia, 6, 67. 

Garamantes, -um ; sing. Garamas, -an- 
tis, a people of Libya, Plin. 5, 5. 
Virg. Eel. 8, 44. JEn. 6, 795. Lucan. 
4, 6/9.; Sil. 11, 181. adj. Garaman- 
ticus, Sil. 1, 142. Garamantis (-idis) 
nympha, Virg. JEn- 4, 14 8. 

Garganus, St. Angelo, a mountain 
of Apulia, which projects into the Ha- 
driatic, 159. Gargani Japygis agri, 
the country around, Virg. JEn. 11. 
247. 

GARGARA, -orum, a town of Mysia, 
Macrob. Sat. 5, 20. at the foot, of 
mount Gargarus, plur. -a, -orum, 
Plin. 5, 30. which projects into the 
bay of Adramyttium, Strab. 13, 606. 
The soil round Gargara was of amaz- 
ing fertility, Virg. G. 1, 102.; Ovid. 
Art. Am. 1, 56. 

GARGETTUS, a village of Attica, the 
birth-place of Epicurus, 301. whence 
he is called Gargettius, Cic. Fam. 
15, 16. 

GARUMNA, Garonne, a river of 
Gaul, which divided Aquitania from 
Celtiea, Mel. 3, 2. 

Gaugamela, a village near Arbela, to 
the east of the Tigris, where Alexander 
completely vanquished Darius, Strab. 

2, 79. et 16. pr. Curt. 4, 9. 
GAURUS, a mountain of Campania near 

Cumae, Lucan. 2, 667. noted for pro- 
ducing vines, Sil. 12, 160. ; Stat.Silv. 

3, 5, 99. Mons Gauranus, Id.Theb. 
$, 545. 



GAZA, a city of Palestine, 680. 

GEBENNA. See Cebenna. 

GEDHOSIA, an extensive country bor- 
dering on India ; Inh. Gedrosi, Plin. 
6, 20, & 23. 

Geloni, a people of Sarraatta or Scythia, 
north of the Palus Mceutis and the 
Caspian sea, who had colours ingrained 
on their skin, Virg. G.2, 115.; Clan- 
dian. in Rufin. 1, 315. 

GELA, a city in the south of Sicily, on a 
river of the same name, 263. Inh. 
Gelenses ; adj. Geloi campi, Virg, 
JEn. 3, 701. 

GEMON1/E, sc. Scales, a place in 
Rome where the dead bodies of crimi- 
nals were thrown, Tacit. Hist. 3, 74. ; 
Suet. Tib. 53, St 61. 

GEN A BUM, Orleans, a city on the 
Loire. See Cenubum. 

GENAUNI vel -nes, a fierce people of 
Rhoetia, Horat. Od. 4, 14, 10. 

GENEVA, Geneva, the last town of 
the Allobroges on the north, next to the 
Hetveiii, on the Lacus Lemanus, or 
Lak? of Geneva, 548. 

GENUA, Genoa, a city of Liguria, 
135. Zl'y.21,32.; 28, 46.; 30,1. 

Genusus Semno, a river of Macedonia, 
running into the Hadriatic, to the 
north of Apollonia, Lucan. 5, 462. 

GERAESTUS, a port of Eubcea, Liu. 
31, 45. 

GERGOVIA, a town of the Boii, Cess. 
B. G.U 9. 

GERF*jANIA, Germany, a large coun- 
try of Europe, 554. Inh. Germani. 
Those Germans who had crossed the 
Rhine, and, having made conquests, 
settled in Gaul, were called Ger- 
mani Cisrhenani, Cces. B. G. 6, 2. 
and the others, Tkansrhenani, Cces. 
B.G.4, 16.; et 5, 2.; et 6, 5. 
That part of Germany near the 
sources of the Rhine was called 
Ger mania Superior, Upper Ger- 
many ; and below, to the British or 
German ocean, Germania Inferior, 
Lower Germany ; Dio. 53,12.; Tacit. 
Ann. 3, 41, & 4, 73.; Suet. Vit.l .; 
Dom. 6. Germany Proper, or Trans- 

, rhenana, was also called Magna, to 
distinguish it from that on the west 
side of the Rhine, which was compara- 
tively but of small extent, and a con- 
siderable part of it Barbara, or Bar- 
baricum, sc. solum, as being more 
uncivilised, Eutrop.7, 5.; Fopisc. in 
vita Probi, 13. Adj. Germanus etGER- 
MANICUS, which last was assumed 
2 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



775 



as a surname by several of the empe- 
rors, and deservedly conferred on Dru- 
sus, the nephew of Tiberius, on account 
of his victories. The soldiers of the 
army which served in Germany, were 
called Mililes Germaniciani, Suet. 
Tib. 25. and the army itself sometimes 
exercitns Germanicianus, instead of 
Germanicus, Suet. Oth. 6. ; Vesp. 6. 
Germanicce Kalendee, the first day of 
September, Martial. 9, 2, 4. which 
month Domhian called Germanicus, 
from his assumed surname, Suet. 13. 
Gessoriacum Bononia, Boulogne, in 
Picardy. 

GKTJE, a warlike people of Pontus 
or the lower part of Mcesia, towards the 
mouth of the Danube, 353, often men- 
tioned by Ovid. sing. Getes, Lucan. 2, 
54, et 3,95. adj. Geticus, often put 
for Thracius; thus Geticum plectrum, 
vel Getica lyra, the lyre of Orpheus, 
Stat. Silv. 2, 2, 61, et 3, 1, 17. Getica 
arva, the country of the Getce, Virg. 
JEn. 3, 35. 

Gindes, a river of Persia, Tihull. 4, 1, 
141. 

GLANUM, St. Rbmi, in Provence. 

GLAUCUSSINUS, Gulf of Macri, in 
Caria ; also a river of Colchis falling 
into the Phasis. 

GLESSARIA. See Electrydes. 

GLOTTA, the river and frith of Clyde, 
in Scotland. 

GOMPHI, a city of Thessaly towards 
the springs of the Peneus, 322. Inh. 
Gomphenses. 

GONNI vel Gonnus, a town of Thes- 
saly, in the entrance to the vale of 
Tempe, Liv. 3d, 10.; 42, 54. 

GORDIiEI vel Carduchcei montes, moun- 
tains in Armenia, where the river Ti- 
gris rises, supposed to be mount Ara- 
rat, mentioned in Genesis. 

GORDIUM, a village in the north of 
Phrygia Magna, p. 592. Justin. 11, 
7-; Curt. 3, 1, 16.; Liv. 38, 18. 

GORTYNA, a principal city of Crete, 
339. Nec Eois pejor sagittis, not infe- 
rior to the Parthians in shooting arrows 
with dexterity, Lucan. 3, 186. whence 
Gortynia spicula, Cretan arrows, Virg. 
JEn. 11, 773. Arundo Gortynis, -idis, 
Lucan. 6,214. Inh. Gortynii, Nep. 
22, 9. 

GR/ECIA, Greece, properly restricted 
to the country between the isthmus of 
Corinth and Thessaly; hence called 
GR^CIA PROPRIA, now Liva- 



dia , but in a wider sense, compre- 
hending, besides that, Peloponnesus, 
Epire, Thessaly, and Macedonia, 279. 
The south part of Italy was also called 
Magna Grcecia, 18I. ltala nam 
tellus Grcecia major erat, Ovid. Fast. 4. 
64. ; — Inh. GRiECI ; sing. Gbje- 
CUS et Grceca, Liv. 22, 57. Dimin. 
Grceciilus, used by way of contempt, 
Grce cuius esuriens, in caelum jusseris 
Hit, Juvenal, 3, 78. The name of 
Greeks does not occur in Homer or Vir- 
gil, who use, instead of it, Achivi, Ar- 
givi, Danai, Graii, Grajugence, &c. 
The Greeks called themselves Helle- 
nes, and their country, Hellas, -ados. 
The Greeks, as being more civilized, 
called the inhabitants of all other coun- 
tries, Barbarians ; which distinction 
was unknown in the time of Homer, 
Strab. 8, 370. see p. 588. It often 
occurs afterwards, and even in Roman 
writers, thus Homines levitate Greed, 
crudelitate larbari, Cic. Flacc. 11. 
Grcecia barbarice lento collita duello. 
Greece engaged in or weakened by a 
tedious war with a barbarous nation, 
i. e. with the Phrygians or Trojans, 
Horat. Ep. 1, 2, 7. The Greeks in 
the time of Cicero were much degene- 
rated from their ancestors ; Vetere Grce- 
cia digni perpauci sunt GUMCI ; fal- 
laces sunt et leves, et diuturna servitude 
ad nimiam asseniationem eruditi; ovines' 
vias pea/nice norunt, et omnia pecuniae 
causa faciunt, Cic. ad Q. Fratr. 1,1. 
Livy says of the Asiatic Greeks, Sunt 
levisshna hominum genera, et servituli 
nata, 36, 17. and of the nation in 
general, Gens lingua magis strenua 
quam factis, 8, 22. The Grceca calli- 
ditas is particularly mentioned-,^ 2. 47 <■ 
He however extols the learning of the 
Greeks, [sunt omnium eruditissimi,) 39, 

8. in which the Roman youth in the 
time of Livy were carefully instructed, 

9, 36.— adj. GRjECUS; Greeca. voce 
loqui, Ovid. Trist. 3, 12, 39- vel 
Greece, Cic. Verr. 4, 147 . So Greece, 
legere, Cic. deOrat. 1, 155. Nescire, 
Cic. Flacc. 10. Scribere, Id. Off. 3, 
115. — Gr.'eco more bibere, 10 
pour out libations to the gods, and to 
drink to the health of fr'.ends at an en- 
tertainment (Quum mtrum cyathis li- 
bant, salul antes prirno deos, deinde ami- 
cos suos nominatim.) Ascon. in Cic. 
Verr. 1, 66, c. 26. Tusc. 1 . 96. c.40. 
Grhca Jide mercari, i. e. prcesenli 

3 D 4 



776 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



pecuniu, to purchase for ready money, 
as the Greeks were not to be trusted, 
Plaut. Asin. 1 , 3,47. Grceca sacra , 
the mysteries of Ceres, Cic. Verr. 4. 51, 
Festus. GRiECA via, Cic. Fam. 7,1. 
supposed to be the same with via Her- 
culanea; seep. 151. Gr.-eca Fossa, 
a place in Campania, Liv. 28, 46. — 
Ad Grcecas calendas solvere, i. e. nun- 
quam, because the Greeks had no ca- 
lends, Suet. Aug. 87- — Gr.ecula 
Cautio, an obligation not to be relied 
on; or, as some think, written in Greek, 
Cic. Fam. 7, 18. in allusion to Id. 13, 
15. Grjecula concio, a Grecian 
assembly so called by way of conlempt, 
Cic. Flacc. 10. Negotium ineptum et 
Grcecidum, Cic.Tusc. 1,35. Grceculce 
vif.es, Columell. 3, 2,24. — Gr^ca- 
nica Toga, like that of the Greeks, 
Suet. Dom. 4. ; adv. Grcecanice, Var. 
L. L. 8, 50. — Gr^ciense mare, 
that part of the Egean sea which 
touches on Greece, Plin. 4, 11 s. 18. 
cxtr. — Graius used chiefly by the 
poets ; thus, Graics urbes, Virg. iEn. 
3, 295. Graius sermo, the Greek lan- 
guage, Ovid. Fasti 4,61. Graium arma, 
the arms of the Greeks, ib. 4, 228. 
Graius saltus velGraics Alpes, that part 
of the Alps over which Hercules was 
supposed to have passed, Nep. 22, 3. 
Quod iiGStri ccelum, Graji perhibent 
JEthera, Cic. Nat. D. 2, 36. So Gra- 
jugena, m. a Grecian, ib. et Virg. 
Mn. 3, 550. Gra]ugenae reges, Stat. 
Theb. 6, 215. — Assuetus ■ Grcecari, ac- 
customed to the soft diversions or lux- 
urious manners of the Greeks, Horat. 
Sat. 2, 2, 11. 
GRAMPIUS MONS, the Grampian 
mountains, in Scotland, Tacit. Agric. 
29. 

GranIcus, Ousvola, a river of Mysia, 
587. Curt. 3, 1. 

GRaVISCtE vel -a, Eremo de Sant 
Augustino,& maritime town ofEtruria, 
Liv. 40, 29. et 41, 16. called intern- 
peslce, unhealthful, on account of its 
bad air, Virg. JEn. 10, 184.; adj. 
Graviscanus. 

GRUD1I, dependents of the Nervii, sup- 
posed to have lived near Tournay, or 
Bruges in Flanders, Cces. 5, 38. 

GRYNIUM v. -ia, a town of jEoIia, 
where was a temple and ancient oracle 
of Apollo, Strab. 13, 622. whence he 
is called Gryn^eus Apollo, Virg. 
JEn. 4, 345. Servius says he was thus 



named from a grove near ClazomeflEe, 
called GryncBum nemus, where he was 
worshipped, ib. et Eel. 6, 72. 
GRUMENTUM, Armento, an inland 
town of Lucania, Liu. 23, 37. et 17, 
41. 

GYARAS, et Gyaree, v. -a, -orum, one 

of the Cyclases, 337. 
GYMNiE, a town of Colchis, Xenophon. 

Anab. 4. 

GYMNOSOPHIST.E, philosophers of 
India, so called, because they went 
naked. Plin. 7,2. 

GYNDES, Zeindeh, a river of As- 
syria, 602. 

GYTHIUM, Colo-Kythia, the port of 
Sparta, 284. 

H 

Hadria. See Adria. 
Hadrianopolis, Adrianople, a city of 
Thrace. 

HiEMONIA vel JEmonia, a poetic name 
of Thessaly ; whence Hemonius 
vel iEMomus, Thessalian, 320. — 
Heemonius heros, Achilles, Ovid. Am. 
2, 9, 7. Met. 12, 81. puer, Achilles 
when a boy, Fast. 5, 400. vir, Id. 
Art. 1, 682. Hcemonius juve?iis, J ason. 
Met. 7 j 132. Arms Hcemonii, i. e. 
Sagitlariils, a sign of the Zodiac, Met. 
2, 81. H&manice artes, magic arts, 
Art. Am. 2, 99. See yEmonia. 

HiEMUS, vel JEmus Eminehdag, a 
ridge of high mountains in Thrace, 
344.; Inh. Hemimontavi, Rujin. 9. 

HALES vel Heles, -etis, m. Halente, 
a river of Lucania, Cic. Fam. 7, 20. 
Alt. 16, 7- 

HALESA vel Halcesa, a town of Sicily, 
Cic. Verr. 2, 7- ; Inh. Haleslni; Hale- 
sina civitas, Id. Fam. 13, 32. 

HALENTUM v. -mm, v. Haluntium, a 
town in the north of Sicily, Cic. Verr. 
4, 23. whence Halentina vel Haluntina 
civitas, ib. 3, 43. 

HALIACMON, v. Aliacmon, -onis, m. a 
river separating Macedonia from Thes- 
saly, Cces. B. C. 3, 36. Plin.dl, 2. 

HALIARTUS, a town of Bceotia, 305. 
near which Lysander was slain, Nep. 3. 
destroyed by the Romans, Liv. 42, 63.; 
Inh. Haliartii, Liv. 42, 44. 

HALICARNASSUS, Bodroun, the 
chief town of Caria, 589. Liv. 27, 10. 
& 16.; Inh. Halicarnassenses, Liv. 
33, 20.; adj. Haljcarnassius, -eus, 
v. -eeus, et -ensis. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



777 



HALYCIA v. Halicyce, Salem e, a town 
of Sicily, near Lilybceum ; Inh. Haly- 
cienses, Plin. 3, 8, vel Halicyenses, 
Cic. Ferr.2,33. 

HALONESUS, Dromo, an island of 
Macedonia, opposite to the promontory 
between the Thermaic and Toronean 
gulfs ; the cause of a war between the 
Athenians and Philip: said to have been 
once defended by the women, when all 
the males were slain, Mel. 2, 7« 

HALYCUS, Platani, a river in the 
south of Sicily. 

HALOS, a town of Thessaly, 322. adj. 
Halius v. Halensis. 

HALYS, Kizil-ermark, or the Red 
River, named from the salt-pits (air* 
vuva\Zv),by which it passes, Strab. 12, 
546. the boundary between Pontus 
and Paphlagonia, and of the dominions 
of Croesus, 600. Curt. 4, 11. Deceived 
by an oracle, he crossed it, to fight 
against Cyrus, Cic. Div. 2, 56. hence 
it is said to have been fatal to him, 
Lucan. 3, 272. 

HjEDUI, a people of Gaul. See Mavi, 
Cic.Fam. 7,*10. 

HAMiE, a town of Campania, three 
miles from Cumae, Liv. 23, 35. 

Hannibalis Castra, a sea-port town of 
the Bruttii, 178. 

HARODES, a people of Germany, Cces. 
B. G. 1,31. 

HEBRUS, Marisa, the largest river of 
Thrace, 345. 

HECAT7E Fanum, a famous temple of 
Hecate, in the territory of Stratonicea, 
a city of Caria, Strab. 14, 660. 

Hecatonnesi, a number of small islands 
between Lesbos and the continent of 
Asia, Strab. 13, 618. 

Hecatonopoljs, a surname of the island 
Crete, from its hundred cities (e»a-rev 
tfaXiis), 339. 

Hecatonpylos, an epithet of Thebes in 
Egypt, from its huudred gates (hxccrcv 
iruXcii), Ammian. 22, 16. also the 
capital of theParthians, Plin. 6, 15, & 
25. ; Strab. 11, 514. 

Helena, an island near Attica, 335. 

HELICE vel Elice, a town of Boeotia, 
overwhelmed by the sea, Plin. 2, 92 s. 
94. 

Helicon, onis, Zagaro-vouni, a moun- 
tain on the confines of Boeotia and 
Phocis, 304, sacred to Apollo and to 
the Muses ; whence Heliconiades, the 
Muses, who are supposed to have been 
brought up on this mountain. Heliconis 
Alumnae, Ovid. Vast. 4, 193. which 



is therefore called Virgineus, Ovid. 
Met. 2,219. Colis Heliconii cultor Hy- 
men, Catull. 59 s. 62, 1. Also a river 
which sinks below ground near the foot 
of this mountain, and rises at some 
distance, under the name of Baphy- 
ras, Pausan, Bceot. 30. 

Heliopolis, or the city of the sun, 
Baalbeck, in Syria, 594. ; Plin. 5, 
22. — also Matarea, in Egypt, 688.; 
Cic. N. D. 3, 21. Inh. Heliopolitje, 
Plin. 36, 26. adj. Heliopulitanus. 

Helison, -ontis, hi. a river of Arcadia, 
which runs past Megalopolis or Leo- 
nardi in Arcadia, and joins the Alpheus, 
Pausan. Arcad. 80. 

HELIUM, the mouth of the Maese s 
Plin. 4, 15. 

Hellas, -fidis, Greece, the name given 
it by the natives, Mel. 2, 3. ; Plin. 
4,7.; Inh. Hellenes; adj. Hella- 
dicus, Grecian, Plin. 35, 10. 

HELLESPONTUS, or the Sea of Helle , 
the Dardanelles, the narrow strait 
between the Egean sea and the Pro- 
pontis, 349. ; Liv. 31, 15. et 32, 33.; 
Ovid. Met. 13, 407. — Also the coun- 
try along the Hellespont, part of Mysia, 
Strab. 12, 566.; Cic. Verr. 1, 24; 
Fam. 13, 53.; Nep. 13, 3.; Inh. 
Hellespont^, Plin. 5, 30. sing. 
Hellespontius, Cic. Fam. 13, 53. adj. 

Hellespontius v. -iacus Helles- 

" pontias, -ce vel -ius, a north-«ast-wind, 
Plin. 2, 47. 

HELORUM, v. -us, Muri Ucci, as 
its ruins are called ; a town of Sicily, on 
the river Helorus, near Cape PassarOj 
263.; adj. Heldrius. 

HELOS, an ancient town of Laconica ; 
whence, as some think, Helots v. 
-tes, v. llotce, the public slaves of La- 
cedaemon, 280 & 462. 

Helvetii, the people of Switzerland. 
Ccbs.B. G. 1.; Tacit. Hist. 1, 67, & 
69. 

HELVIA RICINA, a town of Picenum ; 

Inh. Ricinenses. 
HELVII vel Elvii, the people of Vi- 

viers, in Gallia Narbonensis, along 

the mountainous banks of the Rhone, 

Plin. 3, 4. 

HELVILLUM, Sigillo, a town of 
Umbria, supposed to have been the 
same with Suillum; whence Suillates^ 
the inhabitants, Plin. 3, 14. 

HELVINA vel Elvina, Elvino, a 
fountain near Aqulnum, Juvenal. 3, 
320. 

Hknkti, an ancient people of Pontus ; 



778 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



part of whom having settled in Italy, 
near the top of the Hadriatic, were 
called Veneti, 591. Liv. 1, 1. p. 186. 

HenioChi, a people of Pontus, adjoining 
to Colchis, Mel. l, 21. j Fell. 2, 40. ; 
Flacc. 6, 43.; Lucan. 2, 591. de- 
scended from Amphytus and Teleehius, 
the charioteers (yito%ot) of Castor and 
Pollux, and therefore called Lacedce- 
monii, Id. 3, 270. 

HEPHiESTIA, v. -as, a city of Lemnos, 
344. 

HEPHiESTiX des insults, i. e. Valcaniae, the 

Lipari islands, 275. 
HERACLEA, a town of Lucania, 170.; 

Inh. Heracleenses, Cic. Arch. 4, 

— of Sicily; Inh. Heraclienses, 267. 

— of Thessaly, now Zeiton, 321. 
whence Heracleensis agf.r, Liv. 
3.6, 16. — of Thrace, anciently PE- 
RINTHUS, now Erekli, 3 50*.— of 
Caria ; Inh. Heraclectve, Cic. Fam. 
13, 56. — of Acarnania, Liv. 38, 1. — 
and of several other countries. — Also a 
small island east from the Lipari islands, 
276. 

HERACLEUM, a town of Egypt, which 
gave the name of Ostium Heha- 
CLE0TICUM, to the westmost mouth of 
the Nile, on which it stood, near 
Canopus, Diodor. 1, 33.; Strab. 2, 
85. ; & 17, 788. ; Tacit. Ann. 2, 60. 

■ Also the port town of Gnossus, 

now CANDIA, the capital of Crete, 
which has given name to the island, 
339- 

Heubessus, v. Herbesus, a town of Sicily, 
Liv. 24, 30. Sil. 14, 265. Inh. Her- 
bessenses, -ium, Plin. 3, 8. 

HERBITA, a town of Sicily; Inh. Her- 
bitenses, Cic. Ferr.l, 64, & 3, 32. 

HERCULAN EUM v. -num, a city of 
Campania, Cic. Alt. 7, 3. overwhelmed 
by an earthquake, at the first eruption 
of mount Vesuvius, 154. Herculanensis 
fundus, Cic. Fam. 9, 25. 

HERCULANEA VIA, a mound betwixt 
the Lucrine lake and the sea, 151. 
Herculeum iter, Sil. 12, 118. 

HERCULIS Columns; v. Hercules, the 
Pillars of Hercules, two mountains on 
each side of the Straus of Gibraltar , 
Calpe and Alia, v. -e, 484, Sil. 1, 
142. called Hesperite Columnee, Lucan. 
9, 654. Mel. 1, 5, & 2, 6. Plin. 

3, i. Herculis MON/ECI PoHus, 

Monaco, a port-town of Genoa, 135. 
Tacit. Hist. 3, 42.; Firg. Mn. 6, 

830. Lucan. 1, 405. Herculis, 

LABRONIS, vel LIBURNI Porlus, 



Leghorn, 136. HERCULIS prom. 
Cape Spartivento in Italy, 17 6. 
and Hartlano Point, south of 
the Bristol Channel in Devonshire. — 
Portus Herculis, a port of the 

Bruttii, 174. Herculis Insula, 

a small island about three miles from 
Carthagena in Spain, called also Scom- 
braria, from the number of Scombri, 
auluns, or tunny fish, caught there, 

Strab. 3, 159. Herculis Insulcsj 

two islands near the prom. Gorditanum, 

in Sardinia, Plin. 3, 7. Herculis 

Lucus, a wood in Germany, sacred to 
Heresies, Tacit. Ann. 2, 12. which 
Cluverius supposes to have been near 

Minden in Westphalia. Various 

other places were called by the name of 
Hercules in all the three divisions of 
the ancient world. 

HERCYNIA S1LVA, vel Hercinius 
Saltus, a very large forest in Germany, 
572. Liv. 5, 54. ; Cms. B. G. 6, 24.; 
Tacit. G. 30. 

HERDONIA, Ardona, a town of the 
Hirpini, 157. 

HERiEI MONTES, a chain of moun- 
tains extending from Cape Peloris, 
near the north shore of Sicily, Diodor. 
14, 79. 

HERMiEUM prom, vel Promontorium 
Mercurii, Cape Bon or Bona, north-east 
from Carthage, the most northern point 
of Africa, Strab. 17, 834.; Liv. 29, 
27. 

HERMAN DICA vel Helmantica, a town 
of the Facccei in Spain, Polyb. 3, 14. ; 
Liv. 21, 5. 

Hermione vel -a, Castri, a town of 
Argolis, which gave name to the Sinus 
Hermio7iicus, a part of the Argolic gulf, 
287. Virgil in Ciri, 472.; Plin. 4, 
5 s. 9. 

Hermopolis, i. e. Mercurii oppidinn, 
magnum et parvum ; Ashmunein, and 
Demenhur, two towns in Egypt, 
Plin. 5, 9. 

HERMUNDURI, a people in Germany 
north from the Danube, Tacit. G. 41. 
adjoining to the Carti, Tacit. Ann. 13, 
exit. ; Fell. 2, 106. considered by Ta- 
citus as a tribe of the Suevi, ib. but 
included by Pliny, together with the 
Suevi, under the nation of the Her- 
miones, 4, 14. 

HERMUS, Sarabat or Kedous, a 
river of Ionia, 587. and Lydia, said to 
carry down gold in its stream, Fug. G. 
2, 137. ; Sil. 1 , 159. ; Pirn, b, 29 s. 
31. extr. ; Lucan. 3, 210, Her mi 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 719 



tampus, a plain along its banks, of re- 
markable fertility, Mn. 7,721. 
Heknici, a people of Latium, south-east 
from the Volsci, inhabiting a rugged 
country j whence Hernica saxa, Slug. 
Mn. 7, 684.; Sil. 4, '226.; Liv. 9, 
42, and 43. Hernica terra, Ovid. Fast, 

3, 90. Frondosa, Stat. Silv. 4, 5, 56. 
Hernicus sen ex, Juvenal. 14, 180. 

Heroopolis, a town of Egypt, at the 
west extremity of the Arabic gulf; 
whence Heroopulitinus sinus, the gulf of 
Suez. 

HESPERIA, i.e. western, sc. terra, the 
country over which the evening star 
Hesperus appears, an ancient name of 
Italy, given it by the Greeks because 
it lay west of them, Ovid. Fast. 1 , 498.; 
Horat. Od. 4, 5, 37-; Virg. Mn. 1, 
530. Hesperia Terra, ib. 2, 781. 
or Hesperia Magna, ib. 573. as 
Italia Magna, on account of the 
greatness of the Roman empire and 
exploits, ib. 4, 345. Hesperii Jluctus, 
the Italian sea, the Ionian or Adriatic, 
the sea between Italy and Greece, 
Horat. Od. 1, 27, 28. C lades Hesper ice, 
the disasters of Italy, or the defeats of 
the Romans by Hannibal, Sil. 7, 15, 
Spain was called Hesperia Ul- 
tima, as being the most remote western 
country then known, Horat. Od. I, 36, 

4. Serv. ad Mn. 1, 530. et 2, 780. 
and its utmost limit, Hesperia Calpe, 
Lucan. l, 555. Hesperium Fretum, 
the western or Atlantic ocean, Ooid. 
Met. til, 258. So Hesperice umlce, 
Fast. 2, 73. Hesperius orbis, regna 
Atlantis, the western part of the world, 

-Africa, Ovid. Met. 4, 62 8. So Axe 
sub Hcsperio, under the western part of 
heaven, ib. 214. Hesperia vox, what is 
uttered in the west, Id. Trist. 4, 9, 22. 
in Hisperiis partibus, sc. terrce, ib. 1. 
140. et Amor, l, 15, 29. Hesperii 
regis pomaria, the gardens of the Hes- 
perides, Id. Nux. 1 1 1 . Hesperides 

aqUjE, the Italian rivers, Virg. Mn. 8, 
77. Hesperii amnes, the rivers of 
Spain, Lucan. 4, 14. 
Hesperis vel Hesperides, vel Berenice, 
Bernice, or Ben-Gazi, a town in 
Cyrenaica, 677, where most authors 
place the gardens of the Hesperides, or 
daughters of Hesperus, the brother of 
Atlas, which were said to produce gol- 
den apples, Serv. ad Mn. 4, 484.; 
Eel. 6, 61. kept by a dragon that never 
slept, which Hercules slew, and then 
carried off the apples, Lucan. 9, 357, 



&c. But authors vary about their 
situation, Plin. 5,5. Virgil supposes 
them to be in Mauritania, near mount 
Atlas, ib. 

HESPERIUM prom. Plin. 5, l. Hes- 
peru-ceras, Plin. 6, 31. {'Ea-^-spie 
xipus, Mel. 3,9.) a promontory on the 
west side of Africa, near which was 
Hespericus sinus, and HesperIdum in- 
sula, supposed to be the Cape Verd 
islands. But, as Pliny observes, Omnia 
hcec incerta sunt, ib. 

HETRICULUM, Lattarico, a town of 
the Bruttii, Liv. 30, J 9. 

Hetapylon, v. -os, a gate of Syracuse, a 
part of the city or of the wall, Liv. 24, 
21, 25, 24, et 32, 39.; Diodor. 11, 
58, et 14, 19, et 64. 

HIBER, Hiberi, a Spaniard ; hence Val- 
gus Hiberum, Sil. 1, 145. Hiberum ar- 
mentum, ib. 12, 119- and Hiberis, -idis. 
f. Spain, Sil. 4, 59. See lberus\ 

HI BERN J A, Ireland, 532. 

HIERA, Vulcano, one of the Lipari 
islands, 276. 

Hierapolis, i. e. sacra vrls, Bam- 
buk-Kalasi, a town of Phrygia, 
celebrated for hot baths, Vitruv. 8, 3. 

Menbigz, in Syria. See Bam- 

byce. 

Hierichus, -untis, f. Jericho, a city 
ot Judse, Plin. 5, 14. from its abound- 
ing in date3, Tacit. Hist. 5, 6.; Plin.. 
5, 14. called the City of Palm Trees, 
Deuteron. 34, 3.; Judges 1, 16. et 

3, 13. 

HIEROGESAREA, a town of Lydia ; 
Inh. Hieroc/esarienses, Tacit. Ann, 
2, 47. et 3, 62. 

HIEROSOLYMA, -ce, vel -orum, Je- 
rusalem, the capital of Judaea, 595. 
called Suspiciosa et maledica civitas, Cic. 
Flacc. 28. whence Pompey, who took 
it, is called Hierosolymarius, Cic. 
Att. 2, 9. 

HIMELLA, Aia, a river of the Sabines, 
which joins theTiher bedow Cures, Virg. 
Mn. 7, 714. 

Hilleviones, a people of Scandinavia, 
Plin. 4, 13. 

HIMERA, the name of two rivers of 
Sicily, the one Fiumi de Termini, 
running north into the Tuscan sea, 
near Panormus, having at its mouth a 
town of the same name, 27 1 . Cic. Verr. 

4, 33. and near it baths, Therm & Hi- 
merenses, ib. — The other, Fiume 
Salso, running southwards, 264. and 
dividing the island into two parts, Liv* 
24, 6, et 25, 49. 



780 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



HIPPO regius, a maritime town of Nu- 
midia near Bona, Plin. 5, 3.; Mel. 
1,7.; Liv. 20, 3 & 32. Another 
near Utica, called HIPPO Diarrhj/tus, 
i. e. well- watered, to distinguish it 
from the former, Plin. 9, 8. et Plin. 
Ep. 9, 33. which gave the name of 
Sinus Hipponensis to the bay on which 
it stood, Mel. 1, 7. — Also a town of 
Spain, Liv. 39, 30. and of the Bruttii, 
174. 

Hippocrenb, a fountain of Bceotia, 304. 

HI RPJ N I, a people of Italy, 157. Pules 
Hirpvia, Sil. 8. 570. 

HISPALIS vel Jspalis, Seville, the 
chief city of Andalusia in Spain on the 
Baetis, Cic. Fam. 10, 32. ; Plin. 2, 97. 

HISPANIA, Spain, 482. divided by the 
Romans into two provinces, Citerior 
et Ulterior, Nearer and Farther, 
Liv. 32, 28. et 45, 16. hence called 
the Two Spains, (Du/e HispANiiE,) 
Cic. Fontej. 3.; Manil. 12. or the 
Spains, Cic. Fam. 15, 10. Augus- 
tus divided it into three provinces, Tar- 
raconensis, named from Tarraco, 
a town built by the two Scipios ; 
BjEtica, named from the Bcetis run- 
ning through it ; and Lusitania, now 
Portugal, Mel. 2, 6. ; Bio. 53. The 
former distinction, however, of Citerior 
and Ulterior , was not altogether dropped, 
Tacit. Annal. 4, 13.; Plin. 3, 1. Inh. 
Hispani, adj. Hispanus, Hispanicus 
et Hispaniensis. But the first and last 
are sometimes distinguished ; thus, His- 
panus is a Spaniard by birth, but Hispa- 
niensis, one who lives in Spain, although 
born elsewhere. Non Hispaniensem li- 
Irum mittimus, sed Hispanum, i. e. not 
a book composed in Spain in the Ro- 
man language, but Spanish in every re- 
. spect, Martial. 12. preef. 

HISTER, v. Ister, the name of the Da- 
nube, towards its mouth, Cic. Orator. 
45. ; Sil. 1, 326. 

HISTRIA, v. Istria, a country near the 
top of the Hadriatic, on the east, for- 
merly a part of Illyrieum, but annexed 
to Italy by Augustus and Tiberius, 
Strab. 7, 314. 
HOMOLE, a mountain of Thessaly, the 
abode of the Centaurs, Virg. JEn. 7, 
675. 

Homoloides, -urn, v. Homnloida , drum, 
f. the name of one of the gates of 
Thebes. Stat. Theb. 7, 252. 

HORESTI, the people, as it is thought, 
of Eskdale in Scotland, Tacit. Agric. 38. 

HORTA vel Hortanum, Ohti, a town 



of Etruria at the confluence of the Nar 
and Tiber ; whence Hortince classes, 
the troops of Orta, Virg. Mn. 7, 716. 
HOSTILlAj a village of the Veronenses, 
on thePo, Plin. 21, 12.; Tacit. Hist. 
3, 9. 

HUNNI, a fierce people of Sarmatia, wh 
invaded the R.oman empire, and at las 
settling in Panoma, gave it the nam 
of Hungary. 

HYBLAj the name of three differen 
places in Sicily, 272. one of them call 
ed <ierwards Meg,ara vel -is, Cic 
Verr. 5, 25. celebrated for producin 
honey; whence Apes HyblaeeE, 259 
Nectar Hyblceum. the honey of Hybla 
Sil. 14, 26. equal to that of Hymett 
in Attica, ib. 199. Inh. Hybl^enses 
Cic. Verr. 3, 43. 

HYDASPES, Behut or Chelum, a riv 
of India, 643. called Nysseeus by Luca~ 
8, 227. because it flowed past Nysa 
a city built by Bacchus ; and fabulosus 
because many fabulous things were tol 
concerning it. Horat. Od. 1, 22, 7 
Curtius mentions another river of thi 
name in Persia, 4, 5, 4. perhaps th 
same with what Virgil calls Medus Hy 
daspes, the Medes and Persians bein 
confounded by the poets, G. 4, 211 
adj. Hydaspeus. 

HYDRUNTUM vel Hydrus -mitis, m 
and f. Otranto, a maritime town 
Calabria, 164. Cic. All. 15, 21. et 16 

5. ; Luean. 5, 375. 

HYLAS, v. a, -<s, a river of Bithynr 
Plin. 5, 32 s. 40. Solinus makes it 
lake, into which Hylas, the favourit 
of Hercules, fell, c. 54. 

HYMETTUS, a mountain near Athe 
celebrated for its marble and hone 
300. Cic. Fam. 2, 34. whence Hyme 
lice columns, Plin. 36, 3. Trales, H~ 
rat. Od. 2, 18, 3. Hymeltia mella, I 
Sat. 2, 2, 15. 

HYPvEPA, -orum, v. ce, Berki, a tow 
of Lydia sacred to Venus. Ovid. Met 

6, 13. el 11, 153. 

Hypanis, the Bog, a river of Sarmatia, 
(Scylhicis de montibus orftw, Ovid. Met. 
15, 285.) Mel. 2, l.j Herodol. 4, 52. 
which joins the Borysth6n$s, running 
over a rocky channel, [saxosum sonans) , 
Virg. G. 4, 370. — Another of Pontus, 
Vitruv. 3, 8. near the Cimmerian Bos- 
phorus, Cic. Tusc. Q. 1, 39. 

Hyphanis vel Hypanis, Beyah, one of 
the branches of the Indus, 643, the 
boundary of the conquests of Alexander^ 
Plin, 6, 17 s. 21. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 781 



HYPATA, a town of Thessaly, 320. 
whence Hypateei exules, Liv. 41, 25. 

HYPERBOREI, those who inhabited 
the northern parts of Scythia, Cic. N. 
D. 3, 23, according to Pliny, beyond 
the north wind (isr£/> rov (Zoptuv), 4, 
12 s. 26. So Strabo, 1, 62. said to 
live to an incredible age, (a thousand 
years, Strab. 15, 7 11-) and ill the 
greatest felicity ; the sun rose and set 
to them but once in the year (as at 
the poles,) &c. Plin. ib. et 6. 17 s. 
20. This people Pliny justly calls Gens 
fabulosis celebrata miraculis, ib. Virgil 
places them under the north pole, 
which he calls Hyperboreus Septentrio, 
G. 3. 381. So Mela, (sub ipso siderum 
cardine) ,3,5. H ence Hyperborece or as, 
Virg. ib. 196. Hyperboreicampiy Horat. 
Od. 2, 20, 16. Mela places the montes 
Hyperborei beyond the monies Riphcei, 
ib. but Virgil seems to confound them 
together, G.l, 240. 

Hvpsa, Belici, a river of Sicily, which 
falls into the Cramsus, 267. 

HYRCANIA, a country south-east from 
the Caspian sea ; whence that sea is 
called Mare Hyrcanum, Propert. 
2, 23, 46. UyrcaniB tigres, Virg. JEn. 
4, 367. In this country dogs used to 
be kept to devour the bodies of the 

dead, Cic. Tusc. 1, 45. Also the 

name of the capital of Hyrcania, now 
Jorjan, or Corcan ; and of a town 
in Lydia, near which was Campus 
Hyrcanus, Liv. 37, 38. 
HYRIE, a district of Boeotia, near Aulis, 
Ovid. Met. 7, 372. 

I & J 

JALYSUS v. -um, a town of Rhodes, 
(p. 341.) 

JANICULUM, vel mons Janicularis, a 
hill of Rome, on the north of the 
Tiber, with a citadel on it, built by 
"Janus, Virg, JEn. 8, 358. joined to 
the city by Ancus, Liv. 1, 33. 
JANUS, a lane or alley, adjoining to the 
Forum, where usurers or money brokers 
transacted business, Cic. Phil. 6, 5. di- 
vided into Summus,medius, et imus Ja- 
nus, the top, middle, and bottom of it, 
Horat. Sat, 2, 3, 18., Ep. 1. 1, 34. 
Cic. Off. 2. exlr. and where booksellers 
kept their shops, Horat. Ep. 1, 20, 1. 
JAPYDIA, Carniola, a district of 
Illyricuin, Tibull. 4, 109. ; Inh. Ja- 
pydes v. -dje. Liv. 43, 5.; Cic. 
Balb. 14. sing. Japys v. J apis ; used 
also as a a adj. thus, Japidis arva Ti~ 



mavi, the country round the Japidian 
Timivus, Virg. G.3, 475. 

JAPYGIA, a name given to Apulia or 
Calabria, 158. Regio Japygia, Plin. 3. 
11. hence Japyx, -ygis, m. a north- 
west wind, favourable to those who 
sailed to Greece, Horat. Od, 1, 3, 4. et 
3, 27, 20.; Virg. Mn. 8, 709. Ja- 
pyge campum persultabat equo, on an 
Apulian horse, Sil. 4, 557. Acra Ja- 
pygia, Cape de Leuco, Plin. 3, 11. 

JASSUS v. Jasus, Jassi, a town in a 
cognominal island on the coast of Caria, 
Liv. 32, 33. which gave the name of 
Jasius sinus to an adjoining bay, 589. ; 
Plin. 5, 28., Inh. Jassenses, Liv. 
37, 17- 

JAXARTES, Sir, or Sihon, a river to 
the north of Sogdiana, running into the 
east side of the Caspian sea, Plin. 6, 16. 
which Alexander the Great and his 
men mistook for the Tanais ; whence 
Curtius often calls it by that name, lib. 
6, Sf 7- so Arrian, 4, 15. 

Jasiges, a people of Sarmatia, round 
the Palus Moeotis ; sing. Jasyx, Ovid. 
Pont. 4, 7, 9.; Trist. 2, 191.5 Tacit. 
Ann. 12, 29. 

Ibkrus, Ebro, a noble river of Spain ; 
whence Spain was called Iberia, Plin. 

3, 3 s. 4 ; Horat. Od. 4, 14, 50 ; Inh. 
Iberi, Virg. G. 3, 408. Durus lber 3 
the hardy Spaniard, Lucan. 6, 258. 
Peritus Iber, learned, Horat. Od. 2, 20, 
20.; adj. Iber. lbericus, Iberiacus, et 
Iberimts. Boves lberce, Virg. iEn,7, 
'664. Ferrugine clarus Ibera, distin- 
guished by a robe of a blackish colour, 
ib. 9, 582. the favourite colour of the 
Spaniards, see p. 484. Terra Iberiaca, 
Spain, Sil. 13, 510. lberici Junes, 
made of Spanish broom, Horat. Epod. 

4, 3. ; Plin. 19, 2. Lorica Ibera, a coat 
of mail of the best quality, Horat. Od. 
l, 29, 15. — IBERIA, Imeriti, was 
also the name of a country between Col- 
chis and Albania, north of Armenia ; 
hence Armenia preetentus Iber. Flacc. 

5, 166. plur. Iberi et Iberes; a co- 
lony of whom having settled in Spain, 
are said to have given the name of Jbe- 
rus to the Ebro, and of Iberia to the 
country, Plin. 2. 2 s. 3. but others 
assert, that the Asiatic Iberians came 
from Spain, Dionys. Perieg. v. 698. 

Icaria v Jcaros, an island near the coast 
of Ionia ; whence that part of the 
Egean sea was called Mare Icarium, or 
from Icarus, the son of Daedalus, 342. 

Iceni, the people of Suffolk, Norfolk, 
Cambridge, and Huntingdon, Cambden-, 

of 



732 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



of Essex, Lhuyd, Caes. B. G. 5, 21. ; 
Tacit. Ann. 12, 31. 

ICHNUSA, the ancient name of Sardi- 
nia, 278. ; Plft. 3, 7, ; Sit. 12, 355. 

Ichthyopiiagi, a people who lived on 
fish, as some tribes of Ethiopians, and 
others, Plin. 6, 23. ; & 15, 7. ; Strab. 
IS, 720. ct 726. ; Plot. 4, 9. 

iCONIUM, Koniech, the capital of 
Lycaonia, 589.; Plin. 5, 27 s. 25. 

ICULISMA, Angouleme, a town of 
Aquitania, on the Charent. 

IDA vel Mons Id.-eus, a high moun- 
tain of Crete, 338. and of Troas, 587. 
called Phrygia'Ida, Virg. G. 4, 41. 
Frondosa, /En. 5, 252, Magna, ib. 5, 
249. Aquosa, Ovid. Fast. 6, 15. j 
Mel. 2. 218. — Hence Idcea mater y Cy- 
bele, Lucret. 2, 611. ; Liv. 29, 10, 
11, & 14. 

iDALIS, the country round Ida, Lucan. 
3, 204. but some here read JEolis. 

IDALIUM, Dalin, a town and pro- 
montory of Cyprus, near which was a 
grove sacred to Venus, Vvrg. JEn. 1, 
681, & 692. whence she is called Venus 
Idalia, ib. 5, 790. 

IDEESSA,atownofPhryxus in Iberia of 
Asia, Strab. 11, 4 99. 

IDEX, Idice, a small river of Italy, near 
Bononia. 

Idjslavisus Campl's, Hastenback, a 
plain where Germanicus defeated Ar- 
minius, king of the Germans, near 
Oldendorp in Westphalia, on the 
Weser, Tacit. Ann. 2. 16. 
Idublda, a chain of mountains in Spain, 
Strab. 3, 161. 

IDUMjEA v. ldume, Edom, a part of 
Arabia Petrtea, and also of Judea, 596. 
Plin. 5, 13 s. 14. abounding in palm 
trees (palmifera) ;"put for Palestine or 
Judaea, Sil. 3, 600. Lucan. 3, 216. 
hence Idumte palmce, ipalms of the 
noblest kind, such as grew in Idumcea 
or Edom, Virg. G.3. 12. 

IERNE, Ireland, Strab. 1, 63. Clau- 
dian. de iv. Cons. Honor. 33. vel JU- 
VERNA, Mel. 3,6. 

IGILIU M vel JEgilium, Giglio, an island 
on the coat of Tuscany, opposite to 
Cosa, Cces. B. Civ. 1, 34. Mel. 2, 7. 

IGUVIUM, Gubio, a town of Umbria, 
Cic. An. 7, 3. ,• Sil. 8, 46o. 

ILERDA, Lerida, the capital of the 
Ibrgctes, on an eminence near the river 
Sicoris, or Segro, Lucan. 4, 11. See 
p. 483. ; Inh. Ilf.rdenses. 

ILERGETES v. the people who lived 
on the right bank of the Sicoris, in Ca- 
talonia, Liv. 21, 23. et 22, 21. 



ILIENSES, an ancient people of Sardi- 
nia, Liv. AO, 19. et41, 6.3-12. 

ILIPA vel Ibpula, a town of Banica, Liv. 
35, 1. 

Ilissus, a river of Attica, 292. 
ILIUM v. llion, n. vel Ilios, f. Troy, 
Virg. JEn.\, 68. et 2, 335. Horat. 
Od.3, 3, 18. After the destruction 
of old Troy, a new city was built, call- 
ed ILIUM, nearer the sea, Strab. 13. 
597, &c. which is the city mentioned 
in the Roman historians, Liv. 35, 
43.; 37, 9.; Inh. Ilienses, Liv. 
29, 12. ; 37, 37. ; 38, 39. The old 
city never was rebuilt ; hence Relinquo 
et campos ubi Trnja fuit, Virg, JEn. 
3,11. Non semel Ilios vexata, Horat. 
Od. 4, 9, 18. Virgil always uses Ili- 
um — Tellus Ria, Virg. ^En. 9. 285. 
et 11, 245. Turmce Rice, Horat. Carm. 
S. 37. Gens Iliaca, Virg. yEn. 6, 875. 
Iliad campi, ib. 1, 97- Iliad muri, 
Horat. Ep. 1, 2, 16. domus, the houses 
of Troy, Od. 1, 15, 36.— Wades, Tro- 
jan women, JEn. 1, 480.; 2, 580 j 
3, 65. ; sing. ILIAS, is commonly put 
for the poem of Homer, called the 
Iliad, Proper t. 2, 25, 66. Ovid. Amor. 
3, 413. Bias ipsa quid est nisi iurpis 
adulteraf What is the subject of the 
Iliad, but, &c. Ovid. Fast. 2, 371. 
Tanta malorum impendet Was, such a 
heap of misfortunes as might furnish 
materials for a poem, like the Ilias Cic. 
Att. 8. 11.— - Wades, ce, m. is a pa- 
tronymic noun, for Ganymedes, the 
grandson of II us, Ovid. Met. 10, 160. 
■ — There was also a town in Macedo- 
nia, called Ilion, Liv. 31, 27. 
ILLICE v. -i, Elche, a town of Va- 
lentia in Spain ; whence Sinus Wicita- 
nus et partus, the bay and port of Ali- 
cant, Plin. 3, 3. 
ILLITURGIS, its ruins near Andu- 
jar, a town of Spain, on the south 
side of the Baetis, Liv. 23, 49. ; -24, 
41. ; 26, 17. ; 28, 19 & 20 ; 34, 10. ; 
Inh. Illiturgitani, Liv. 28, 25. 
ILLYRlCUM, myrium v. -ia, et Wyris, 
-tdis an extensive country, east from 
theHadriatic sea, extending to Pannonia 
and Moesia, 353.; Inh. Illyrii, a 
fierce people, Liv. 10, 2. ; adj. lUyri- 
cus, and in later writers Rlyricamis. 
ILORCIS v. -d, Lorca, a town of 

Murcia, in Spain, Plin. 3.3. 
ILVA, Elba, an island on the coast of 
Tuscany, abounding in iron, Plin. 3. 
6. et 34, 14. ; Virg. JEn. 10, 173. ; 
Sil. 8, 616. called by .the Greeks 
jEthalia. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 783 



JLVATES Ligures, a tribe of Ligurians ; 

Liv, 31, 10. et 32, 31. 
ILURGIS, Lora, a town of Grenada, 

in Spain. 

ILURO v. Eluro, Oleron, a town of 
Gascony, in France. 

IMAUS, Ime'i'a, avast ridge of moun- 
tains in Asia, extending to the sources 
of the Ganges, Plin. 6, 17 s. 2] . 

IMBRUS, Embro, an island south from 
the Thracian Chersonese, 347- Terra 
Imbria, Ovid.Trist. 1, 10, 18. 

Inachus, a river of Argolis, 286. whence 
Inachia juvenca, Io, the daughter of 
Inachus, changed into an heifer, Virg. 
G. 3, 153. See p, ;391. hiachice ur- 
bes, the Grecian cities, Mn. 11,286. 
lnachii Argi, built by Inachus, the first 
king of the Argives, 7, 286. lnachii, 
the Argives and people of Peloponnesus, 
Sil. 15, 278. 

INARlME vel JEnaria, Ischia, an island 
on the coast of Campania, opposite to 
Cumae, 150. 

INDIA, an extensive country in the 
south-east of Asia, 632.; Inh. INDI, 
colorati, of a dusky colour, Virg. G. 4. 
293. Nigri, Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, 53. 
Discolor Indus, Ovid. Trist. 5,3. Odo- 
rati, as from them perfumes and aro- 
matics were brought, Sil. i7> 648. 
Inda bellua, an elephant, Ovid. Trist. 
4, 6, 7. Denies lndi, elephants' teeth, 
ivory, Ovid. Met. 8, 288. Pecudis In- 
dicts dens, Martial. 5, 38, 5. Indici 
elephanti, large, Ter. Eun. 3, 1, 23. 
INDUS v. Sindus, Sinde, one of the 
greatest rivers of India, which gave 
name to the country, 646. Cic. N. D. 
2, 52. ; Plin. 6, 20 s. 23.; Curt. 8, 9, 
2. — Also a river of Caria, Liv. 38, 14. 
Inferum mare, the Tuscan sea, Cic. 
Att. 9, ,2. 5 Liv. 5, 33. Inferum mare, 
Lucan. 2, 399. 
INSUBRES, the people of Milan, Liv. 
.',,34.; Tacit. Ann. 11,23. Plin. 3, 
17. 

Interamna v. -as, Terni, a town of 
Umbria, 137.; Inh. Interamnates, 
Varr. R. R. 3, 2, 3. vel Nartes, 
Plin. 3, 14. 

INTJI castrum, i.e. Panos, qui illic coleba- 
tur, the Fort of Pan, a town of Latium, 
nearAntium, Virg.JEn. 6, 77 5. simply 
called Castrum, Sil. 8, 360. ; whence 
Castrana rura, the country round it, 
Martial. 4, 60. 

iOLCOS, a town of Thessaly, the coun- 
try of Jason, 321. ; whence Partus Ial- 
ciacus, Ovid. Met, 7, 133, 



IONIA, a part of Asia Minor, 587. Plin. 
5, 29. ; Inh. Iones ; whence lonici 
motus, Ionic or immodest dances, Horat. 
Od. 3, 6, 21. Ionicus, a soft effeminate 
person, a dancer, Piaut. Stick. 5, 5, 
28. lonica perdidici, I have learned 
the Ionic mode of dancing, Id. Ps. 5, 
1,29- So Pers. 5, 2, 4. Ioniaccepu- 
ellcB, Ovid. Art. Am. 2, 211. j Ep. 9, 
73. 

IONIUM MARE, that part of the Me- 
diterranean sea between the south of 
Italy and Greece, Plin. 3, 6, & 8.; 
Ovid. Met. 15, 700.; Virg. Mn. 5, 
193. Magnum Ionium, ib. 3, 211. 
JOPPE, Jaf a, a maritime town of Judaea, 
the residence of Cepheus, the father of 
Andromeda, Mel. 1. 11.; Plin. 5, 13. 
Joppica. the country, Plin. 5, 14. 
JORDANES,Nahh-el-Arden, the river 

Jordan in Judaea, 594. 
IOS, Nio, one of the Cyclades, 338. 
IPSUS v. Hipsus, a town of Phrygia, 
near which Antigonus and his son De- 
metrius were defeated by Seleucus, 
Ptolemy, and the other generals of 
Alexander, 472. Where it stood is 
uncertain. 
ISAPIS. See Sapis. 
Isar v. Isara, the Isere, a river which 
rises in the east of Savoy, and runs into 
the Rhone near Valence, Plin. 3, 4. j 
Lucan. 1, 399. 
ISARA, the Oise, or Oyse, a river of Bel- 
gica, which joins the Seine below Paris. 
ISAURIA v. Isaurica regio, a part of 
Asia Minor, 589. ; Inh. Isauri, Cic. 
Earn. 15, 2.; adj. Isauricus, which 
was annexed as a surname to Servilius, 
who conquered that country, s Cic. Alt. 
5,21. Isaurus domitas testlficatur opes t 
Ovid. Fast. 1, 594. 
ISAURA -cb, \.-orum; and Isaurum, -i, 
the chief town of Isauria, Plin. 5, 27. 
ISAURUS, a river of Gallia Cispadana f 
which joins the Sapis or Isapis, Lucan. 
2, 4o6. called also Pisaurus. 
Isca Dumnoniorum, Exeter, the capital 

of Devonshire. 
ISCIA, Iscia, an island opposite toVelia 
in Lucania, 172. also called Oenotris, 
-idis, Plin. 3, 7« 
ISMARUS vel Ismara, -orum, a town of 
the Cicones in Thrace, near a mountain 
of the same name 345 , Virg. Eel. 6, 30. 
Ismara Baccho conserere, to plant Is- 
marus (put for any mountain) with vines, 
Virg.G. 2, 27.; whence lsmarice gentes t 
the Thracian nations, Ovid. Met. 10, 
805, 



784 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



ISMfiNUS, a river of Boeotia, 303. near 
Thebes; whence Ismenius, Theban, 
Ovid. Met. 13, 682. Ismemdes, The- 
ban women, ib. 3, 733. Ismcnis Crocale, 
the daughter of Ismenus, ib. 169. 

ISSA, Lissa, an island with a cogno- 
minal town in the Hadriatic, on the 
coast of Illyricum, Liv. 43, 9. ; Hirt. 
Alex. B. 47 . ; Inh. Isscei et Issenses, 
Liv. 37, 16.; 42, 26, et 45, 26. Is- 
saici lembi, a kind of light ship3 made 
at Issa, Liv. 32, 21. 

ISSUS, Aisse, a town of Cilicia, on 
the confines of Syria, where Alexander 
defeated Darius in a memorable battle, 
590, which gave the name of Simis 
Issicus to the gulf, near which it stood, 
Curt. 3, 7, 6- j Cic. Alt. 5, 20. ; Fam. 
2, 10. 

ISTER, the name of the Danube to- 
wards its mouth ; hence called Bino- 
minis Isler, Ovid. Pont. 1, 8, 11. Sep- 
templex, having seven mouths, Trist. 2, 
189. Per htrum agere plauslra, to 
drive carriages on it when frozen, ib. 3, 
32, 29. 

ISTHMUS, v. -os, the isthmus of Co- 
rinth, so called, by way of eminence, 
Mel. 2, 3. ; Plin. 4, 4. ; Lucan. 1, 101. 
whence Isthmia, sc. certamina, the 
Isthmian games, celebrated every five 
years in honour of Neptune, Plin. 4, 5.; 
Curt. 4, 5.; Auson. Eidyll. 25. Ludi 
lsthmii, Liv. 33, 32.; lsthmaica arena, 
the place of contest, Stat. Theb. 6, 
557. corona, the prize, Plin. 15. 10. 
Isthmius labor, the contest or struggle 
to obtain it, Horat. Od. 4, 3, 3. Isth- 
mian coloni, the inhabitants of Syra- 
cuse, which was founded by a colony 
from Corinth, Sil. 14,342. Isthmiaca 
tecta, the houses of Syracuse, ib. 642. 
-—The Isthmus is now called Hexa- 
Mili, from its being six miles broad. 

ISTRIA, a country in the north of 
Italy. See Histria, Liv. 39, 55. et 
41, 11. J Inh. Istri, Liv. 10, 2.; 
21,16.; 40, 26.; 41,2,&C. IsTRI- 
ani, Justin. 9, 2. Istricus vicus, Liv. 
24, 10. 

ITALIA, Italy, 134, did not anciently 
comprehend above one- third of its 
present extent. That part of it north 
of the rivers Macra and Rubicon, was 
called Gallia Cisalpina, as having 
been conquered by the Gauls, Strab. 
5, 217.; Liv. 5, 33.; Cic. Manil. 
12.; Inh. Galli Cisalpini, Liv. 5 t 
95.; 27) 38. the capital of which 
saems to have been Ariminum„ Liv. 



28, 38. The southern part of Italy 
was called Magna vel Major Gr/E- 
cia, as having been possessed by the 
Greeks, 181. but after the Romans 
extended their conquesis to the Alps, 
these names were gradually dropped, 
Strab. 5, 210. and the whole country 
wa.s called ITALIA (Terra dominaus, 
Sil. 4, 228.) The inhabitants of Rome 
and its territory (ager Romanus) were 
called ROMANI ; of Latium, LATI- 
NI ; and of the rest of Italy, ITALI. 
They were, however, commonly deno- 
minated from the different countries 
into which Italy was divided ; Etruria, 
Etrusci v. Tusci ; Umbria, Umbri ; 
Picenum, Picentes, &c. Plin. 3, 5. 
— -«-Itala gens denotes the offspring 
of JEne&s by an Italian wife, Lavinia ; 
therefore joined with Dardania proles, 
Virg. JEi). 6, 756. Itala regno., the 
realms of Italy at large, ib. 3, 185. 
Italum caelum, the climate or atmos- 
phere of Italy, Horat. Od. 2, 7, 4. 
Italum robur, the Roman power, ib. 13, 
18. Italics orce, Ovid. Met. 15, 9. 
Matres Jtatides, Ovid. Fast. 2, 411. 
Nymphcs, Sil. 7, 428.; see Virg. Mn. 
11, 657- 

ITALIC A, Sevilla la Vieja, a town 
of Baetica in Spain, 483. built by Sci- 
pio, for the reception of his wounded 
soldiers ; whence its name, Appian. de 
B. Hisp. p. 463. ; Inh. Italicenses, 
Gell. 16, 13. — Also a name of Corfi- 
nium, 138. 

ITHACA, Theaki, a small rocky island in 
the Ionian sea ; the country of Ulysses, 
332. ; Virg. Mn. 3, 272. who is hence 
called Ith Acus, ib. 2,104. and llhacen- 
sis Ulysses, Horat. Ep. 1, 6, 63.; adj. 
Ilhaci ulres, the leathern bags or bot- 
tles in which /Eolus confined the winds 
for Ulysses, Ovid. Amor. 3, 12, 29. 
Ithaca puppis, the ship of Ulysses, Id. 
Pont. 2, 7, 60. sedes. Ithacesia Baji, 
i. e. Bajce in Campania, said to hav 
been founded by Bajus, the pilot o 
Ulysses ; called Ardens, from its ho 
baths, 8, 540.; et 12., 113. 

Ithacesive insults, three small islands 
over against Vibo, on the west side o 
the Brultii, 174. 

ITHOME, a town of Thessaly, 322 
also the fortress of Messcne in Pelo 
ponnesus, now Vulcano, 283. Stat 
Theb. 4. 179. 

ITIUS Portus, v. Ictius, Wetsand, o 
as some think, Boulogne in Picardy 
538. a sea-port town of the Morini 



J 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



785 



$n Gallia Belgica, from which Caesar 
first set sail for Britain, Cces. B. G. 4. 
21. ; et 5, 2, & 5. Caesar mentions 
another port, which he calls Ulterior 
partus , 4, 23. or Superior, ib, 28. and 
also a third landing place, 36. 

XTCNA, the river Eden in Cumberland ; 
ltunce JEstuariam, Solway Firth, 490. 

ITURiEA, a rough mountainous coun- 
try, on the north-east frontier of Syria 
and the confines of Arabia, Strab. 17, 
756. ; Inh. Ttur^i, (xctxvpyot zravrt; 
ib. 755.) vel Ithyrjei, Cic. Phil. 13, 
«. Ititrceorum getis, Plin. 5, 23 s. 19. 
often subject to the empire of Parthia ; 
hence Hhyrcei circus, Parthian bows, 
Firg. G. 2, 448. SoLucan, 7, 230. 
& 514. 

JUDiEA, a part of Syria, 594. Plin. 
5, 14. Lucan. 2, 593.; Inh. Jud.ei, 
Tacit. Hist. 5, 2. Nati Servituti, Cic. 
Cons. Prov. 5. Curti, circumcised, 
Horat. Sat. 1, 9> 70. vel recutiti, 
Martial. 7, 29. — Judajcum Jus, the 
Jewish law, Juvenal. 14, 101. called 
Leges Solymce, ib. 6, 543. Judaicum 
aurum, Cic. Flacc. 28. 

JULIACUM, Juliers, a city of Lower 
Germany. 

JUL10MAGUS v. Andecavorum op- 
pidum, Angers, a town of Anjou in 
France. 

Juliopolis v. Gardiocome, a name of 
Tarsus in Cilicia. 

Junonis Lacini^ templum, a fa- 
mous temple of Juno, between Cro- 
ton and the Lacinian promontory, 
179. 

JURA, Jura, a very high ridge of 
mountains, separating the Helvetii from 
the Sequani, or Switzerland from Bur- 
gundy, Cces. 1, 2. 
JUTURNA, a medicinal lake or fountain, 
' issuing from the foot of mount Albanus, 
and flowing into the Tiber, Cic. Cluent. 
36. Fan. L. L. l, 10. See Dau- 

MA. 

L 

Labeatis, the lake of Scutari, in 
Dalmatia; Labeates, those who 
lived near it, Liv. 44, 31. et 45, 26. 
Labeatis terra, their country, ib. 
44, 23. 

Labicum vel Ldbici, Colonna, a town 
of Latium between Gabii and Tus- 
culum, Liv. 2, 39. et 4, 47.; Inh. 
Labyci, vel Lalici, with painted 
sh/eldj, Firg. JEn, 7, 796, called 



also Labicani, vel Lavicani, Liv. 4, 
45, & 46. et 6, 21. Labicanus ager, 
its territory, ib. 3. 25.; 4. 49.; et 
26, 9.; vel Labicanum, Cic. Paradox, 

6, 3. Lavicana via, the way to it, ib, 
4, 41. 

LABRON, Latro, vel Labronis portus t 
Leghorn, as it is thought, Cic. ad Q« 
fx. 2, 6. 

Labyrinthus, a building full of intricate 
windings, as that in Egypt, 666. and 
in Crete, 339. 

LACEDjEMON, vel Sparta, the capital 
of Laconica. The place where it stood 
is now called Paleo-Chori, or the Old 
Town ; and the New Town is at some 
distance towards the west, called Misi- 
TRA, 283. Liv. 34, 33.; et 45, 28.; 
Inh, Lacones (sing. Laco; fern. La- 
ceena), vel Lacedjemonii, Liv. 38, 
30.; 39, 35 — 37-5 45, 23. Lactna 
adulter a, Helen, Horat. Od. 3, 3, 25.; 
adj. Lacedamonius vel Laconicus; Lace- 
dtemonium Tarentum, built by a colony 
of Spartans, Horat. Od. 3, 5, 56.1,0- 
conicus stylus, (Axxwvttrftos,) a short, 
manner of expression, Cic. Fam. 1 1, 25. 
Laconica purpura, Horat. Od. 2, 18, 

7. — Laconic (B canes, Plin. 10, 63 s. 83. 
The Lacedaemonian dogs were highly 
valued ; whence Lacon was put for a 
hound, or its name, Ovid. Met. 3, 
219. Sil. 3, 295. Horat. Epod. 6, 5. — 
Virgines Lacxnce, Virg. G. 2, 487. 
— Laconicum, a kind of hot bath, 
Cic. Att. 4, 10. ; so called, because 
first invented at Lacedsemon, Vitruv. 
5, 10. 

LACINIUM prom, the Cape of Co- 
lonna, the south boundary of the 
gulf of Tarentum, 179, Liv. 27, 5.; 
ct 36, 42. near which was a famous 
temple of Juno; hence called Lacinia 
Juno, Liv. 24, 3.; 30, 20.; Firg. 
Mn. 3, 552. 

LACETAMA, a district in the nortii 
of Spain, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 
Liv. 21, 23.; Inh. LaceTani, Liv. 
21, 60, & 61.; 28, 24. &c. ; 34, 20. 

Ljestrigones, the ancient Inhabitant* 
of Formice in Latium ; whence Amphora 
Lcestrigonia, for Formiana, Horat. Od. 
3, 16, 34. and Lcestrigonicn rupes, Sil. 
7, 2/6. the same with what Livy call* 
Saxa Formiana, 22, 16.— -The Ltsstri- 
gones seem to have come originally from 
Sicily, Srrab. 1, 20. where Pliny men- 
tions the Leeslrigonii campi, 3, 8 s. 14, 

LAMIA, a city of Thegsaly, near the 
head of the Maliac gulf, which was als« 



TS6 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



called Sinus Lamiacus, 320. Antipater, 
being defeated by the Athenians and 
other Greeks, shu himself up in this 
city ; whence the war was called Bel- 
li) m Lamiacum, 4 2. 
Lampsacus v. -um, Lamsaki, a city 
of Mysia, noted for the worship of 
Priapus, Ovid. Trist. 1, 9, 26.; Fast. 
6, 345.; who is said to have been a 
native of this place (Lampsacenus,) 
Serv. ad Vifg. G. 4, ill.; Inh. 
Lampsaceni, Liv. 33, 38.; 35, 42.; 
43, 6. Lapsacies puellce, for Lamp- 
sacen<Ey Martial. 11, 52. Lampsacius 
versus, wanton, immodest, Id. 11, 
17, 3. 

LAMPTERA, a town of Phoccea, in 
Ionia, Liv. 37, 31. 

Langia, a fountain in the Nemcean fo- 
rest, afjerwards called Archemorus, Stat. 
Theb. 4, 717- 
" XANGOBARDI, a brave people of Ger- 
many, along the river Spfhe, Tacit. G. 
40. taken by some for the Lombards, 
but improperly. 

Langobriga, a Feira, a town in Lu- 
sitania. 

LANUVIUM, a town of Latium, Cic. 
Mil. 10.; Inh. Lanuvinis civitas 
data, Liv. 8, 14. Ager Lanuvinus, 
Horat. Od. 3, 27, 3.; Cic. Divin. 1. 
36. Lanuvinum sc. prcedium, Cic. Att. 
9, 9. 

LAODICiEA vel Diospolis, Ladik, a 
town of Phrygia, on the river Lycus, 
Cic. Att. 5 , 15.; Plin. 5, 29. Civitas 
Laodicensis, Cic. Fam. 5, 20.; Inh. 
Laodiceni, ib. 12, 13. — Also the name 
of several other places, particularly of 
one south-east of Damascus, the capi- 
tal of a small district called Laodi- 
cene, 594. 

Laomedontia pubes, the Trojan youth, 
so called from Laomedon, one of their 
kings, Virg. Mn. 7, 105. Laomedon- 
tzus hcros, ./Eneas, ib. 8, 18. Laome- 
dontiadce, the Trojans, 3, 248. but 
Laomedontiades, -<z>, Priam, the son of 
Laomedun, 8, 162, & 15S. Laome- 
dontea gens, ihe Trojan nation, 4, 542. 
Troja, built by Laomedon, i.e. deceit- 
ful, from Laomedon's having defrauded 
the gods Neptune and Apollo of their 
promised hire, for assisting him to build 
the walls of Troy, G. 1, 502. See p. 
342 & 400. Laomedonteus pastor , Paris, 
Sil. 7- 4,)7. 

LAPlTH^E, a. savage people, (seevi La- 
pithce, Hort.'; Od. 2, 12, 5.) inhabit- 
ing mount Pindua and Qthrys in Thes- 



saly, 822, 435. Virg. G. 3, 115.; Cic. 
Pis. 10. said to have been the first 
tamers of horses, Lucan. 6. 419.; Virg. 
ib.', whence Gens Lapithcea, Ovid. 
Met. 12, 530. Prtlia' Lapitheia, ib. 
14, 670. Lapithonia nymphay Stat. 
. Theb. 7, 297- 
LARINUM, Larino, a town of the 
Frentani, 158. Cic. Clu. 63.; Att. 4. 

12. ; 7, 13.; et 8, 13.; Inh. Lari- 
nAtes, "tiurriy Cic. CI. 15.; Caesar 
Civ. 1, 23. vel Larinatum, Sil. 8, 404. 
Larinas mulier, Cic. CI. 7. Superi La- 
rlnas accola pontiy Sil. 15, 568. Larinas 
municipiumy Cic. Cluent. 5, Larinatia 
signa, Sil. 12, 174.; et 8, 404. Lari- 
nas ager t Liv. 22, 18.; 27, 40. 

LARISSA, a town in the south of Tlies- 
saly, called Cremaste, (i. e. pensilis^) 
from its situation, Liv. 31, 46.; 42, 
56. the city of Achilles; hence called 
Lariss&uSy 320. — Another on the Pe- 
neus, 322, called Opima by Horace, 
Od. I, 7» 11. and Nobilis urbs by Livy, 
31, 46.; Inh. Lariss^ei, Cces. Civ. 
B. 3, 81. Larissenses, Liv. 31, 31. — 
Also a town of Troas, Strab. 13, 604. 
of iEolis, Homer. 11. 2, 640.; Strab. 

13, 620. and of several other countries, 
S rab. ib. 

LARISSUS, a river of Peloponnesus 
separating Elis from Achaia, Liv. 27, 31. 

LARIUS lacus. the lake of Como, through, 
which the Addua runs, called Maxi- 
mus by Virgil, because it is the largest 
lake in Italy, G. 2, 159. 

LATERIUM, the villa of Q. Cicero, in 
the district of Arplnum, Cic. Att. 10.; 
1.; et. 4, 7- ad Q. Fr. 8, l. Pira 
Lateriana vel Lateritana, Col. 5, 10. ; 
et 12, 10. ; Plin. 15, 15. 

LATIUM. a division of Italy, 140, the 
country of the Latins (LATIN I), at 
first contained within very narrow li- 
mits, but afterwards enlarged. An- 
cient Latium (Antiquum vel Ve- 
tus Latium, Virg Mn. 7, 38, 
Tacit. Ann. 4, 5.) extended from the 
Tiber to Circeji, Plin. 3, 5. The part 
added, extending to Sinuessa, beyond 
the Liris, was called Latium Adjec- 
tum, Strab. 5, 231.; Plin.ib. et 31. 2. 
— Latio deos inferre, said of /Eneas, to 
introduce his household gods, or his 
religion, into Latium, Virg. Mn. 1, 
6.— Latina gens, Virg. Mn. 8, 55. 
Genus Latinum. ib. 1, 6. Gens Latia, 
Ovid. Fast. 4, 42. Latialis populus, 
Ovid. Met. 15, 481. vel Latienses, 
the Latins, Cic. Hnr. 28. Latius an- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 787 



the Roman year, Ovid. Fast. 1,1. 
riiis konore perfunctus Laticz, haying 
been a centurion, of which a vine- 
sapling was the emblem, SiL 12, 465. 
So 6, 43. — Latiensis ager, Cic. Arusp. 
10. Agri Lalii, Ovid. Fast. 3, 606. — 
Latina lingua, Cic. Fin. 1, 5. Sermo 
Latinus, Nep. 25, 4. #er/ere m Lc- 
tmum, sc. sermonem, Quinct. 10, 5. 
Lingua Latia, Ovid. Pont. 2, 3,75. 
Zaft"a«s sermo, Plin. 3,1. Fidibus La- 
tinis Thebanos aptare modos, to adapt 
Theban strains to a Latin lyre, i. e. to 
write a lyric poem, such as those of 
Pindar the Theban, in the Latin lan- 
guage, Horat. Ep. 1, 3, 13.— Latine 
Loqui el scire, Cic. Br. 37- Voce La- 
tino- loqui, Ovid. Trist. 3, 12, 39. 
Aliud Latine loqui, aliud grammalice, 
Quinctil. l, 6, 27. — Jupiter Latiaris, 
who presides over Latium, or is wor- 
shipped by the Latins, Cic. Mil. 3 1 . 
Latiale caput, the Capitol, or Rome the 
capital of Latium, or the temple of 
Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban mount, 
Lucan. 1, 535. — Latince Ferice, holy 
days on which the Romans and Latins 
offered up joint sacrifices on the Alban 
mount, Liv. 5, 17, & 19.; 21, 63.; 
22, l.j 41, 16.; 45, 3. and partici- 
pated of a feast. Liv. 32, 1.; 37, 3.; 
et 41, 16. Cic. Plane. 9. ; Att. 1, 3. ; 
Q. Fr. 2, 4.; Fan. L. L. 5, 3. — 
Latijhtas, -ulis, f. the Latin language, 
Cic. Att. 7, 3. Purity of style, 
Herenn. 4, 12. opposed to barbarisms, 
(peregrinitas, Cic. Fam. 9, 15.) or 
the right of the inhabitants of La- 
tium, Cic. Att. 14, 12. inferior to that 
of Roman citizens, (civitas,) Suet. 
Aug. 47. 

LATMUS, a mountain of Ionia, Plin. 
5, 29. on the confines of Caria, Cic. 
Tusc. 1, 38. where Luna fell in love 
with Endymion, hence called Latmius, 
378. Hence also Latmicus sinus, a 
bay opposite to this mountain, Strab. 
14, 635. 

LATOMI^E, Lautumia vel Lithotomia, 
a prison in Syracuse, 261. Liv. 26, 
27.; 32, 26.; 37, 3.; e£39, 44. 

LAVINIUM, a town of Latium, built 
by iEneas, and named from his wife 
Lavinia, Liv. 1, l.j Virg.Mn. 1, 258, 
& 270. near where Pratica now stands? 
hence Lavinia littora, Virg//En. 1, 2, 
Lavinia arva, ib. 4, 236. Regna La- 
vini, for -ii vel -ia, ib. 6, 84. 

Lavernium, a temple of Laverna not far 
from Formic?, Cic, Att. 7, s. 



LAURENTUM, Paterno, the city of 
King Latinus, named from a large lau- 
rel tree, Virg. Mn. 7, 59. Inh. Luu- 
rentes ve! Laurenii, Laurentii vel Lau- 
rentini, Laurenti coloni, ib. 63. Lau- 
rentia arva, ib. 661. Laurens ora, ib. 1 0, 
706. Laurens ager, Liv. l, 1. Laurentia 
pains, a morass between the mouth of 
the Tiber and Lauren turn, Virg. Mn. 
10, 709. Laurens deus, Faunu<, ib. 
12, 769, the father of Latinus, 7 47* 
Laurentia Mia, war against the Ro- 
mans, SiL 3, 83. Laurentibus mn riala 
caro Latinis, sc. feriis, not permitted to 
participate of the feast at the Latino? 
ferue, Liv. 3 7 , 3 . Laurentanus portus, 
Id. 30, 39. 

LAUREACUM, Lorch, a town at the 
confluence of the Ens with the Danube, 
in Austria; Inh. Laureacensfs. 

LAURIUM vel -ins, a mountain of At- 
tica, 300. 

LAUS vel Laos, Laino, a river of Italy, 
separating Lucania from Bruttii, 173. 

LEBADEA, Livadia, a town of Boeotia, 
which now gives name to the country, 
305. 

Lebedus, a town of Ionia, 588.; Horat. 
Ep. J, 11,7- near which was a cave 
and temple of Trophonius, Cic. Div. 1, 
33. . ■• ■' '■ •! , . 

LEBINTHUS, one of the Sporades near 
Calymna, north-east from Crete, Ovid, 
Met. 8, 222. 

LECHyEUM, Pelago, the port of Co- 
rinth, 280. Liu. 32, 23. 

LECTUM v. -on, prom. Cape Baba, 
the extremity of mount Ida, separating 
Troas from jEolia, 587- Liv. 37, 

LEGIO VII. Gemina, Leon, in Spain, a 
station of the 7th legion, in the country 
of the Astures. 

LEDUS, Lez, a river of Gaul, near 
Montpelier, 

Leleges, sing. Lclex, a wandering peo- 
ple who occupied different places, Virg. 
Mn. 8, 725.; Lucan. 6, 383. From 
them Miletus was called Lelegeis, -?dis s 
Plin. 5, 29. Ovid seems to place them 
in the confines of Ionia and Carta, Met. 
9, 644. hence Nymphce Lelegeides, the 
nymphs of that country, ib. 651. but 
he makes Lelegeia litlora the shores of 
Megara, Met. 8.6. 

LEMANIS, Lymne, or Lime, on the 
coast of Kent, where Caesar is supposed 
to have first landed. 

LEMANUS lacus, the lake of Geneva^ 

548. 

3 E 9 



788 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



LEMNOS v. -us, Stawmen, an island 
in the Egean sea, near Thrace, 344. 
sacred to Vulcan ; whence he is called 
Lemnius, Ovid. Met. 4, 185. and his 
son Erichthonius, Lemnicola, ib. 2,757- 
Turma Lcmnia, Ovid, in Ihin. 398. 
j. e. Lemniddes, the women of Lemnos, 
Id. Trist. 5, 1, 62. Catenae Lemniacce, 
the chains made by Vulcan, by which 
the intrigue between Mars and Venus 
was detected, Stat. Theb. 3, 274. see 
p. 363. 

LEMOVlCES, the people of Lemou- 
sin and Li mages in Aquitania, Cces. 
7,4. 

Leocorion, a temple at Athens, Cic. N. 
D. 3, 19. ; JEUan. 12, 28. 

LEONTINI, Lentini, vel Leontium, a 
town of Sicily, 2 59. whence Leon-, 
tinus ager, Cic. Div. I, 33. vel cam- 
pus, of surprising fertility, Id. Phil. 
2 17. 

LEONTOPOLIS, Tell-Essabe, a city 
of Egypt, where lions were kept as ob- 
jects of worship, Plin. 5, 10. JEUan. 
Hist. Animal. 12, 7. 

LEPONTII, a people of Gallia Transpa- 
dana, part of them extending to Rhoe- 
tia, Plin. 3, 20. 

LEPREON v. -os. a maritime town of 
Achaia, Cic. Alt. 6, 2. 

LEPT1S, Lebida, a town of the Regio 
Syrtica in Africa; Inh. Leptitant, 
Sallust. Jug. 77. Cass. B. Civ. 2, 38. 
——another town in Africa Propria, 
called LEPTIS Minor, Lemta, near 
Adrumetum, Hirt.B. Afr. 7, & 97.; 
Cic. Vtrr. 5, 59. 

LERI A vel Leros, one of the Sporades, 
near Patmos. 

LERlNA, Lerin, a small island near An- 
tibes, in Provence j and near itLERO, 
St. Margaiute. 

LERNA, a lake near A rgos, where Her- 
cules slew the famous Hydra, 286. hence 
called Pestis Lerncea, Lucret. 5, 26. 
Bellua Lernce, Virg. Mw. 6, 287. 
Lernams aiJguis, ib. 8, 300. 

LESBOS, Mytilin, an island on the 
coast of Mysia, the country of Alcseus 
and Sappho, 343. peopled by a colony 
of Eolians; hence Lesldus civis, Al- 
caeus, Horat. Od. 1, 32, 5. JEolia pu- 
ella, Sappho, ib. 4, 9, 12. JEolium 
carmen, lyric verse or poetry, ib. 3,30, 
13. Lesbiuspcs, its measure, ib. 4, 6, 
85. Tender e Lesboum barbiton, to tune 
the Sapphic lyre, i. e. to assist in writ- 
ing lyric poetry, ib. 1, 1, 34. Hunc 
Lesbio satrare plectro y to immortalize 
1 



him by a lyric poem, ib. 1, 26, 
Lesbia vina, celebrated for its ex- 
cellence, Id. Epod. 9, 34. said to be 
mild, or not heady, (i7i?wcens,) Od. 1, 
17, 21. Leslides, Lesbian women, 
Ovid. Ep. 3, 36. 
LETH/EUS, a river of Crete, running 
past Gortyna, 339. also of several other 
countries. 

LETHE, Lethon vel Lathon, a river near 
Berenice in Cyrenaica, Plin. 5, 5. sup- 
posed to flow from Lethe, the river of 
forgetful ness, in the infernal regions, 
Lucan. 9, 355. whence Lethceus amnis, 
Virg. JEn. 6, 705. Lcthceo rore ma- 
dens, besprinkled with the water of 
Lethe, ib. 5, 854. Lethcea vincula, the 
chains of death, Horat. Od. 4, 7, 27. 

LEUCA, -ce, v. -orum, a small town near 
the prom . Japygium, or Cape de Leuca, 
165. ; Lucan. 5, 3/6. 

LEUCAS, -adis, St. MAURA, a town in 
the peninsula Leucadia, the capital of 
Acamania, 3, 15. Liv. 33, 17.; 36, 
11. whence Deus Leucadius, the same 
with Actius, Apollo, Ovid. Trist. 3, 1, 
42., et 5, 2, 76. 

LEUCATA, Leucines vel Leucas-adis, the 
promontory of Leucadia in Acamania, 
315, Liv. 26, 26. called Vertex Leu- 
cadius, Lucan. 5, 638. near Actium, 
Virg. JEn. 8. 675. 

LEU CI, a people of Gallia Belgica, be- 
tween the Moselle and the Maese, Cces. 
B. G.l, 4o. sing. Leucus, Lucan. l, 
424. Their chief city is now called 
Toul. 

LEUCI monies, mountains on the west 
side of Crete, which at a distance ap- 
pear like white clouds, 339. 

LEUCOPETRA, Cape Piattaro, a cape 
six miles east from Rhegium, the ter- 
mination of the Appenines, 175. 

LEUCO-SYRI, i. e. the While Syrians, 
the ancient name of the Cappadocians, 
Slrab. 12, 544. and of the inhabitants 
of that part of Cilicia next to Cappa- 
docia, Nep. 14, 1. 

LEUCTRA, -as, v. -orum, Livadostro, 
a town of Boeotia, where Epaminondas 
routed the Spartans, 304. whence Pugna 
Leuctrica, Cic. Att. 6, 1. 

LEXOBII vel Lexovii, a people of 
Gaul, at the mouth of the Seine, the 
Lieuvin in Normandy, Cces. B. G. 
3, 9. 

Lib Anus, Lebanon, a chain of high moun- 
tains in Ccelo-Syria, 594. 

LJBETHRA, -orum, a fountain in Thes- 
saly, Plin. 4, 9.j Mel, 2, 3. sacred 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



78© 



to the Muses, hence called Libe- 
thrides, Virg. Eel. 7, 21. Strabo 
places the temple of the Muses, and 
the cave of the Libethrides nymphce, on 
Helicon inBoeotia, 9,410, and observes, 
that the name of this place, as of others 
consecrated to the Muses, was of Thra- 
clan origin, 10,471. Pausanias men- 
tions a mountain called Lelethrius in 
Boeotla, 40 stadia from Coronea, where 
were statues of the Muses, and of the 
Libethrides nymphce, In Boeot. c. 34. 

LIBICI vel Labicii, a people of Gallia 
Transpadana, next to the Taurini, Plin. 
43, 17. Labecii, Polyb. 2, 17. thought 
to be the same with'the Libui of Livy, 
21, 38. et 5, 35. 

LTBURNIA, Croatia, a part of Illy- 
rlcum, towards the head of the Hadri- 
atic, 352. Inh. Liburni, Liv. 10, 
2.; Virg. Mn. 1, 248. Slaves from 
this country seem to have attended the 
Emperors, Juvenal. 4, 7>5. and to have 
acted as public heralds, or apparitors, 
Martial. 1, 50, 33. Naves Liburnce 
vel Liburnicce, a. light kind of ships, 
Horat. Od. 1, 37, 30,.; Epod. 1, 1.; 
Lucan. 3, 534..; Plin. Ep. 6, 16. called 
from the strength of their beaks, Rostra 
Liburna, Prop. 3 , 1 1 3 , 44. 

LIBYA v. -ye, -es,, a country in the 
south of Africa, abounding in sandy 
deserts, Lucan. 1, 368.; Virg. Mn. 
1, 338, et 4, 257. G. 3, 249. Inh. 
JLIBYES, sing. Libys, -yos, fern. Li- 
byssa, adj. Libycus. Gentes Lilycce, 
Virg. Mn. 4, 320. Carthago, which 
is called Libyca urbs, ib. 348. Libyce 
ductor, Hannibal, Sil. 5, 532, 555, 
&c. Faces Libyssce, Carthaginian 
torches or flames, Sil. 6, 712. Ursa 
Libystis, -idis, ib. 5, 37. Arena Li- 
ly ssa, Catull. 7, 3. Montes* Libysslni 
vel Liby stint, ib. 58, 1. Libyci triumphi, 
the triumph of Marius over Jugurtha 
king of ]\umidia, Lucan^l, 69. Li- 
lycce arece, the threshing floors of Li- 
bya, or of Egypt, contiguous to Libya, 
Horat. Od. 1, 1, 10. 

LIBYSSA, a small town in Bithynla, 
the burial-place of Hannibal, 591. 

Lichades, a few small islands near Ce- 
naeum, a promontory of Eubrea, Strab. 
9, 426. named from Lichas the servant 
of Hercules, whom that hero hurled 
into the sea, Ovid. Met. 9, 155 — 218. 
See p. 402. 

LIGER vel Ligeris, Loire, one of the 
largest rivers in France, Cas. B.G.I. 
55, &75. 



LIGURIA, a country of Italy in Gal- 
lia Cispadana, extending from the Var 
to the Macra, 135.; Inh. Ligures, 
long hostile to Rome, Liv. 5, 35.; 22, 
33.; 27, 39.; 28, 46; 29, 5.; 32, 
29.; 34, 16.; 35,3,&C; 36,38.; 32, 

2. ; 42, 7.; sing. Ligus, vel Ligur y 
-iiris, Virg. G. 2, f68. ; Mn. 11, 
715. Tonsus Ligur is opposed to Gal" 
lia Comata, because when the Ligures 
received the rights of Roman dozens, 
and assumed the Roman toga, they cut 
short their hair, after the Roman man- 
ner, which formerly, they wore long bke 
the other Gauls, Lucan. 1, 442. Fa> 
mina Ligus, Tacit. Hist. 2, 13. 

LIGUSTICUM Mare, the north part of 
the Tuscan sea, the Gulf of Genoa, 
Plin. 2, 47. Ligustica saxa, Juvenal. 

3, 257. Ligustini populi, L\v.31, 10. 
monies, 34, 8. Ligus tinus ager, Liv. 
42, 4. 

LILYBiEUM, Marsalla, a town in 
the west corner of Sicily, near a cape 
of that name, now Cape Boeo, 269. 
Lilybceia saxa, Virg. Mn. 3, 706. 
Lilybetanus homo, Cic. Verr. 4, 17. 
Lilybtstana, sc. mulier, Cic. Csecil. 17* 

LIMONUM, afterwards, Pictavi, Poi- 
tiers, a town of Aquitania in Gaul, 
Cses. B. G. 8, 26. 

LIMYRA vel Limyre, a town of Ly> 
cia, near the mouth of the river Ly- 
myrus, Fell. 2, 102 ; Qvid. Met. 9, 
645. 

LINDUM colonia vel Lindocolinia civilus, 

Lincoln in England. 
LINDUS, Lindo, a town of Rhodes, 

341. 

Liwgones, a people of Gaul on the con- 
fines of Belgica and Celtica, near the 
head of the Matrona or Marne, now 
Langres, Cess. 4, 26. Part of them 
crossed the Alps with the Boji, and 
settled near the head of the Hadriatic, 
ib. 5, 35. p. 135. hence Lana Lin- 
gonica, Martial . 11, 57, 9. et Tomen- 
tum Lingonicum, ib. 14, 159. Lingonus, 
-i, a Gaul fron\ Langres, ib. 8, 75, 

2. called by Tacitus Lingon. Hist. 4. 
55. 

Linternum v. Liternum, a town of 
Campania, 149. at the mouth of the 
Clanius, or Liternus, Sil. 6, 654. and 
near it, Literna palus, Stat. Silv. 4, 

3, 66, Silv. 7, 278. whence Linternum 
is called Stagnosum,, Sil. 6, 653. Stag- 
nisque palustre, 8, 531. — Linter- 
num, sc. prcedium, a villa of Cicero's* 
Cic. AU. 10, 13. 

3E 3 



790 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



LipAra vel Lipare, LirARi, the chief 
of the Lipari islands, north of Sicily, 
272. hence Liparenses piralce. Liv. 5, 
28. Ager Liparensis, Cic. Verr. 3 , 37 . 
Liparcea labema, the shop of Vulcan in 
Lipara, Juvenal. 13, 45. Obsidio Li- 
parituna, the siege of Lipari, Val. Max. 
2, 6, 4. 

LIQUENTIA vel Liquetia, Livenza, 
a river of Italy in the territory of Ve- 
nice, Pliiu 3, 18. Serv. ad JEn. 9, 
679. 

LIR1S, Garigliano, a river of Italy, 
on the confines of Latium and Campa- 
nia, 148. 

LISSUS, Alesso, the frontier town 
of Ulyrieum, towards Macedonia, on 
the river Drilo, which runs into the 
Kfympceum prom. Plin. 3, 22. Liv. 44, 
10. 

LITABTiUM, Buitrago, a town of 

the Carpetani, a people of Spain, in 

New Castile, Liv. 35, 22. 
LITANA sylva, a wood in the country 

of the Boji, in Galtia Cispadana, Liv, 

23, 24- ; 34, 22. 
LOCRI Ephephyrii, Motta-di Burzano, 

a town of the Bruttii on the Ionian 

sea, 136.; Inh. LOCRI vel Locren- 

ses, Liv. 22, 6. ; et 23, 30. 
LOCRISj -idos, a part of Grcecia Propria ; 

Inh. Locri Ozolce, Opuntii, et Epicne- 

midii, 310. Liv. 26, 26.; 28, 6. 
LONDINtUM, London, 491 & 495. 

Tacit. Ann. i4, 33. 
Longula, a town of Latium, on the 

confines of the Volsci, Liv, 2, 33. & 

39. ; 9, 39. 
Lotophagi, a people of Africa, in the 

Regio Syrtica, 677. Plin. 5, 4. et 13. 

17 s. 32. 'Silt 3: 310. 
LOXA, Lossie, a river of Scotland near 

Elgin. 

LUCA. Lucca, a town of Etruria on 
the river Auser, Liv. 21, 5.; 41,13, 
Inh. Lucenses; Municipium Lucense, 
Cic. Fam. 13, 13. 

LUCAMA, Basilicata, a country of 
Italy, 169. Inh. Lucani, Liv. 8, 17. ; 
9, 20. ; 10, 11.; 22, 61.; 25, I. j 
27, 15« Lucani mantes, ib. 9, 17. 
Calabris Lucana mutare pascua , to leave 
Calabria on account of the heat, and go 
to cooler pastures in Lucania, Horat. 
Epod. 1, 28. — Lucanica, a kind of pud- 
ding, first made in Lucania, Martial, 
4, 46, 8, et 13, 35. 

jCUCENTUM v. -it v. Lucentia, Ali- 
cant, a sea port-town of Valencia, in 
Spain s 



LUCERIA, Lucera, a town of Apulia 
in Italy ; Inh. Lucerini, Liv. 9, 
2 & 12. ; 10, 35.; 27, 10. Lucan.Z, . 

473. 

Lucretius, Monte Libretti, a moun- 
tain of the Sabines in Italy, Horat. 
Od. 1, 17, 1. near which was Lucre- 
tinum, a villa belonging to Atticus, 
Cic. 7, M. 

LucrInus lacus, a lake in Campania, 
151.; hence Lucrinenses, sc. oslrece, 
ojsters caught in it, of an excellent 
quality, Cic. Alt. 4, 10, Lucrina con- 
ckylia, Horat. Epod. 2, 49. 

LUGDUNUM, Lyons, at the conflux of 
the Rhod&nus and Arar, 537. Lugdu- 
nensis ara, Juv. 1, 44. p. 546. — LUG- 
DUNUM Batavorum, Leyden, in 
Holland. — LUGDU.N UM Convena- 
rum, St. Bertrand, in Gascony, at the 
foot of the Pyrenees. 

LUGU VALLUM , Carlisle, 491. 

LUNA et Lucensis partus, a town and 
port of Liguria, at the mouth of the 
Msera, and the head of the gulf of 
Spetia, Liv. 34, 8. Sil. 8, 481. Lucan. 
1, 586. ; Inh. Lunenses, Liv. 45, 
15, Lunensis ager, 34, 56. 

LUNiE Mans., the rock of Lisbon, in 
Portugal.— LUNiE Monies, the moun- 
tains of the inoon, in Africa. 

LUPERCAL, a place in Rome at the 
foot of the Paiatine mount, where the 
Lvperci, or priests of Pan, celebrated 
that god's sacred rites, called LUPER- 
CALH, Liv. 1, 5. Virg. Mn. 8, 344. 
Ovid. Fast. 2, 381. 

LUPIA, Lippe, a river of Germany, 
which runs into the Rhine. 

LUPIA vel • ce, Lecce, a town of Cala- 
bria, 165. 

LUSITANIA, Portugal, 484. Liv. 
21, 43. ; 27, 20. Inh. LusiTANl, 
Liv. 35, 1.; 37, & 46, 57. ; 39, 21 & 
42. Lusitana maims, Sil. 5, 335. 

LUSIUS, a river of Arcadia, Cic. N. D, 
3, 22. Pausan. Arcad. 28. 

LUTETIA Pamiorwn, afterwards called 
PARISH. Paris, the capital of France, 
situate on an isle of the Sequana or 
Seine, Cces. 6, 3. 

Lycabettus, a mountain of Attica, 
' 300. 

LYCiEUS, a mountain of Arcadia, sacred 
to Pan, 2S5. Horat. Od. 1,17, 2. 
Lycceus collis, Ovid. Met. 1, 698. 
Lycceum nemus, ib. 8, 317. whence 
Luperci, the priests of Pan, and bu- 
percalia, his festivals, were named, 
Ovid. Fast. 3, 423. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 791 



LYCIUM vel Lyceum, a gymnasium 
near Athens, where Aristotle taught, 
294. 

LYCAONIA, a country of Asia Minor, 
589. Liv. 27, 54.; 38, 39- Tnh. Ly- 
CAoNES,MeL i, 2. LycaoniusEricetes, 
Virg. Mx\. 10, 749. 

LYCHNIDUS, Achrida, a town of 
Illyricum, Liv. 27, 32.; 44, 15. 

LYCIA, a country of Asia Minor, 589. ; 
Liv. 37, 16. ; 38, 39. ; 41, 6, & 30. ; 
44, 15.; Inn. Lycii, allies of Troy, 
and, after the death of their King, 
Sarpedon, attached to iEneas, Virg. 
JEn. 1, 113. Lycia is termed Hi- 
be rn a, Virg. Mn. 4, 143. because 
Apollo had a temple and celebrated 
oracle at Patara, the capital of Lycia ; 
which was supposed to be his residence 
in winter, as Delos was in summer, 
see p. 367. hence he is called Lycius 
Deus, Propert. 3, 1, 38. and the re- 
sponses of the oracle at Patara, Lycij: 

sortes, Virg. Mn. 4,446. Li- 

cia was also a district of Troas, Slrab. 
13, 585. whence Lycice catervce, the 
Trojan troops, Horat. Od 1, 8, 16. 
Lycia classis, ihe Trojan fleet, Virg. 
jEn. 6, 3, 4. 

Lycopolis, SiftT or Osiot, a town in 
the north of Egypt, named from the 
worship of wolves, Diodor. 1, 88. 

LYCOREA v. ~ia, a town of Phocis, 
on the top of Parnassus, whither the 
people of Delphi escaped in Deucalion's 
deluge, directed by the howling of 
wolves, Pausan. Phoc. 6. 

LYCOS URA, an ancient town of Arca- 
dia, built by Lycaon, 416. 

LYCTUS, Lassiti, a town of Crete, 
339, whence Lictius Idomeneus, i. e. 
Cretensis, Virg.iEn. 3, 401. etMgon, 
Eel. 5, 72. 

LYCUS, a river of Phrygia, and of seve- 
ral other countries. 

LYD1A, a country of Asia Minor, 588. 
Inh. Lydi, a colony of whom settled 
in Tuscany, Virg. Mn. 9, 1 1, et 8, 479. 
hence Lydia puella, Ovid. Fast. 2, 356. 
Lydius Tybris, i. e. Etruscus, Virg. 
./En. 2, 781. Lydia gens, 10, 155. 
Lydia bella, the war of Porsena, king 
of Clusium, against Rome, Sil. 13, 
828. Aurifer amnis Lydius, i. e. Pac- 
tolus, Tibull. 3, 3, 29- Lydius lapis, 
a touch- stone, Plin. 33, 8. called by 
the Latins Index, Ovid. Met. 2, 707. 
Lydii moduli, soft strains, or music, 
Plin. 7, 56. 



LYNCUS, a town of Macedonia ; Tnh, 
Lyncestve, Plin. 4, 10. near which 
was a fountain called Lyncestus v. 
Lyncestis, -Idis, aqua acidida, which 
intoxicated those who drank of it, like 
wine, Plin. 2, 103, hence Lyncestim 
amnis, Ovid. Met. 329. 

LYRNESSl S, a__town of Mysia, the 
country of Briseis, hence called Lyr- 
nessis, -idis, Ovid. Trist. 4, l, 15„ 
Lyrnessia mcenia, Id. Met. 12, 108, 
Lyrnessius Acmon, Virg. JEn. 10„ 
128. 

LYSIAS, Berzeich, a town of Syria,, 

near Emesa, 594. 
LYSIMACHIA, Hexamili, a city of 

Thrace, 348. 
LYSINOE, Ag-lasson, a town of Pi- 

sidia, Liv. 38, 15. 
LYSTRA, a town of Lycaonia, 589. 

M 

MACiE, a people of Africa, near the 
Syrtis Major, Herodot. 4, 175. through 
whose territory the river Cinyps ran ; 
whence they are called Cinyphii Macce, 
Sil. 3, 275. sing. Maces, Sil. 5, 194. 

MACEDONIA, Macedonia, a coun- 
try on the south of Europe, extending 
from the Egean sea to the Hadriatie, 
having Epire andThessaly to the south, 
Thrace and Illyricum to the north ; 
Inh. Macedones ; Vir Maccdo, Phi- 
lip, Horat. Od. 3,16, 24. whence Ma- 
cedonicum bellum aim Philippo, Liv, 
31, 1. cum Perseo, 39, 23. The Ma- 
cedonians, or such of them as ruled in 
the east, are sometimes called Macetce, 
-arum, v. -Hum, Sil. 13, 878.; 14,5.; 
et 17, 633. 

MACELLA, a town of Sicily, Liv. 26, 

21. 

MACO-RABA, Mecca, a principal city 
of Arabia Felix, the birth-place of 
Mahomet. 

MACRA, Magra, a river dividing Etruria 
from Liguria, 136.; Plin. 3, 5.; Liv. 
39, 32. ; not navigable, Lucan. 2, 
426. 

MACRI CAMPI, in Cisalpine Gaul, 
near the river Gabellus, Liv. 41, 18, ; 
45, 12. also plains round Parma and 
Mutina, Col. 7,2, 

MiEATiE, the people who lived to the 
south of the Firth of Forth, in Scot- 
land, Dio. 76, 12. 

MACROBII, people who lived beyond 
the usual age of man, Plin. 1 t 8, par- 

a F. 4 



792 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



ticularly the Meroeni, above Egypt, 

Mel. l, 10. 
MACRON-llCHOS, a town in the 

isthmus of the Chersonesus Thracia, 

where a wall was built across the isihmus 

by Miltiades, 347-; Plin. 4, 11.; Mel. 

2, 2. ; Nep. 7, 7- 
MADAURA, v. -tis, a town on the 

confines of Numidia and Gaetulia, the 

native place of Apuleius ; Inh. Madau- 

renses, Apul. Met. 11. 
Maduateni, a people of Thrace, Liv. 

38, 40. 

Madttus, a town in the Chersonese, 
Liv. 31, 16. ; 33, 38. 

MiEANDER, Meinder, a river rising 
in Phrvgia, and running into the 
jEgean sea near Miletus in Ionia, Plin. 
5, 29. i Liv. 37, 45, & 57- remarkable 
for its windings, Ovid. 8, 162.; Sil. 7» 
139. hence put for any winding or maze, 
Virg. JEn. 5, 250. Quos mceandros 
qucesisti f What windings or subter- 
fuges, Cic. Pis. 1 ! 2.--—Meeandrius 
juvenis, Caunus, the grandson of Mman- 
der, by his daughter Cyanee, Ovid. 
Met. 9, 573, & 450, &c. 

MjEDICA regio, a district of Thrace ; 
Inh. Mjedi, Liv. 26, 25.; 40,21. 

M/EnAlus, sc. mons, plur. Mcenala, sc. 
juga, -orum, a high mountain in Ar- 
cadia, 285.; Virg. Eel. 8, 22. G. 1, 
17. sacred to Pan, ib. whence he is 
called Deus Mcenalius, Ovid. Fast. 4, 
650. Versus Mcenalii, Menalian verses 
or pastoral poetry, Virg. Eel'. 8, 21. 

M/ENUS, the Maine, a mer of Ger- 
many, falling into the Rhine at Mentz. 

MjEONIA, Lydia, Inh. Maeones ; 
whence Mceonius senex, Siat. Silv. 2, 

I, 117. i.e. Homerus, Horat. Od. 4, 
9, 5. as having been born in that 
country. Mceonium Carmen, the poetry 
or verses of Homer, Horat. 1, 6, 2. 
Mceoniec ckarlcB, the writings of Ho- 
mer, Ovid. Pont. 4, 12, 27. Mceonium 
vinum, Lydian wine, Virg. G. 4, 380. 
Mceonius rex, the Lydian king, JEn. 9, 
546. Mceonia mention milra crinemque 
madentem Subnexus, having his head 
covered with a Lydian mitre, tied below 
the chin, ib. 4, 216. which was rec- 
koned effeminate by the Italians, who 
went with their heads bare, 9, 616. 
—Mceojiidce, -arum, the Tuscans de- 
scended from the Lydians, Virg. JEn. 

II, 759. Mceonidum tellus, Etruria, 
Sil. 0, 607. Mceonius lacus, theThra- 
symen lake, Sil. 15, 35.— - Mcconis, 



-idis, i. e. Arachne, a Lydian girl^ 
Ovid. Met. 6, 103. Mceonides, -Urn, 
the Muses, ib. 5, 268.; but Heinsius 
reads Mnemonides : — Mceonides, -ev, 
Homer, Martial. 5, 10, 8. 
MjEotis palus, -idis, vel Mceotlca palus, 
the Sea of Asoph, 354. Cic. Tusr. 

5, 17. Ms.br je, the people who lived 
round the lake, Plin. 4, 12. Peltiferce 
Meed tides, i. e. the Amazons, Ovid. 
Ep. Sabin. 2, 9. Ara Mceotis, -His, 
the altar of Diana in the Cherso?iesus 
Taurica, to whom strangers were sa- 
crificed, Juvenal. 15, 114. Hiems 
Mccoiis, Ovid. Trist. 3, 12, 2. — 
Mceotica tellus, i.e. Scythia, Virg. JEn. 

6, 799. or the country around the lake, 
(Mceotica unda,) Id. G. 3, 349. which 
is said to be patiens plaustri, because in 
winter it is so frozen as to bear car- 
riages, Lucan. 1, 641. 

MAESIA sylva, a wood in Etruria, 
near the mouth of the Tiber, Liv. I, 
33. 

MAGABA, a mountain of Galatia, be- 
tween Ansyra and the river Halys, 38, 
19- 

MAGNESIA, a district of Thessaly ; 
Inh. Magnetes, Lucan. 6, 385. sing. 
Magnes, Nep. 14, 5. fern. Magnessa, 
Horat. Od. 3, 7, 18. Magnetis vel 
Magnesis (-Idis) Argo, the ship of Ja- 
son, p. 3 2 1 . Magnesius populus, Mag- 
nesium saxum, Luoret. 6, 1062. Mag- 
netarchus, the chief magistrate of the 
Magnetes, Liv. 35, 31. 

MAGNESIA ad montem Sipylum, Mag- 
nesa, a town of Lydia, where Scipro 
defeated Antiochus, Liv. 37, 37 & 44. 
Inh. Magnetes a Sipylo, Plin: 5, 29. 
Tacit. Ann. 2, 47. — Also a town on 
the Masander, now Guzelhizar, called 
by some Mceandropolis, one of the 
three towns given by Artaxerxes to 
Themistocles ; where he died, Nep. 10.; 
Diodor.il, 57. 

MAGNUS PORTUS, a port of the 
Belgae in Britain, supposed to be 
Portsmouth. — Another in Spain, 
thought to be Corunna. 

MAGO, Ma on, or Mahan, a town of 
the island Minorca. 

MAGONTIACUM, contracted Magun- 
tia v. Magontia, Mentz, a town of 
Germany, at the confluence ©f the 
Rhine and Maine, Tacit. Hist. 4, 15 
& 23. 

MALACA, Malaga, a port-town of 
Granada in Spain. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 7S3 



M'ALEA v. Malea, Malei, a promon- 
tory of Laconica, 284. whence the La- 
conic gulf was also called Sinus Maleus, 
Flor. 3, 6, 3. 

MALEVENTUM, the ancient name of 
Beneventum, Liv. 9, 27. 

MALlACUS Sinus, a bay separating 
Thessaly from Locris, 310. named 
from the Melienses, who lived on the 
north side of it, 321. 

MALLI, the people of Moultan, in 
India, 643. 

MAMERTINT, a people from Campania, 
who took possession of Messana in Si- 
cily, 234 & 257- 

Mamurrarum urbs. See Formice. 

Mancunium, Manchester. 

MANDELA, a village near the villa of 
Horace, 139. 

MANDUBII, the people of Alise, in 
Burgundy. Cees. 7, 68. 

MANTINEA, Trai>olizza, a town of 
Arcadia, 285. Nep. Epam. 9. 

MANTINORUM oppidum', Bastia, in 
Corsica, as it is thought. 

MANTUA, Mantua, a town of the 
Cenomanni, 135. now the capital of 
the dutchy of Mantua, called Musarum 
domus, from Virgil's having been born 
near it, Sil. 8, 595. hence Mantuana 
fama, the fame of Virgil, Stat. Silv. 

4, 7, 27. It is said to have been 
named from Manto, the daughter of 
Tiresias the Theban, who came into 
Italy, Serv. ad Mn. 10, 199. 

MARACANDA, Samarcand, the 
capital of Sogdiana, now Ushbec Tar- 
tar y. 

MARATHON, Marathon, a small 
town about ten miles north-east from 
Athens, 300. In a plain near it, [cam- 
pus Marathon,) Theseus slew a mon- 
strous wild bull, Ovid. Met.T, 454. ; 
Cic. Tusc. 4, 22. and Miltiades defeated 
the Persians, whence Taurus Maratho- 
nicus, Cic. Tusc. 4, 22. et Pugna Ma- 
rathonia, Cic. Att. 4, 12. Marathonia 
Virgo, i. e. Erigone, horn at Marathon, 
who hanged herself from grief at the 
death of her father Icarias, Stat. Silv. 

5, 3, 74. 

MARCIA AQUA, a water brought to 
Rome from the Lacus Fucvnus, above 
30 miles distance, by Q. Marcius Rex, 
Plin. 31, 3.; 36, 15. 

MARCOMANNI, a people of Ger- 
many, Tacit. Ann. 2, 46, & 62. ; 
G.42. 

MARDI vel Amardi, a fierce people in- 
habiting the mountains of Media, south 



of the Caspian sea, Plin. 6, 16, the re- 
sidence of the Assassins, in later 
times, who were exterminated by 
Hulakou, the grandson of Zenghiz- 
Khan. 

MAREOTIS, -Ms, Si-wah, a lake 
near Alexandria in Egypt, 670 ; whence 
Mareoticum, sc. Vinum, excellent 
wine produced near it, Horat. Od. 1, 
37, 14. 

MARGIANA, a country of Asia, east 
from the Caspian sea, named from the 
river MARGUS, Marg-ab, running 
through it. 

MARGUS, Morava, a river of Upper 
Mce3*ia, which runs into the Danube ; 
near its mouth was a town of the same 
name, now Kastolatz. 

MARIANI vel Ariani montes, Sierra 
Morena, a chain of mountains be- 
tween Castile and Andalusia in Spain. 

MARICiE lucvs, a wood or grove near 
Minturnae, Liv. 27, 37. consecrated to 
the nymph Marica, floral. Od. 3, 17, 
7. the mother of King Latinus, Virg. 
Mn. 7, 47. 

MARIDUNUM, supposed to be Caer- 
marthen, in Wales. 

MARIONIS, Hamburg, a city of Ger- 
many on the Elbe. 

MARITIMA, Martigues, a town 
in Provence, near the mouth of the 
Rhone. 

MARMARICA, a country between 
Egypt and Cyrenaica ; Inh. Mar- 
marid.se, nimble in running, Lucan. 
4, 680. ; sing. Marmartdas v. -es, Sil. 
2, 165. called Medicum vulgus, be- 
cause possessed of some secret power to 
counteract the noxious effects of the 
poison of serpents, Sil. 3, 300. hence 
Marmaricus alumnus, Sil. 11. 182. 
MARMARID^E Psylli, Lucan. 9, 
893. Marmaricce catervce, ib. 3. 293. 
Marmaridum phalanx, vel Cinyphia 
turba, Sil. 5, 185. Marmarides Othrys, 
ib.437. 

Maronea, a town of the Cicones in 
Thrace ; whence Maroneus Bacchus, 
excellent wine produced there, with 
which Ulysses :« said to have intoxicated 
Polyphemus, Tibull. 4. 1, 57.; Plin. 
14, 4.; Inh. MaronItae, Liv. 31, 31. 

Marpesus, a mountain in the island 
Paros ; whence Marpesia cautes, a 
block of Parian marble, Virg. Mn. 
6, 471. 

MARRUB1UM, San Benedetto, 
a town of the Marsi, near the Lacus 
Fucinus, 138.; Sil. 8, 497. &c. ; 



194* 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



whence Marrulia gens y Virg. 7, 
750. 

MARRUCiNI, a people of PicCnum ; 

whence Marruchia gens. Sil. 15, 564. 
MARSI, a people of Italy round the lacus 
Fuctnus, 18. remaikable for their 
bravery ; whence Marsa cokors, the 
Roman army, H.rat. Od. 2, 20, 18. 
Marsus et Appulus, a Reman soldier, 
ib. 3 , 5, 9. — much addicted to magic ; 
whence Marsa Ncenia, a magic song or 
charm, Horat. Epod 17, 29. Marsce 
voces, incantations, ib. 5, 76. Cantus 
Marsi, Ovid Medic, fac. 39. Cadus 
Mar si memor duelli, a cask of wine 
made in the time of the Marsic or 
Italic war, Horai Od.3, 14, 18. Mar- 
sicum lelluwt, Cic. Divin. 1, 44. Mar- 
sica pules. Sil. 3, 497- Also a peo- 
ple of Germany south of the Frisii, Ta- 
cit. Ann. 1, 50, &56. ; 2,25. Hist. 3, 
59. ; G. 2. — Marsigni, another people 
of Germany, Jd. G. 43. and Marsaci, 
Id Hist. 4* 46. 
MARSYAS, a river of Fhrygia, 592. 
Liv. 38, 13.; Ovid. Met. 2, 265. 
rapid and straight till it joins the wind- 
ing Meander v. -dros {errantem Mean- 
dron adit,) Lucan. 3, 208. 
MARTIUS CAMPUS vel Mortis, a 
plain adjoining to Rome, along the 
Tiber, consecrated to Mars, and de- 
voted to many Important purposes, 208. 
MARUS, Morava, a river of Germany, 
the boundary between Hungary and 
Moravia, Tacit. Ann. 2, 63. 
MASSiESYLI, the people of one half 
of Numidia, whose king was Syphax, 
Liv. 24, 48.; 28, 17. ; 29- 32. 
MASSYLI, the people of the other 
half, Liv. 24, 48.; Sil. 3, 282. the 
paternal kingdom of Masinissa, Liv. 
30, 11. Massylum gentes, for Massy - 
lorum, Virg. JEn. 6, 60. Silius Ita- 
licus makes Syphax king of the Massy Li, 
16, 171. as he also was after the ex- 
pulsion of Masinissa, Liv. 29, 33. See 
p. 682. 

MASSAGETiE, a people of Scythia ; ac- 
cording to some, north of the river 
Araxes adjoining to Albania, Mar- 
cellin. 23, 4. ; Tibull. 4, 1, 143. ; ac- 
cording to others, to the east of the 
Caspian Sea, beyond the Iaxartes or 
Araxes, Dionys. Perieg. 738.; Herodot. 
1, 201.; Diodor. 2, 43.; Justin. 1, 
8. See p. 602. Lucan places them 
north of the Danube, 2, 50. and says 
that they used to quench their thirst by 



cutting a vein of their horses, and 
drinking the blood, 3, 282. So Clau- 
dian, Cornipedes inpocula vulnerat au- 
dax Massagetes, in Ruffin. 1, 312. thus 
making them the same with the Ge- 
ts, who also drank the blood or horses, 
Virg. G. 3, 463. Horace seems to put 
them for the Scythians in general, Od. 
1, 35, 40. 

MASSiCUS mo??5, plur. Massica, sc. 
juga, a mountain in Campania, begin- 
ning at Sinuessa, famous for its wine, 
J 48. ; hence Munera Massica Bacchi, 
Virg. G. 3, 526. Humor Massicus 
Bacchi, ib. 2, 143. Vina Massica, 
Horat. Sat. 2, 4, 51, or simply Mas- 
sicum, Id. Od. l, 1, 19. Quocunque 
lectum nomine Q.e.consule) Massicum, 
under whatever consul, or at whatever 
time it was made, ib. 3, 21, 5. Oblivi- 
osum Massicum, which causes those who 
drink it to forget their cares, 2, 7, 21. 
Tu Massicapotas, sc. -vina, Martial. 3, 
49. Massici Montes,V\'w. 14, 6. 

MASS1LIA, Marseilles, a celebrated 
city of France, near the east mouth of 
the Rhone, (Massilioticum os Rhodani, 
Plin.3, 4.) Cic. Flacc. 26. ; Off. 2, 8. 
Studiorum civitas, Tacit. Ann. 4, 44. ; 
Agr. 4. ; Inh. Massilienses, Liv. 
5, 34.^ 21, 20.; 37, 54. et Massili- 
tani, Vitruv.10,22. Massilienses mores, 
strict, chaste, Plant. Casin. 5, 4.1. 

MASTRAMELA, Mer be Marte- 
gues, a lake near Marseilles, Pliu. 3,4. 

MATILICA, Matelica, a town of 
Umbria, near the iEsis ; Inh. Maiili- 
cates, Plin. 3, 14. 

MATINUS, a hill on the confines of 
Apulia and Calabria, 163.; whence 
Matina apis, Horat. Od. 4, 2, 27. 
cacumina, Epod. 16. 28. Matinum lit- 
tus, Od. 1, 28, 3. 

M ATI SCO, Maccw, in Burgundy. 

MATREIUM, MATREi,atownofRhaetia. 

MATRINUS, the Plomba, a small river 
of PicSnum, 

Matroka, the Marne, a river separating 
Gallia Cellica from Belgica, and filling 
into the Seine two leagues to the east of 
Paris. Mairona non Gallos Belgasque 
inlersita fines, Auson. Mosell. 462. 

Mattiacje Aqu«, IVisbaden, a small 
town opposite to Mentz. 

MATTIACUM, Marpurg, in Hesse, a 
town of the Catti, Tacit. Attn. 1, 56. 

MAURITANIA, Morocco and Fez, 
a large country of Africa, 682. ; Inh. 
Mauri, the Moors, & Maurici, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



795 



■Martial. 5, 29- Maurus pedes, a 
Moorish foot soldier, Horat. Od. 1. 
2, 39. Mauri angues, fierce, de- 
structive, »£. 3, 10, IS. Maura unda, 
the African sea, that part of the Medi- 
terranean which surrounds the Syrtes, 
Horat. Od. 2, 6, 3. Mauri vel Maura 
jacula, the javelins of the Moor, ib. 1. 
22, 2. Maurusia taxus vel arundo, a 
Moorish dart. 57/. 4, 569. et 10, 402. 
gens, Virg. ^En. 4, 206. Et Mauru- 
siaci pondera rara citri, i. e. tables of 
citron wood from Mauritania, Martial. 
12, 67, 6. 

MAUSOLI Monumentum, the tomb of 
Mausolus, erected by his queen, Arte- 
misia, at Halicarnassus ; reckoned one 
of the seven wonders of the world, 
Gell. 10, 19. Mausoleum sepulchrum, 
Propert. 3, 2, 21, whence all splendid 
sepulchres were called Mausolea, 
Suet. Aug. 100. Ner. 46. Vesp. 23, 
Flor. 4, 11. extr. Martial. Spect. 1, 5. 
et Epigr. 5, 65, 5. 

MAZACES, sing. Mazax, a people in 
Africa, remarkable for their skill in 
shooting the arrow, Lucan. 4, 681. 

MEDIA, a country of Asia, south of the 
Caspian sea; Inh. Medi, often con- 
founded by the poets with the Persians 
and Parthians, Horat. Od. 1 . 2, 51 . ; 
29,4.; 2, 1, 31.; & 16. 6. g 3, 3, 
44. Pers. 3, 53. Medus infestus, the 
Parthians quarrelling among themselves, 
Horat. Od.3,S, 19. Rex Medus, a Par- 
thian monarch, ib. 5, 9. Medus Acinaces 
a Persian scimitar, Horat. Od. 1, 27, 5. 
Medicum imperium, the Persian empire ; 
Medica vestis, Nep. 4, 3. — Medica, 
an herb, so named, because first brought 
into Greece by the Medes, Serv. hi 
Virg. G. I, 215. also a kind of apple 
ss it is supposed, tbe citron, the fruit of 
which was thought a remedy for 
poisons, ib. 2, 126. Plin. 12, 3. 

MEDIOLANUM, Milan, the ca- 
pital of the lnsubres, 13 5. Liv. 5, 34. ; 
34, 46. Inh. Medioeanenses ; 
Mediolanensis prceco, Cic. Pis. 26. 

MEDIOLANUM Aulercorum, postea 
Eulorovices, Evreux, in Normandy, 
— - Santonum, Saintes, in Guienne, 
&c. 

MediomatrIci the people of Metz, 
in Gallia Belgica, Tacit. Hist. 1, 63. 

Mediterraneum Mare, the Mediter- 
ranean sea, Isidor. 13, 16, a name 
which does not occur in the classics. 
It is called by Horace Medius liquor, 
Od. 3, 3, 46. by Strabo, Pliny, and 



others, Internum or Nostrum mare 
Plin. 2, 68. Sallust. Jug. 17. Caes.B. 
G. 5, 1. Liv. 26, 42. Lucan. 8, 293. 
Slrab. passim. 
MEDOBREGA, a town of Lusitania, 
near mount Herminius, now extinct z, 
Inh. Medobregenses, Hirt. B. Hisp. 
48. 

MEDUACUS Major, Brenta; et 
Minor, Bachilione, two rivers flow- 
ing from the Alpes Tridentince, and 
falling into the Hadriatic, near Venice, 
Liv. 10, 2. Plin. 3, 16. 

MEDUANA, Mayne, a river of Cel- 
tica, running from north to south, into 
the Laedus, and both together into the 
Liger or Loire, Lucan. 1, 438. 

MEDUS, Abi-Kuren, or the Water 
of Kur, a river of Media, which flows 
into the Araxes, Strab. 15. 729. Me- 
dian Jlumen, Horat. Od. 2, 9, 21. 
Some take Medus here for an adjective, 
the Median or Persian river, i. e. the 
Araxes or Tigris or Euphrates. 

MEGALOPOLIS, a town of Arcadia, 
285. Liv. 32, 5. et 36, 31. Inh, 
MegalopoUttcB, Liv. 28, S. et. 35, 27* 
v. Megalopvlitani, Liv. 33. 22. et 41, 
20. 

MEGARA, ~es v. -orum, Megara., 
the capital of Megaris, -idis, in 
Greecia Propria, 302.; Inh, Mega- 
renses ; adj. Megarus v. -eus, v. 
-eius, Megarieus v. Megarensis. The 
followers of Euclid of Megara, the 
scholar of Socrates, were called ME- 
GARICI, Cic. Acad. 4, 42. Oral. 3, 
17 5 Megarica signa, statues made at 
Megara, of a kind of stone much va- 
lued, Cic. Att. 1 , 8. — Also a town of 
Sicily, 259. whence Megari sinus, Virg, 
yEii. 3, 689. 

MELA vel Mella, Mela, a river of the 
Trautpadana, running past Brixia into 
the Allius, Virg. G. 4, 27 S. Catull. 68, 
33. 

MELAS, -<e, a river of Lydia, Ovid, 
Met.2, 247- — of Sicily, Id.Fast.4, 
4, 476. — of Bceotia, 305. — of Thrace, 
347. — and of several other places. 

MELDiE vel Meldorum civitas, Meaux, 
a city of Champaigne, on the Marne. 
in France. 

MELES, -etis, a river of Ionia, near 
Smyrna ; near the banks of which 
Homer is said to have been born, Stat. 
Silv. 3, 3, 60. hence called Melesigenes, 
587- Meleiece chartce, the writings of 
Homer, Tibull. 4. 1, 200. Graio no- 
Ulior Melete Bcetis, Beetis, near which 



796 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



Lucan was born, is more illustrious 
than Melcs, i. e. Lucan excels Homer, 
Stat. Silv.1, 7, 34. 
MELIBiEA, a town of Thessaly, 321. 
Liv. 36, 13. et 44, 13, if 46. whence 
Melibceus dux, Philoctetes, Virg. Mn. 
3, 401. — Also an island of Syria, at the 
mouth of the Orontes, 594. whence, 
according to some, Melibce a purpura, 
Festus, & Mel. 2, 3. 
MELICHIE, la Pismotta, a fountain 
at Syracuse, remarkable for the sweet- 
ness and salubrity of its water. 
MELITE v. -a, Malta, an island in 
the African sea, to the south of Sicily, 
277. Liv. 21, 51. whence fastis Meli- 
tensis, a kind of cotton cloth. Cic. Verr. 
2,72. Melit&i catuli, Plin. 3, c. ult. — 
Another in theHadriatic, on the coast of 
Illyricum, Plin. 3. 26. now Melede, 
belonging to the republic of Ragusa. 
MELITENE, a district of Cappadocia, 

bordering on the Euphrates. 
MELODUNUM, Melun, a town on 

the Styne, in the isle of France. 
MELOS, Milo, one of the Cyclases, 
338. Inh. Melii ; whence Melia 
terra, a kind of earth of particular 
qualities, used in medicine and paint- 
ing, Plin. 35, 6. 
MELPES, Melfa, a river of Lucania, 
falling into the Tuscan sea, near the 
prom. Palinurus, Plin. 3. 5. 
MEMPHIS, the ancient capital of E- 
gypt, 665. Horat. Od. 3, 26. 10. - 
Martial, sp. l, 1. hence Terra Mem- 
phltis, -idis, the land of Egypt, Ju- 
venal. 15, 122. vel. Memphitica tellus, 
Martial. 14, 38. Tela Memphitis, fine 
linen, curiously wrought, Sil. 14, 660. 
Memphltes bos, the Egyptian gOd Apis, 
Tibull. 1, 7, 28, see p. 605. 
MENELA1UM, a fort on the Menelams 

mons, near Sparta, Liv. 34, 28. 
MENELAI partus, a sea-port town be- 
tween Egypt and Cyrene, where Agesi- 
laus died, Nep. 17, 8. 
MENINX, vel Lotophagltis insula, Zer- 
bi, an island to the west of the Syrtis 
Minor in Africa; with a cognominal 
town, now Zadaica, Plin. 5, 7- 
termed Nerilia, because peopled by a 
colony from the island Neritos, Sil. 3. 
318. supposed to be the country of the 
Lotophugi of Homer, Strab. 17, 834. 
MERCURII Promontorium, a cape 
in Africa Propria, near Clypea, Plin. 5, 
A. Liv. 29, 27. and near it Mercurii 
tumulus, ib. 26, 44. 
MEROE, Nuabia, a city of ^Ethiopia, 



in an island of the Nile of the ssrwr 
name, Herodot. 2, 29 ; Plin. 2, 73,- 
Lucan. 10, 303. under the tropic of 
Cancer, ib. 4, 333, celebrated for it* 
wine, ib. 10, 163. 
MESEMBRIA, Misevria, a town of 
Thrace ; whence Mesembriaci partus, 
the Thracian harbours, Ovid. Trist. 
1, 6, 37. 

MESENE, Disel, an island in the Ti* 
gris, in which Apamia stood, Piin. 6, 
27- 

MESOPOTAMIA, the country between 
the Tigris and the Euphrates, Cic. AtL 
9, 11.; N. D.I, 52. 

Messana v. Messene, Messina, the 
first town of Sicily, after crossing from 
Italy, 256. Inh. Messavenses v. Ma- 
vxertini ; hence Messania fncera'a, Ovid. 
Met. 14, 17» 

MESS API A, a name of Calabria, 163. 
or Apulia, Festus ; whence Messapiit 
arva, the Apulian fields, Ovid. Met. 
14, 513 ; Inh. Messapji, Liv. 8, 
24. 

MESSENE, Mavra-matia, the ca- 
pital of Messenia in Peloponaesus, 
282.; Liv. 36, 31.; et 39, 48. &c. 
Inh. Messenii, Liv. 29, 12. hence 
Messenia mcenia, Ovid. 12. 549. Sinus 
MESSENIACUS, the gulf of Coron ; 
called also Sinus Thuriates, Asineus 
et Coronceus, from towns situate on it. 

METAPONTUM v. -us, a town of 
Lucania, 170. ; Liv. 1, 18. ; 8, 24 ; 
25, 11.; 27, l.; Inh. Metaponti- 
NI, Liv. 22, 61.; 25, 15.; 27, 16. 
Metapontinus ager, 24, 20. 

METARIS the Wash, an arm of the sea 
between Lincolnshire and Norfolk. 

METAURUS v. -urn, Metro, a river 
of Umbria, famous for the defeat of 
Hasdrubal, by the consuls Livius and 
Nero, Liv. 27, 47- ; Horat. Od. 4, 4, 
38.; Lucan.1, 405. — Another river 
in the country of the Bruttii, now 
Marro, 174. 

MethOne, Modon, a town of Messe- 
nia, 283. — also of Macedonia, 325. 
and of Magnesia, Homer. 11. 2, 71- 

METHYMNA, Porto-Petero, a town 
of Lesbos, celebrated for its wine : 
Methymnasus vates, i. e. Arion, 343. 
Methymniadespuellce,0\\A. Ep. 15, 15. 

Metropolis Tireh, a town of Lydia, 
588. — of Thessaly, 322. and of other 
countries. 

METULUM, Metuc vetus, a towr* 
of Liburnia, the capital of the Japyles y 
at the siege of which Augustus, whet. 



\ 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 797 



fcfte of the Triumviri, was wounded, 
Dio. 49, 35. 

MEVANIA, Bevagna, a town of Urn- 
bria, at the confluence of the Tina a,nd 
Clitumnus, Lucan. I, 473.; Sil. 6, 
647.; Inh. Mevenates. 

MILETUS, a city on the confines of 
-Ionia and Caria, 588. anciently the 
capital of Ionia, Plin. 5, 29. ; Mel. 1. 
1,7.5 I n h« Milesii ; celebrated for 
fine wool ; hence Milesice oves, Col. 7, 
2, 3, Melesia vellera, Virg. G. 3, 306. 
—Milesii, sc.fabulce, ludicrous and 
wanton plays, Capitolin. in Albin. 11, 
vel Milesiaca, -urum, Ovid. Trist. 2, 
413. 

MILLE passas v.passuum, a Mile, of 
different lengths in different countries, 
125. 5 among the Romans, 5000 
feet, each passus being equal to five 

feet, Plin. 2, 23 s. 21. Mil- 

liarjum aureum, a gilded column 
in the Forum or public, place of 
Rome, where all the ways of Italy 
met, Plin. 3, 5.; Tacit. Hist. 1, 73.; 
Suet. Oth. 6. 

MILVIUS v. Milvius pons, Pont- 
Molle, a bridge over the Tiber at 
Rome, Sallust. Cat. 45. ; Cic. Alt. 13, 
33.; Tacit. Ann. 13,47- 

MILYAS, a district of Lycia ; whence 
My liadum commune, Cic. Verr. 1, 38. 

MIMAS, a high mountain of Ionia, 
587. whence, as it is thought, Mi- 
mallo-nes, et Mimallonide-s, the 
same with Bacchts, or priestesses of 
Bacchus, women who pretended to be 
inspired with phrenzy, while celebrat- 
ing the orgies or sacred rites of Bac- 
chus, Slat. Theb. 4, 660. Ovid. Art. 
Am. 1, 541. Mimallonei bombi, the 
sounds or screams uttered by them, 
Pers. 1, 99. 

MINCIUS, Mincio, a river which rises 
in the Rhetian Alps, and, passing 
through the Lacus Bendcus, or Lago 
di Gardo, runs through the duchy of 
Mantua into the Po; near the banks 
of which Virgil was born, Virg. Reel. 7, 
13. G.3, 15. Mn. 10, 206. 

MINERVA castrum vel Arx Minerva?, 
Castro, a town of Calabria, eight 
miles south of Hydruntum, 165. 

MINERVjE prom, the cape of Miner- 
va, the 8outhmost point of Campania, 
155. 

MINIO, Minogne, a river of Etruria, 

Virg. Mn. 10. 183. 
MINIUS, the Minho or Migno, a liver 

of Gallicia in Spajn, 483, 



MINOA, a name of Heraclea, on the 
south coast of Sicily, 267, a town in 
Crete, 339. and elsewhere. Mino'ia reg- 
no, the country of Crete, so named 
from its king, Minos, Virg. Mn. 6, 
14. 

MINTURNiE, a town at the mouth of 
the Liris, on the confines of Latiuin 
and Campania, 148. termed palustres, 
because surrounded with marshes, Ho- 
rat. Ep. 1, 5, 4. ; Juvenal. 10, 276.; 
Lit'. 8, 11.; 9, 25.; 10, 21.; Inh. 
Minturnenses, ib. 27, 38. et 36, 
3. The territory of Minturnse is 
called, from Marlca, a goddess wor- 
shipped there, Regna Maricos, Lucan* 
2, 424. 

MINUCIA VIA, a way which led to 
Brundusium, through a different coun- 
try from the via Appia, Cic. Att. 9, 
6. see p. 183. 

MINYiE, a people of Thessaly, (gens 
cognita remis,) noted as sailors, Lucan. 
6, 385. the Argonauts, or companions 
of Jason in the ship Argo, 441. Myny- 
eia proles, Ovid. Met. 4, 386. 

MISENUM prom, vel Misenus mons, 
Cape Misf.no, a promontory and port 
of Campania, 150.; Liv. 24, 13.; 
Inh. Misenenses vel Misenaces ; Misenen- 
sis classis, Tacit. Hist. 2, 9. ; Ann. 15. 
51. Villa, 18, 6. 

MlTYLENE, -es v. -a, -arum, the ca- 
pital of Lesbos, which now gives name 
to the island, 343.; Liv. 37, 21.; et 
Epit. 89.; Horat. Od.l, 7, 1.5 Ep, 
1, 11, 17.; Inh. Mitylencei ; adj.M- 
tylencece trirmies, Liv. 37, 12. latebrce, 
from Pompey's sending Cornelia, his 
wife, thither before the battle of Phar- 
salia, Lucan. 5, 786. Mitylenceum vul- 
gus, ib. 8. 109. 

MCERIDIS lacus, a large artificial lake 
in Egypt, 666. 

MCESIA, Maria v. Mysia, a country 
on the south of the Danube, extending 
from its junction with the Save to the 
Euxine sea; divided by the river Ciadrus 
or Drinus into SUPERIOR, Servia, 
and INFERIOR, Bulgaria; celebrated 
for its fertility, Virg. G.l, 102.; Inh, 
Mcesi v. Mysi, Tacit. Ann. 15, 6, 
Mysce gentes, Ovid. Pont. 4, 9, 77. 
Mcesicce legiones, Tacit. Hist. 2, 44, 
& 85. Masicus exercitus, Id. Ann. 3, 
9. Maisiacus exercitus, Suet. Vesp. 6. 

MOLORCHI lucus, a grove near Cle5^ 
naj in Argolis, where the Nemean 
games were celebrated, Virg. G. 3, 19, 
named from Molorchus, a shepherd s 



798 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



who entertained Hercules hospitably, 
Martial. 14, 14, 13. when he went to 
destroy the Nemean lion, Apollodor. 2, 
5.; Stat. Theb. 4, 160. Domiiian 
having built a temple to Hercules, pla- 
ced near it a chapel to IMolorchus ; 
whence he is said to have been enriched 
(faclits modo dives), Martial. 4. 64, 30. 
Statius calls Molorchus pauper, in the 
description of a temple built toHercules 
by Pollius, near Surrentum. Silv. 3, 1, 
29. 

MQLOSSIS, -tdis v. -ia, a district of 
Epirus ; celebrated for its breed of do^s, 
Canes Mohssi, Horat. Sat. 2, 6, 114.; 
Virg. G. 3, 405. remarkable for their 
size, boldness, and noisy barking, La- 
crel.b, 10, 62. Lucan. 4, 440. ; Inh. 
MolOssi ; Molussa gens, Ovid. Met. 
1, 226. 

MONA, the island Anglesey, in North 
Wales, the ancient seat of the Druids, 
493.; Tacit. An. 14, 18, & 29. — 
MONCPIA v. Monceda, the isle of 
Man. 

MONDA, Munda, or Mondega, a river 
of Portugal, between the Durius and 
Tagus running past Coimbra, Plin. 4, 
22 s. 35. 

MONiECI arx, Monaco. See Her- 

CULIS. 

MOPSUHESTIA v. Mopsos, a town of 
Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, near the 
sea, Cic. Fam. 3, 8. 

MORGENTIA v. -ium, a town of Si- 
cily, near the mouth of the river Sy- 
meihus, whence ager Murgentimcs, Cic. 
Verr. 3, 18. 

Morini, a people of Belgica, Mel. 3, 2. 
called Extremi hominum, because they 
dwelt on the extremity of the continent, 
opposite to Britain, Virg. Mn. 8, 727. ; 
Cees. 4, 21. — Mormorum castellum, 
Mount Cassel, in Artois. — Mori- 
norum civitas, Terouenne, on the 
Lis. 

MOSA, the Maese or Meuse, a river of 

Gallia Belgica, 535. 
MOSjE Poiis, supposed to be Maes- 

tricht, Tacit. Hist. 4, 66. 
MOSl.HA, Mascat, a port of Arabia on 

the Red sea. 
MOSCH1, a people of Sarmatia, Lucan. 

3, 270. 

MOSELLA v. Mosula, the Moselle 
or Little Maese, a river of Belgica, 
which joins the Rhine at Coblents, 
Tacit. Ann. 13, 53. 

MOTYE v. -a, a town of Sicily, near 
Lilybaeum, 269. 



MUNDA, Munda, a town of Spain, 
north of ihe Straits of Gibraltar, where 
Caesar fought his last battle, and defeat- 
ed Labienus and the sons of Pompey, 
Plm.3, 1. hence, Et Munda Hemathios 
Italis puritura lahores, about to occa- 
sion as much slaughter to the Romans 
as the battle of Pharsalia, Sil. 3, 400. 

MUNICHIA v. Munichius Portus, one 
of the three ports of Athens, 292. 

MURSA, Essek, a town of Hungary, 
at the confluence of the Drave and Da- 
nube. 

MUTHUL, a river of Numidia, Sallust. 

Jug. 48. 

MUTICA v. -e, a town of Sicily, west 
from the prom. Pachynus ; Ager Mu- 
ticensis v. Mutyensis; Cic. Verr. 3, 43. 

Mutina, Modena, a city of Gallia 
Cispadana, 135. Cic. Phil. 5, 9. hence 
Mutinense prcelium, Cic. Fam. 10, 14. 
Mutinensisjuga, Cic. Brut. Ep. 5. 

MUTUSCJE. See Trehda. 

MUZERIS, Vizindruk, an emporium 
or trading town of India, Plin. 6, 23. 

M\CALE, a promontory of Ionia, oppo- 
site to the island Samos, near which 
the Persians were defeated by the 
Greeks, Diodor. 11, 35. hence My- 
calensis mons, et Mycalcea litiora. 

MYCENAE, a city of Argolis, 286. the 
residence of Agamemnon, hence called 
Dux My census, Ovid. Trist. 2, 400. 
Mycenis, -idis, Iphigenla, his daughter, 
Ovid. Mel. 12, 34. Inh. Mycenen- 
ses, Cic. Fin. 2, 6. 

Myconus vel Myconi, one of the Cy- 
clades, 337. Inh. Myconii, said to 
be ad naturally bald, Plin. 11, 37 f. 
47- Donat. in Ter. Hec. 3, 4, 26. 
because, as Strabo says, that defect was 
very frequent in the island, 10, 487. 

MYGDONIA, a district of Macedonia, 
the inhabitants of which (Mygdones) 
are said to have emigrated to Phrygia, 
and to have possessed a part of that 
country, 326. hence Pingids Phrygia 
Mygdoni<2 opes, Horat. Od. 2, 12, 22. 
Mygdonii campi. the Phrygian plains, 
ib. 3, 16, 41. Mygdonidesnurus, the 
Phrygian wives, Ovid. Met. 6, 45. 

MYLA v. -as, a river of Sicily, to the 
north of Syracuse, Liv. 24, 30, & 31. 

MYLiE, Melazzo, a town of Sicily, 
on the north side, 271. — Also a strong 
town of Thessaly, Liv. 42, 54. 

MYLASA, -orum, a town of Caria, Inh. 
Mylasem, Liv. 38, 39- v. My- 

LASSENSES, ib. 45, 25, V. MyIA- 

sei, Cic. Fam. 13, 56. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



799 



MYNDUS, Myndes, a town of Caria, 

near Halicarnassus, Liv. 37, 16. Inh. 

Myndenses, Cic. Fam. 3, 8. 
MYONNESUS, Ialanghi-liman, a town 

and promontory of Ionia, Liv. 37, 13, 

& 27- 

Myos-hormos, i. e. the port of the 
Mouse, vel Aphrodites portus, the Port 
of Venus, now Sufange-ul-barbi, i. e. 
the Sponge of the sea, a large port of 
the Higher Egypt on the Arabian gulf. 
MYRA, -ornm, Myra, a town of Ly- 
cia, Plin. 5, 27. on a high hill, 20 
stadia from the sea, Strab. 14, 666. 
with a sea-port, Acts, 27, 5. Inh. 
Myrenses. 
MYRIANDOS, a town of Seleucia in 
Syria, on the Sinus lssicus y called also 
Myriandricus, Plin. 2, 108. 
MYRINA, Sanderlec, a town of iEolia, 
Liv. 33, 30. ; Tacit. Ann. 2, 47. ; Cic. 
Fam. 5, 20. near a large plain (Campi 
Myrlni, Martial. 9, 43.), extending to 
the temple of Apollo at Grynium, 
which is called a town of the Myrin&i, 
Strab. 13, 622. — Also a town of Lem- 
nos, now Palio-Castro. Plin. 4, 12. 
MYPtL^EiE vel Apamea, Moudania, a 

town of Bithynia, Plin. 5, 32. 
Myrmidones, a people of Thessaly, which 
is said anciently to have been called 
Myrmidonum civitas, Veil. 1, 3, put 
for the soldiers of Achilles, Virg. Mn. 
2, 7. or for the Greeks in general, ib. 
252, et 11, 403. See p. 385. 
MYRTOS v. -us, a small island opposite 
to Carystus in Euboea, which is said to 
have given name to the Mare Myr- 
toum, a part of the Egean sea, extend- 
ing from Cape Malea to the south of 
Euboea, Plxn. 4, 11. but other reasons 
for this name are given, Pausan. Arcad. 
14. seep. 336, and 404. 
MYSIA, a country of Asia Minor, 586. 
Liv. 38, 39. Inh. Mysi, Cic. Flacc. 
2, Mysi sagittariiy Liv. 37, 40. A 
despicable person was called Mysorurn 
ultimus, Cic. Flacc. 27. 
MYUS, Myuntis, a town of Ionia, which 
Artaxerxes gave to Themistocles to 
furnish him with meat, {ex qua opso- 
nium haberet,) Nep. 2, 10.; Diodor. 
11, 57. Inh. Myusii, Myusius ager, 
the territory. 



Nabalia, a name given to the Fossa Drw 
siana, by which the Isala was increased 
with the waters of the Rhine, as it is 



thought, from the German Na-fVaal, 
the hinder- Waal. 

NABATHiEI, a people of Arabia Pe- 
treea; whence Nabathcea regna, the 
country of Arabia, Ovid. Met. 1, 61. 
Nabathtsi flatus, the eastern breezes or 
winds, Lucan. 4, 63. Nabathcea beU 
lua, an elephant, Juvenal. 11, 126. 

NAI SSUS v. Ncessus, Nissa, the native 
place of Consiantine, a town of Dar- 
dauia, in upper Meesia, ascribed by 
some to Illyricum, and by others to 
Thrace. 

NANTUATES v. -tee, a people of 
Gaul, bordering on the Alps, Cces, 
3, 1. 

NAPATA -<z v. -orum, a town of 
Ethiopia, the residence of Queen 
Candace. 

NAR, Nera, a river of Umbria, which 

joins the Tiber, 137. noted for its 

sulphureous water, Virg. Mn. 7, 517- 
NADAGARA, a town of Numidia, where 

Scipio and Hannibal had an interview, 

Liv. 30, 29. 
NARBO Marcius, Narbonne, a city of 

Languedoc in France ; whence Nar- 

bonensis Gallia v. Provivcia. 
NARISCI, a people of Germany in the 

Upper Palatinate, Tacit. G. 42. 
NARNIA, Narni, a town of Umbria, on 

the Nar, 137.; Inh. Narnienses, 

Liv. 10, 9-; 27, 9, & 50.; 29, 15.; 

32, 2. 

NARO, Narenta, a river of Dalmatia 
running into the Hadriatic. 

NARONA, Narenza, a town of Dalmatia, 
on the Naro. 

NARYCIA v. -ium, v. Naryx, -yds, 
a town of the Locri Epicnemidii in 
Greece, near which were groves of pines, 
and other trees producing pitch, {Nary- 
cice picis luci), Virg. G. 2, 438.; Inh 
Locri Narycii, a colony of whom 
founded Locri in Italy, 17 6. 

Nasamones, a people ot Cyrene, living, 
as Heredotus says, on the spoils of the 
shipwrecked, 4. So Sil. 1, 408. et 3, 
320. ; Lucan. 9, 439. &c. sing. Nasii- 
moji, ib. 4, 679. called Semihomines, 
on account of their savage barbarity, 
Sil. 11, 180. hence Nasamonius Idmon, 
Sil. 7, 609. Harpe Nasamonius -adis t 
Sil. 2, 116. Nasamoniaci triumphi, 
Sil. 16, 631. 

NASOS v. Nesus, a part of Syracuse, 

260. Also a town of Acarnania, 

Liv. 26, 24. 
NATfSO, Natisone, a river rising in the 
Alpes Carniree t and running into the 



soo 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Gulf of-Venice, east of Aquileija, Pli?i. 
3, 18. 

NATOLIA, contracted for Anatolia, the 
name given in the lower ages to Asia 
Minor or Hither Asia, because it lay 
east from Constantinople. 

NAVA, Nahe, a river of Belgica, which 
runs into the Rhine at Bingen, below 
Mentz, Tacit. Hist. 4, 70. 

NAUCRATIS, a town of Egypt, on the 
westmost branch of the Nile near its 
mouth, which was hence called Nau- 
cmticum Ostium, Plin. 5, 9. 

NAULftCHUS, a small town and road 
for ships, on the north-east side of Sicily, 
171. — Also a town of the Locti, Plin. 
4) 3. — and of Thrace, ib. 4, 11. 

NAUPACTUS, v. -urn, Lepanto, a 
town of jEtolia, on a bay of the Corin- 
thian gulf, now called the Gulf of 
Lepanto, 313. hence Naupacteus v. 
~aus, Achelous, i. e. Molus, Ovid. Fast. 
2,43. 

NAUPLIA, Naplt or Napoi.i, the har- 
bour of Argos, 286. 

NAUPORTUS v. -urn, Ober, or Up- 
per Laybach, a town of Pannonia, 
crNorkum, on the confines of Istria, 
on a river of the same name, Plin. 
3, 18.; Fell. 2, lio.; Tacit. Ann. l, 
20. 

NAUSTATHMUS, Bondaria, a port 
town of Cyrenaica, Strab. 17, 838.-— 
Also one of the harbours of Phoczea, in 
Ionia, Liv. 37, 31. 

NAUTACA, Nekshab, a town of Sog- 
diana. 

NAXOS v. -us, Naxia, one of the 
Cyclades, 338. whence Marmor Nax- 
ium, Plin. 36, 7- Naxia turba, i. e. 
Bacchantium, Propert. 3, 17, 28.-— 
Also a town in Crete, noted for its 
hones, hence called Naxia, -ioram, 
Plin. ib. 

NAZIANZUS, a town of Cappadocia, 

the country of St. Gregory, surnamed 

Nazianzenus. 
NEA, i. e. Nova insula, a small island 

between Lemnus and the Hellespont, 

which rose out of the $ea,\Plin. 2, 87. 
NE/ETHUS, Neto, a river of the Bruttii, 

180. Ovid calls it a river of Calabria, 

lSale7itlnus), Met. 15, 51. 
NEANDROS, v. -ia, a town of Troas, 

Plin. 5, 30. 
NEAPOLIS, i. e. 7iova urbs, Naples, a 

capital city of Campania, 152. Liv. 

8,22.; 23, 1. Otiosa, quiet, retired, 

fit for study, Horat.Epod. 5, 43. ; Firg. 

O. 4, 563,; Inh. Neapolitani, Liv. 



22, 82. Neapolitans a get, Liv. 24 f 
13. NEAPOLITAN UM Pompeii, a 
villa of Pompey's near Naples, Cic. Att. 
7, 2. — Also the name of part of Syra- 
cuse, Liv, lb, 24. and of several other 
places. 

NEBO, a very high mountain, part of 
the ridge called Abarim, in Persea, be- 
yond Jordan, opposite to Jericho, from 
the top of which, called Pisgah, Moses 
had a view of the promised land, 
Deuteron. 32, 49.; et 34, 1. 
NEBRISSA, Lebrixa, a town of Spain, 

south frum Seville. 
Nebrodes, a mountain of Sicily, whence 
the two rivers called Himera rise, SU* 
14, 236. . , 

Necropolis, a subuib of Alexandria in 

Egvpt. See p. 676. 
NEMAUSUS v. -urn, Nismes, a city in 

Languedoc. 
Nemea, a town of Argblis, in a wood near 
which the Nemean games (Nemea, sc. 
certamina) , were celebrated, 286. Liv. 
27, 30, & 31.; et 34, 41. in ho- 
nour of Hercules, who there slew a 
'huge lion (Nemeus leo), Cic. Tusc. 
4, 22. called Moles Nemecea, Ovid. 
Met. 9, 197. pestis, Id. Ep. 9, 61. 
Nemeceum vellus, his skin, Met. 9, 
235. Nemearus leo, is put for the sign 
of Leo in the zodiac, Lucan. 1, 655. 
Also a river separating the territory 
of Corinth from that of Sicyon, Liv. 
33, 15. 

NEMETACUM, a town of the Atre- 

bates, now Arras in Artois. 
NEMETJE v. -tes, the people of Spire, 
a town of the Palatinate, on the west 
side of the Rhine, which was after- 
wards called Noviomagus v. Neo- 
magus Nemetum. 
NEMETOBRIGA, Neboa, a town of 

Gallicia in Spain. . 
Nemossus v. -urn, Clermont, the capital 
of the Arveri in Gaul, Lucan. 1, 4 19-; 
Strab. 4, 191. ^ . 

NEPETE, Nepe, a town of Etruna, to 
the west of mount Soracte, Liv. 6, 9. 
Inh. Nepesim, ib. lo. Nepesinus ai>er, 
Uv.Jb, 19.; 26,34. Nepesina cohors, 
Sil. 8,491. . 
NEPHELIS, a promontory of Liucia, 

Liv. 33, 20. 
NERITOS, a small rocky island near 
Ithaca, (ardua saxis,) 332. scopulosis, 
arvis, Sil. 15, 305. hence Dux JVm* 
tius, Ulysses, Ovid. Trist. 1, 4, 57- 
Neritite naves, the ships of Ulysses, 
Ovid. Remed. Am. 263. — Aiso a town 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



of teucas or Leucadia, called Neritica 
domus, Ovid. Met. 13, 712. Proles 
Neritio, the people of Saguntum, de- 
scended from a colony of Nenuans, 

Sil. 2, 

NERITUM v. Neretum, Nardo, a town 

of Calabria, 166. 
NERVII, the people of Hainault, C<es. 
\ ( B.G.*, 15. 

NERIUM vtl Artabrum prom. Cape 
FiNiSiERRE, or the Land's End, on the 
north-west of Spain, Sirab.- 3, 137. 

NEROLUM, Legonegro, a strong town 
of Lucania, Liv. 9, 20. 

NESACTIUM, Castel Nuovo, a town 
of 1 stria, at the mouth of the river 
Arsia. 

NESIS, -is v. -idis, Nisita, a small 
island in the gulf of Naples, Cic. Att. 
I6y 1 & 2.; Slat. Silv. 3, 1, 148. 

NESSUS v. Nestas, Mesto, a river of 
Thrace, 345. 

NETUM v. Nectum, Noto, a town of 
Sicily, between Acrillae and ElOrum, 
on the river Phoeniens, in the south- 
east of the island, Cic. Vexr. 4, 26. 
Inh. Netjni v. Netinenses, Verr. 
5, 51, et 2, 64. It now gives name 
to Val di Nnto, one of the three modern 
divisions of Sicily. 

NICEA, Nice or Is-Nix, the capital 
of Bithynia, 591. Inh. Nicjeenses, 
Cic. Fam. 13, 61. vel Nicenses, Plin. 
Ep. 10, 48 & 49- Also the name of 
several other places. 

NIOEPHORIUM, Racca, a town of 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near 
Edessa, Tacit. Ann. 6, 41. 

NICEPHORIUS, Khabour, a river of 
Armenia, encompassing part of Tigra- 
nocerta, Tacit. Ann. 15, 4. 

NICER, Nicri, the Neckar, a river of 
Germany, which falls into the Rhine 
at Manheim, Auson. Mosell. 423. 

NICIA, Lenza, a river which separates 
the Duchy of Parma from that of 
Modena, and falls into the Po at Brix- 
ellum. 

N1COMEDIA, Is Nicmid, a principal 
town of Bithynia. 

Nicopolis, i. e. the city of victory, the 
name of many towns ; of one near 
Act'mm, 314, of another on the sinus 
IssicuSf 590, &c. 

NIGRIS v. Nigir, Niger, a large ri- 
ver of Africa, which separated Getulia 
from ^Ethiopia, Plin. 5,4/. thought 
to be the same with that which Hero- 
dotus says runs from west to east, 2, 
52 /. It does not flow into the sea, but 



is supposed to run into a great lake, 
where it is exhausted by evaporation; or, 
dividing into different channels, to be 
lost in the sandy desart, Ptolem. 4, 6. 
See Parke's Travels. — NIGRIT/E, 
those who lived near the Niger, Plin. b , 
1, 8c 8. Mel. 1, 4. 

NILUS, the Nile, the great river of 
Egypt, 670 & 673, called Septcmgemi~ 
mis, from its seven mouths, which 
number do net now exist, Virg. Mrt. 
6, 800. 5 , cp/ewp/ea?,Ovid.Met.5,.i87. 
Papyrifer, from the plant papyrus, 
whence paper was made, being produced 
on its banks, Ovid. Met. 15, 7^3. 
Tumidus rigat arva, Horat. Od. 3, 3, 
48. Stagnans effuso Jlumvne, Virg. G. 4. 
288, Dives, Juvenal. 13, 26, from its 
annually overflowing its banks, and en- 
riching the fields, Cic. Nat. D. 2, 52. 
Lagceus, from Ptolemy the son of 
Lagus, one of its kings, the first of the 
Ptolemies, Lucan. 1, 684. or Flumina 
Lagi, Sil. 17, 592. Hence Nileac* 
urbes, the Egyptian cities, Lucan. 10, 
91. NUiacuspecten, Martial. 14, 150. 
Nilolica tellus, Egypt,*. 6, 80. Nili- 
gens juvenca, the goddess. Isis ; some 
read Linigera, Ovid. Art. Am. 1, 77- 

Large canals were called N I LI, or 

Euripi, Cic. Leg. 2, l. ad Q. fr,3 f 
9.; Att. li, 12. . \ 

NINUS vel Nineve, Nino, the capital 
of the Assyrian empire, one of the 
largest cities that ever existed in the 
world, situate on the west side of the 
Tigris, see p. 598. 

Niphates mons, a mountain of Arme- 
nia, part of Taurus, put for the peo- 
ple living near it, Virg. G. 3, 3Q, 
thought to be named from its being 
covered with snow; therefore called 
Rigidus, Horat. Od. 2, 9, 20. — Also 
a river of Armenia, Lucan. 3, 245 j 
Sil. 13, 765. 

NJS/EA, the harbour of Megara, 302. 

Also a town of Parthia, now Nesa, 

Plin. 6, 26 s. 29. whence Nis&us cam- 
pus, a plain celebrated for its breed of 
horses, Strab. 11, 525. 

NISIBIS, a city in the north of Mesopo- 
tamia, towards the Tigris, Plin. 6, 13. 
adj. Nisibenus. 

NITIOBRlGES, the people of Age- 
nois in Guienne, C&s. B. G. 7> 7- 

NIVARIA, Teneriffe, one of the Ca- 
nary islands, 683. Plin. 6, 32. 

NOLA, Nola, a town of Campania, 
156. called Chalcidica, because founded, 
by a colony from Chalcji in Eubwa, 



802 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Sil. 12, 161. said to have been Pceno 
(\. e. Hannibali) non pervia, Sil. 8, 
536. because Hannibal was repulsed 
from it by Marcellus the Praetor, ib. 

12, 161. &c. Inh. Nolani: Nolanus 
Senatas Romanorum, plebs est Hanni- 
balisy Liv. 23, 14, & 39.; 24, 13. 
Nolanus ager> Liv. 23, 1 4. 

Nolanum, a villa near Nola, Cic. Alt. 

13, 8. 

MOMENTUM, Lamentana, a town of 
the Sabines, Liv. 1, 38.; et 4, 22. 
Inh. Nomentani, ib. 8, 14. Nomen- 
tana via, olim Ficulnensis, the way to 
it, ib. 3, 52. — porta, ib. 6, 2o. No- 
rn entanumpr tedium, a villa belonging to 
Atticus, near Nomentum, Nep. 25, 14. 
Nomades, a people of Arabia, who lived 
by pasturage, (a npa, pasco,) Plin.6, 
28 s. 32. and of ^Ethiopia, ib. 29 s. 
33, described by Virgil, G. 3, 343. 
and by Silius Italicus, 3, 290. — Also 
an ancient name of the Numidians, 
Plin. 5, 3. Sil. I, 215. as being mostly 
shepherds, Liv. 29, 31. Regnator No- 
madum, Sil. 16, 116. et Ducior, Ma- 
sinissa, ib. J 55. Nomadum tyr annus 
Hannibal, ib. 1 1 , 31. — Nomadum ty- 
ranni, the princes of the Numidians, 
Virg.Mn. 4, 320. Genus Nomadum, the 
people, ib. 8, 724. — used also in the 
sing. Nomas, Sil. 5, 194. et 6, 705. 
put for Numidia and fem. ; thus Mar- 
more picta Nomas, sc. regio, Numidia, 
abounding in marble, Martial. 8, 55, 8. 
NOM.ZE, a town of Sicily, Diodor. 11, 
90.; whence Nomcei viri, Sil. 14, 266 ; 
but as the situation of Noma is not 
known, some read Mencei. 
NOMOS v. -us, the name given to a 
certain extent of country in Egypt, sub- 
ject to the jurisdiction of a particular 
town, after which the Nomos was called ; 
thus, Summa pars contermina /Ethiopia 
Thebais vocatur. Dividitur in pr&- 
fecturas oppidorum duodecim, &c. Plin. 
5, 9, et 36, 13. Plin. Ep. 10, 23, 
somewhat similar to the division into 
counties among us. 
NONACRIS, a town of Arcadia, 295. 
not far from Pheneus, Herodot. 6, 74. 
near which was a remarkable fountain 
of sulphureous waters, Curt. 10, 10,16. 
whence Nonacrius heros, i. e. Evander, 
Ovid. Fast. 5, 97- Nonacrina virgo, 
i. e. Arcadica, Callisto, Id. Met. 2, 
409. ^Nonacrince Hamdryades, Arcadian 
nymphs, ib. 1, 690. 
NORA v. Neroassus, Nour, a strong 
fortress of Phrygia, Nep. Eumen. 5, 



on the confines of Lycaonia and Cap- 
padocia, Plutarch, in vitd Eumerds, 
p. 589. 

NORBA, a town of the Volsci in La- 

tium, Liv. 2, 34.; 7, 42.; 32, 2.; 
Inh. Norbani, ib. 8, 1. ; 27, 10. 
Norbanus ager, ib. 8, 19. — NORBA 
Ccesaria, Alcantara, a town of 
Lusitania, on the Tagus, in Estrema- 
dura. 

NOREIA, Goritz, a town in Camiola, 

north-west of Aquileia. 
NORlCUM, now Austria, Stiria and 
Carinthia, a country in the south of 
Germany ; remarkable for its iron and 
steel, Plin. 34, 14 s. 41. as it still is; 
hence Noricus ensis, of the best tempered 
steel, Horat. Od. l, 16, 9, So, darior 
et ferro quod Noiicus excoquit ignis, 
Ovid. Met. 14, 712. Norica provincia, 
Tacit. Ann. 2, 63. Veil. 2, 3-9. Ager 
Noricus, Caes. 1, 4. Inh. Norici ; 
Uxor Ariovisti Norica, ib. 53. 
NOTIUM, a town of Ionia, near Co- 
lophon, Liv. 37, 26. et 38, 39. 
NOViE, sc. tabernce, the new shops of 
the bankers in the Forum of Rome, 
adorned with the shields of the Cimbri, 
Cic. Horat. 2, 66, as the Veteres, sc. 
tabernce, were with the shields of the 
Samnites, Liv. 9, 40. 
NOVANTUM Chersonesus, the Mull 

of Galloway, as it is thought. 
NOVARIA, Novara, a town of Milan, 

Tacit Hist. 1, 70. 
NOVESIUM, Nuys, a town of the 
Ubii in Belgica, near Cologne, on the 
west side of the Rhine, Tacit. Hist. 
4, 26, &c. 
NOVIODONUM v. postea Nivernum, 
Nevers, a town of the JEdui, on the 
Loire in Orleanois. — Also the name of 
several other towns. 
NOVIOMAGUS v. Neomagus, postea 
Lexovii, Lizeux, a town in Nor- 
mandy ; — Noviomtigus, postea Nemetes, 
Spire, in the Palatinate, on the Rhine ; 
— Noviomagus Batavorum, Nime- 
guen, a town of Guelderland, on the 
south side of the Waal. 
NOVIUM, Noya, a town of Gallicia, 

in Spain. 
Novocomenses. See Comum. 
NUCERIA, Nocera, a town of Um- 
bria, in the duchy of Spoletto ; — — 
Another NUCERIA of Campania, 
called by way of distinction, Alfa- 
' TERNA, Liv. 9, 41.; 23, 15; Inh. 
Nucerini, ib. 27, 3, Nucerinus ager, 
b. 9, 38. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 80S 



NUITHONES, a people of Germany, 
now Mecklenburg and Pomerania, 
Tacit. G. 40. 

NUMANA, a town of Picenum ; Inh. 
Numanates. 

NUMANTIA, a warlike city of Hither 
Spain which withstood the armies of 
Rome for fourteen years, 483. hence 
termed by Horace, fera, Od. 2, 12, 1. 
Inh. Numantini ; Bellum Numan- 
tinum, Flor. 2, 17. Cic. Fam. 5, 12. 

NUMICIUS, v. Numicus, a small river 
near Lavinium in Latium, 147, Sil. 8, 
180. Fons Numicus, Virg. JEn. 7. 
150. littus, the shore near its mouth, 
ib. 797. Corniger Numicius, Ovid. 
Fast. 3, 647. 

NUMIDIA, a country of Africa, ad- 
joining to the territories of Carthage, 
682. Inh. Numidh vel Nomades ; 
termed infr&ni, Virg. Mx\. 4, 41. 
because they managed their horses with- 
out bridles, (equi sine frcenis,) Liv. 
35, 11. (gens inscia frceni,) Sil. 1, 
215. — Lapis Numidicus, marble ; Pira 
Numidiana, Plin. 15, \ 5.— ■Numidicus 
sinus, the gulf of Stora, at the mouth 
of the river Ampsaga, Pirn. 5, 3, Mel. 
1, 6. 

NUMISTRO, a town of the Bruttii, Liv. 
45, 17. 

NURSIA, Norcia, or Norza, a town 
of the Sabines, at the foot of the Ap- 
pennines ; and therefore called frioi- 
da, Virg.Mn. 7, 716, Habitata pruinis 
Nursia, Sil. 8, 418. Inh. Nursini, 
Liv. 28, 45. Nursince piles , round 
turnips, Martial. 13, 40. 

NYMPHiEUM, a sacred place near 
Apollonia in lilyricum, which emitted 
flames, 329. Liv. 42, 36. and 49. — 
also a prom, in lilyricum near Lissus ; 
and another south of mount Athos in 
Macedonia. 

NYSA vel Nissa, a town or mountain, 
where Bacchus was supposed to have 
been educated. Some place it in Ara- 
bia, some in India, and others in 
./Ethiopia, Herodot. 3, 97. Mel. 3, 7. 
Curt. 8, 10, 12. Justin. 12, 7. Diodor. 
3,64. /Seep. 382. There were a 
great many places named NYSA. 

1 From that sacred to Bacchus, he was 
called Nyseus, Ovid. Met. 4, 13. 
Hence also Juga Nyseia, the tops of 
mount Nysa, Lucan. 8, 801. Hedera 
Nysia, sacred to Bacchus, Plin. 16, 34. 
So Chori Nyscei, Propert. 3, 17, 22. 
Palmes Nysceus, a vine branch, Sil. 7, 
198. Nysceacacumina Gauri^hoxm&'mg 



in vines, Sil. 12, 160. — Nysjei, the 
inhabitants of Nysa, a town in Lydia, 
Cic. Fam. 15, 65. Nyseides v. Ny- 
siudes, the nymphs who educated Bac- 
chus, Ovid. Met. 3,314. Fast. 3, 769. 
— Silent Nysigence, born at the town, 
or on mount Nysa, Catul. 62, 252. 

O 

OASIS magna, el-Wah ; a town in the 
deserts of Libya, near which the army 
of Cambyses, sent to pillage the temple 
of Jupiter Ammon, was overwhelmed 
by a drift of sand, Herodot. 3, 26. a 
place of severe banishment under the 
lower empire, Zosim. 5, 9, 7. Codex, 
ult. leg. § 2. de pcenis. Strabo men- 
tions three places of this name, one of 
them (Onasis v. Anasis) near the tem- 
ple of Jupiter Ammon, 17, 813. 

OAXES v. -is, a rapid river of Crete, 
Virg. Eel. 2, 66. 

QBRINGA, Ahr, a river of Germany, 
which runs into the Rhine above Rim- 
rnagen, accounted the boundary of the 
Higher and Lower Germany. 

OCELLUM prom. Spurnhead, or 
Holderness in Yorkshire. 

OCRICULUM, Otricoli, a town of 
Umbria, a little below the junction of 
the Nar with the Tiber; Inh. Ocri- 
culani, Liv. 19, 41. Ocriculana 
villa, Cic. Mil. 24. 

OCRINUM v, Damnoniumprom. Land's 
End, or the Lizard Point. 

OCTODURUS, a village of the Fe- 
ragri, now Martigny, a town of 
the Valais in Switzerland, Cces. B. G, 
3. 1. 

OCTOGESA, Mequinensa, a town of 
the Ilergctce in Arragon, near the 
confluence of the Ebro and Segra, Cces, 
Civ. B. 1, 61. 

ODESSUS, supposed to be Varna, a 
sea-port town of Mcesia Inferior, on the 
Euxine sea. 

ODEUM, the musical theatre at Athens, 
Vitruv. 5, 9. 

ODOMANT1CE, a district of Macedo- 
nia, Liv. 45,4. 

ODRYSiE, a people of Thrace, 351. 
Liv. -3Q, 53. whence Odrysia tellus, 
the country of Thrace, Sil. 4, 433. 
Odrysius rex, the king of Thrace, Ovid. 
Met. 6, 490. Dux, i. e. Rhesus, 
Art. Am. 2, 134. Odrysium carmen, 
the poetry of Orpheus who was aThra- 
cian, Val.Flacc. 5, 594. Odrysia hasta* 
the spear of Mars, who was worshipped 



804 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



in Thrace, Stat. AchiL l, 184. Odry 
sius Boreas, Sil. 7, 570. 

OD YSSEUM prom, a promontory of Si- 
cily, near Parhynus, 263. 

OEA vel CE'ensis civitas, Tripoli, a 
city of Africa Propria, Plin. 5, 4.; 

Sil. 3, 5257. Also an inland place 

in the island of ^Egina, Herodot. 5, 
83. 

OEAGRUS v. -os, one of the sources 
of <he river Hebrus in Tlirace, named 
from Oeagrus, a king of the country, 
the father of the poets Orpheus and 
Linus, ApoUodor. 1, 3, 2. whence the 
river Hebrus is called Oeagrius, 
Vir.%. G. 4, 524; et ibi Serv. So 
mount Hasmus, Ovid. Met. 2, 219. — 
Oeagrii nervi, the strings of the lvre, 
Sil. 5, 463. 

OEBAI.IA, the country of Lacedsemon 
or Laamica, named from Ot.bS.luS; one 
of its kings, 411. Wherce Oebalium 
littus, the shore of Laconia, Stat. Achil. 

I, 20. Gebalite turres, the towers of 
Tarentum, as having been peopled by 
a colony from Sparta, Virg. G. 4, 125, 
Oehalii nepotes, its inhabitants, Sil. 12. 
451. 

OECHALIA, a town of Eubcea, the 
residence of Eurytus, destroyed by Her- 
cules, Slrab. 10, 448; Virg. Mn. 8, 
291.; Ovid. Met. 9, 136. Some placed 
It in Thessaly, some in Arcadia, Strab. 
9, 438. and others in Messenia, ib. 8, 
350. But there were several towns of 
this name, ib. 8. 339. 

OENJ ADE, atown of Acarnania, Liv. 26, 
24.; et 38, 11. 

OENoE, a town on the confines of 

. Attica and Beeotia, Herodot. 5, 74. 
but it did not exist in the time of Pliny, 
4, 7. 

OENONE, an ancient name of the island 
jEgina, Herodot. 8, 46. called also 
Oenopia, Ovid. Met. 7, 472. whence 
Muri Oenopii, the walls of the city 
,/Egina, ib. 490.— Also a town or dis- 
trict of Troas; whence the nymph 
Oendne, beloved by Paris, Strab. 13. 
597-; Ovid. Ep.5, Rem. Am. 457. 

OENOTRIA, the part of Italy after- 
wards called Lucania, named from 
Oenotrus, an Arcadian, the son of 
Lycaon, who possessed it, Dionys. 1, 

II. ; Pausan. Arcad. 3. afterwards put 
for the whole country ; hence Oenotria 
iellus, Italy, Virg.Mn. 7, 85. Oeno- 
tria pubes, Sil. 12. 650. Oenotriiviri t 
Italians, Virg. JEn. 3, 165. — An 
Hexameter vers* does not admit OenotrU, 



'it/, or Qendlriis, the o being always 

long. See Sil. 8, 221.; 9, 473.; 13, 

5. ; et ibi Drakenborch. 
OenotrIdes Insula, two small islands 

Pontia and Iscia, over against Velia, in 

Lucania, 172. 
OENUS, -witis, in. a river of Laconica, 

Liv. 34, 28. 
OENUSSA, an island uear Chios, Plin. 5. 

31. Thucydides speaks of more than 
.one island, 8, 24. — There are also 

three small islands, called Oenussce, in 

the gulf of Messene, Plin. 4, 12. 
OERoE, an island formed by the river 

Asopus, near the foot of mount Ci- 

thaeton, Herodot. 9, 50. 
OETA, Banina, a chain of mountains, 

extending from Thermopyke and the 

Maliac gulf, westwards to mount Pin- 

dus, and from thence to the Ambra- 

cian gulf; hence Saltus Oeteeus, Mel. 

2, 3, 24. Oelcea juga, Propert. 1. 

13, 24. OelcBce Thermophylce, Catul. 

66, 54. 

OGLOSA, Monte ChristcV, an island 
in the Tuscan sea, to the east of Cor- 
sica, near the island Planaria, Plin. 3, 
6 s. 12. celebrated for its wine. 

OGYGIA, the island of Calypso in the 
Scylacean gulf, 179. Mela calls the 
island of Calypso jEjeje, and place* 
it in the Fretum Siculum, 2, 7 . Ogygia 
was also the name of one of the gates 
of Thebes in Beeotia, from Ogyges 
its first king; whence Ogygvus, -a, -um t 
Theban, 427. ; Lucan. l. 675. 

OLASTRiE, a people of India, Plin. 6, 
20. ; Lucan. 3, 249. 

OLBIA, a town of Sardinia, Cic. ad Q. 
fr. 2, 7. Inh. Olbienses. Olbiensis, 
sc. epistola, written at Olbia, ib. 2, 3. 
Olbiensis ager, Liv. 27, 6. — Also a 
town of Sarmatia, at the conflux of 
the Hypanis and Borysthenes, Strab. 
7, 306. called likewise Olbiopolis, Plin* 
4, 12 s. 26. now Oczakow. There 
were several towns in different countries 
called Olbia. 

OLCADES, a people of Hither Spain, 
Liv. 21,5. 

OLCINIUM v. Olxinium, Dulciono, 
a town of Ulyricum, now Albania, on 
the Hadriatic, Liv. 45, 26. Inh. Olci- 
niata, ib. 

OLENUS, Caminitza, a town of Achaia, 
on the river Pirus, Pausan. 7, 22. 

OLEORUS v. -os, Anti-Paro, one of 
the Cyclades, 338. 

OLlSIPO, Lisbon, the capital of Por- 
tugal, on the north bank of th« Tagui, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



80.5 



about ten miles from its mouth, sur- 
naraed Felicitas Julia, Plin. 4, as. 
Mela calls it Ulyssippo, Mel. 3, 1. and 
Solinus says it was built by Ulysses, c. 

23. . . , . . 

OLLIUS, OguO, a river which rises in 
the Rhaetian Alps, and, passing through 
the lacus Sebinus, or lake of Isco, falls 
into the Po, Plin. 2, 103 ; et 3, 19. 

OLOPHYXUS, a city on Mount Athos, 
327. Herodot. 7, 22. 

OLOOSSON, Alessone, a town of Mag- 
nesia in Thessaly. _ 

OLPiE, Forte Castri, a citadel ot Jj.pi- 
rus. 

OLU3, OZwiiw, f- a town of Crete, on 

the west side. 
OLYMPIA, surnamed Pisdtis, -zdis, a 

town of Elis in Peloponnesus, on the 

- river Alpheus, where the Olympic 
games were celebrated, 281, hence V ic- 
tor Olympia, victorious at the Olympic 
games, Nep. Pr«J. Cormari Olymjna, 
sc. 6b certamina, Horat. Ep. 1, 1, 50. 
Plagas Olympiorum ferre, Cic. Br. 69, 
Olympiorum victoiia, Cic. Tusc. 1,17, 
&20. Olympiaca pal astro, Lucan. 4, 
614. Olympiaam certamen et victoria, 
Cic. Att. 16, 7. Cursus, ad Heren. 4, 
q. Palma Oiympiaca prarnm, Virg. 
G. 3, 49. Putins Otympicus, the dust 
raised in the course, Horat. Od. 1, 1, 
3. Olympionices, -a, v. -cms, a 
conqueror at the games, Cic. Invent. 2, 
49.; Flac. 13. — Olympii Jovis Jfanum, 
the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, Cic. 
N. D. 3, 34. Olympian, -adis, f. the 
space of four years, which intervened 
between the celebration of the games, 

- an Olympiad, Cic. Att. 13, 30.; 
Olympian quinquennis 
or the space of five years, 
vened between making a census, or re- 
view of the Roman people, Ovid. Pont. 
4,6,5. 

OLYMPUS, Lacha, a lofty mountain, 
or chain of mountains, on the confines 
of Thessaly and Macedonia, 319. put 
by the poets for heaven, Varr.L. L.6, 
1. thus Rector Olympi, i. e. Jupiter, 
Ovid. Met. 2. 60.; et 9, 498.; Lucan. 
5, 62o, Superi regnator Olympic Virg. 
Em. 2, 7 7 9. Affectare viam Olympn, 
1. e. ad coelos, Id. G. 4, .562. Discedit 
emenso Phoebus Olympo, the sun sets, 
ib. 1, 450. Pulsare Olympum nomine, 
to raise his fame to the skies, Lucan. ad 
Pison. 219. — There were several moun- 
tains of this name in different coun- 
tries; one in Galatia, Liv. 38, 18. 



i. e. a lustrum, 
which inter- 



&c. another in Pamphylia or Lycia, 
with a cognominal town ; whence 
Olympeni, Cic. Rid. 1, 2. ; et 2, 19° 
another in Mysia, Herodot,. 7, 74. ano- 
ther in Cyprus, now Santa Croce, 
$ic. 

OLYNTHUS, a town of Macedonia, 
326. Olynthiaca; orationes, the ora- 
tions of Demosthenes to excite the Athe- 
nians to assist the people of Olynthus 
against Philip. 
OMBJ, a town of the Higher Egypt, 
where crocodiles were worshipped, 668. 
Onochonus, a river of Thessaly, Hero- 
dot. 7, 129. & 196. 
OPHIS, a small river of Arcadia, falling 

into the Alpheus. 
OPHIUSA, Formentera, an island lying 
to the east of the mouth of the river 
Sucroin Spain ; also the name of other 
places. 

Ophrynium, a town of Troas, on the 
Hellespont, near which was the grove 
of Hector, Strab. 13, 495. 
OPINUM, Opini, a town in Corsica. 
OPIS, a town on the Tigris, near Baby- 
lon, afterwards called Antiochia, Xeno- 
phon. Cyr. Exp. 2, 4. 
OPITERGIUM, Oderso, a town in the 
territory of Venice ; Inh. Opitergini, 
Lucan. 4, 462. 
OPUS, -untis, f. a town of Locris in 
Greece, 310. ; Liv. 28, 7. ; et 32, 32.; 
Inh. Opuntii vel Opuntini, Id. 28, 6. 
hence Opuntia Megilla, Horat. Od. 1, 
27,10. 

ORBIS vel Orbis ten arum, f. terra, the 
globe of the earth, the world, see p. 

3. ; Plin. pr. 3.; Cic. N. D. 2, 66, 
Caput orbis Roma, Ovid. Fast. 5, 93. 
Orbi toto quit pr&sidet urbs, Propert. 3, 
11,57. Orbis Edits, the eastern part 
of the earth, ib. 3, 466. et 5, 557. 
Oriens, -tis. m. vel Pars mundi orien- 
talis. — — Orbis Hesperius, Ovid. Met. 

4, 662. vel Occiduus, Lucan. 4, 63. 
Occidens, -tis, m. vel Pars mundi Occi- 
dental, the West. Qui terras ab ori- 
ente ad occidentem colunt, Cic. N. D. 2, 
66. Ab ortu ad occasum, sc. solis, Ovid. 
Trist. 4, 9,21. Occasus et ortus, Id. 

Met. 1, 354. Orbis Germanics, 

Germany, Ovid, ad Liv. 391. Scy- 
thian, Scythia, Trist. 3, 12, 51. Ex- 
tremum Scylhici transcendam ffigoris 
orbem, Ardent esque plagas, i. e. partem 
orbis sepientrionalem et australem, Lu- 
can. 6, 325. Oibis Romanics, the Ro- 
man World or Empire, ib. 8, 212, 441. ; 
et 10, 456. Gelidus orbis, the frigid 

3 F 3 



S06 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



zone, ib. 9, 704. Arcanus, unknown, 
864. Nosier orlis, our part of the 
world, Tacit. G.I. ultimas ve\ extremus, 
Ovid. Trist. 1, I,l27.e£ 2, 50. peregri- 
nus, Met. 1, 94. remotus, ad Liv. 387- 

ORBITANIUM, a town of Samnium in 
Italy, Liv. 24, 20. 

ORCADES, the Orkney islands ; Orcas 
prom. Dungsby Head, the most north- 
ern point of Scotland, Mel. 3, 6. 

ORCUS, the infernal regions, Virg. G. 
4, 502. Mn. 2, 398.; 4, 242.; 6, 
273.; 8, 296.; Horat. Od. 3, 4, 7 5. ; 
tt 11, 29. Properly a name of Pluto, 
Cic. Verr. 4, 50. Nat. D.3, 17. ; ftf^. 
G. l, 277. 4, 699. ; Horat. Od. 

2, 3, 24. Orci satelles, Charon, ib. 2, 
18, 34. 

ORCHOMENOS, a city of Bceotia, 305. 
Inh. Orchomenii. — Also a town or Ar- 
cadia, Homer. II. 2, 605. 

ORDOVICES, the people of North 
Wales, Tacit. Annal. 12, 33. 

ORESTiE, a people of Macedonia, Liv. 
33, 34. and of Epire, Id. 42, 38. 

ORESTIA, a town of the Orestes in Epi- 
rus, the birth-place of Ptolemy the first 
of that name, king of Egypt. 

ORETANI, a people of Spain, supposed 
to be those of Lamancha in New Cas- 
tile, Liv. 21, 1 1. ; et35,7- their capi- 
tal ORETUM, Oreto. 

OREUM v. -eas, a town of Eubcea, Liv. 
28,6. ; et 33, 34.; Inh. Oretani,. ib. 
28, 8. 

ORlCUM v. -05, a town of Epire, 318. 
called Dardania Oncos, as having been 
subject to Helenus, the son of Priam, 
after the destruction of Troy, Lucan. 

3, 187. ; Inh. Oriclni, Liv. 26, 25. 
OROANDA, Haviran, a town of Pisi- 

dia ; Inh. Oroandenses, Liv. 38, 18. 
OROBII, a people of Italy, in the north 
of Milan. 

ORONTES, Asi, a river of Syria, 594. 
& 628. 

OROPUS, a town on the confines of Bceo- 
tia and Attica, near the Euripus, 301 .; 
Liv. 45, 27.; Inh. Oropii. 

OROSPEDA, a mountain of Spain, near 
the sources of the Baetis, Strab. 3, 161. 

ORTONA, a town of Latium, Liv. 2, 
43. and of the Frentani, p. 158. 

ORTHOSIA, a town of Caria, Liv. 45, 
25. and of Phoenicia, Plin. 5, 20. 

Ortopla v. Ortopola, a town of Liburnia, 
on the Adriatic. 

ORTYGIA, a part of Syracuse, 260. 
Also a name of the island Delos, 336. 
whence Dea Ortygia, Diana, Ovid, 



Met. 1, 694. Ortygiee loves, the cows 

which Mercury stole from Apollo, Id, 

Fast. 5, 692. 
OSCA, Huesca, a town of the Ilergeles, 

in x^rragon of Spain : whence Oscense 

Argentum, Liv. 34, 10. et 46, 40, 43. 
OSCELA, Domo d'Osula, a town of the 

Lepontii in the Milanese, at the foot of 

the Alps. 

OSCI, an ancient people on the confines 
of Latium and Campania, Liv. 7» 2, 
whence Osca lingua, Liv. 10, 20. Osci 
ludi, plays in the Oscan language, Cic. 
Fam. 7, 1. Oscum ludicrum, Tacit. 
Ann. 4, 14. which continued to be un- 
derstood at Rome, after that nation was 
extinct, Strab. 5, 233. And as these 
plays were filled with indecent raillery ; 
hence immodest words were called Ob- 
scena, Festus, (quasi Oscena) to 
which Horace seems to allude, Sat. 1, 
5, 54. 

OSI, a people of Germany, Tacit. G. 28. 
& 43. 

OSISMII, a people of Gaul in Brittany, 

Cces. B. G. 2, 34. 
Osphagus, a river of Macedonia, Liv. 31, 

39. 

OSSA, a mountain of Thessaly, 319. the 
abode of the Centaurs ; hence called 
Ossx,i bimembres, Stat. Theb. 12, 554. 
— Ossea ursa, Ovid. Met. 12, 319. 
saxa, Virg. Cir. 33. 

Osteodes, an island to the west of the 
Li pari islands, 276. 

OSTIA, Ostia, a town at the mouth of 
the Tiber, anciently the port of Rome, 
147. hence Ostiensis ager, Liv. 8, 12. 
Populus, 27, 3 8. Ostiensis portus, 
Suet. CI. 20. porta, the gate of Rome, 
through which the road passed which 
led to Ostia, now Porta di S. Paullo. 
— Ostienses salines, salt-pits around Os- 
tia, Liv. 1, 33. Ostienses provincia, 
the charge of a Quaestor at Ostia, Cic. 
Mur. 8. Ostiense incommodum, the 
disaster received at Ostia, when the Ro- 
man fleet was there taken and sunk by 
the pirates. Id. Monil. 12. 

OSTRACINE, the frontier town of Egypt 
towards Palestine, Plin. 5, 12. 

OTHRUS, a mountain of Thessaly, the 
abode of the Lapithae, 322. Lucan. 6, 
338. hence Otkrysies pruinee, Martial. 
10, 7. 

OXUS, Gihon, a large river of Asia, 
which anciently ran into the east end of 
the Caspian sea, 585. ; Plin. 6, 16. 

OXYDRACE, a people of India, Curt. 
9, 9. et 14. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



807 



OZ6LM Locri, a people of Locris 
Greece, 310. 



Pachynus v. -um, Cape Passako, the 
south-east promontory of Sicily, 263. 

Pactolus, a river of Lydia, 588 Vxrg. 
Mn. 10, U2. anciently called Chry- 
sorrhoas, from its rolling down gokl 
sand, Plutarch, de Fluvus. Lucan. 3, 

PACTYAS v. -es, -a, m. a mountain 

P tfELt, near Ephesus, ^14 636. 

PACTYE, a town in the Inraciau 
Chersonese, 348. 

PADINUM, Bondeno, a town on tne 
Po ; about nine miles west of Ferrara, 
Plin.3, 15. • ■ . .-. . . 

PADUA, a town named from its vicinity 
"to the Po, CatulL 92, 7. See Pato- 

PADUS, the Po, the largest river of 
Italy, 134. said to have been named 
from the number of poplar trees which 
grew on its banks, called by the Gauls 
Padi, Pi™- 3, 16- lt discharged it- 
self into the Hadriatic by seven mouths, 
which the natives called the seven seas, 
ib et Herodian. 8, 7- Two were na- 
tural, Plana vel Volana. and Padusa ; 
the other five factitious, Polyb. 2, 1.6. 
The most southern mouth was called 
Padusa, from which there was a cut 
to Ravenna, PUn. ib. et Virg. Mn. 11, 

457. . . 

PIEMAN I, a people of Gaul, as it is 
thought, in the west of Luxemburg, 
CaSS. 2,4. 

PjEONIA, a district of Macedonia, 325. 
Intl. Phones, Liu. 42, 51.; 45, 29. 
said to have been named from P<son, 
the son of Endvmion, who settled there. 

; But the "adj. PiEOMUS comes 

from Pcson, a famous physician men- 
tioned by Homer, If. 5, 899-; thus, 
Paomi fontes, medicinal springs, ML 
14 27. so, PceonicB herbx, healing 
herbs, Virg. Mn. 7, 769, Pxonhtm 
inmorem, like a physician, ib. 12, 401. 
Ope Paonia, by medical assistance, 
Ovid. Met. 15, 535. 
PiESTUM vel Posidonia, a town of Lu- 
cania on the Sinus P<cstanus, the gulf 
of Salerno, 17 2. celebrated for its 
roses (Rosa Paslana), Ovid. Pont. 2, 
4, 28, which were produced there twice 
. a year, in May and September; whence 
Biferi rosaria P&sti, Virg. G. 4, 1.19. 



PAG.E, a town of Megaris, 302. and 
of Locris, Plin. 4, 3. Inh. Paged, ib. 7. 

Pagasa v. -<€, a town of Thessaly; 
near which the ship Argo was built; 
hence called Pagasaa ratis, Lucan. 2, 
7 15, on the Sinus Pagasaus v. Pagasi- 
cus, 321.; Lucan. 6, 400. Pagasm 
conjux, Alcestts, who died for her hus- 
band Admetus, Ovid. Art. 3, 19.; 
Juvenal. 6, 651. Pliny confounds 
Pagasa with Demetrias, 4, 8. 

PAGtLE a town of Pleria, a district of 
Syria, on the confines of Cilicia, Strab. 
16, 751. 

PALiE v, Palla, St, Bonifacio, a town 
of Corsica, on the strait which sepa- 
rates Corsica from Sardinia. 
PALiEPAPHOS, the old town of Pa- 
phos in Cyprus, adjoining to the new, 
called Neapaphes, Strab. 14, 683. 
Palspharsalus, the old town of I har- 
salus in Thessaly, Liv>) 44, 1.; Cas. 
B. Alex. 48. 
Paljepolis, i. e. the old town m Cam- 
pania, near the place where Neapolis, 
Naples, or the new town, afterwards 
stood, Liv. 8, 22. ; Inh. PaUpolitani, 
Liv. 22, 25. . _ . 

Paueste, a place near Oricum m Epire, 
where Caesar first landed with his fleet, 
318. hence Arena PaUstina, Lucan. 
5, 460. Palestine Dex, the Furies, 
Ovid. Fast. 4, 236. 
PAL.ESTINA, Palestine, or the Holy 
Land, 594. ; Inh. PaUsiini, whence 
PaUstina gens, the Jewish nation, 
Sil. 3, 606. Liquores PaUstini, i. e, 
Balsamum, balm, Stat. Silv. 5, 1, 211. 
Aqua PaUstina, the Euphrates, Ovid. 
Fast. 2, 464. 
PAL^ETtRUS, the ancient city TYRE, 
which stood on the continent, Strab. 
16, 758. 

Pallanteum, a city of Arcadia, the 
native place of Evander, 3 80, & 285. 
who after his arrival in Italy, built a 
small town on a mount near the Tiber, 
which he called PALATIUM, Pallan- 
tium, or Pallanteum, Virg. Mn. 8, 54, 
& 341. whence Mcenia Pallantea, ib. 9, 
196. and the name of the mountain. 
PALATINUS mons, mount Palatine, 
the hill of Rome, on which Romulus 
first built, Liv. 1, 7- also called PA- 
LATIUM, Liv. 1, 33. or Collis Pal- 
latiiox Palatii, Ovid. Met. 14, 822. ; 
hence Palalinus Apollo, Apollo, to 
whom Augustus built a temple on 
mount Palatine, to which he annexed a 
library, Horat. Bp. 1, 3, 17- H* 
J 3 F 4 



SOS GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



seems, however, only to have rebuilt 
it; for there was a temple of Apollo 
there before, which Lucan calls Phot- 
lea Pa> alia, 3, 103. PaLatini seeks 

Evandri, the house of Evander on this 
mount, Virg. JEn. 9, 9. where also 
Romulus 3nd afterwards Augustus, 
resided ; hence Palatium, a palace, or 
any house of the Emperor's, in what- 
ever place, Dio, 53, 16. Palatines 
aves, the vultures which appeared to 
Romulus on the Palatine mount, Ovid. 
Fast. 5,15-2. 
PALI BOTH RA, a celebrated city of 
India, the capital of the Prasii, Strab. 
15, 690. now Patna, as it is thought, 
or Allahabad, see p. 636, 639, & 
641. 

PALICA, Occhiola, a town of Sicily, be- 
tween the Campi Leontini and Mence ; 
near it were sulphureous springs, re- 
markable for* throwing up their waters 
into the air, an<l receiving them again 
without overflowing. By these waters 
the natives swore in their most solemn 
oaths. Adjoining was a temple of the 
Pali ci, indigenous divinities, who 
were supposed to punish perjury, Diodor. 
II, 87, & 88.; SI. 14, 219. ; Macrob. 
Sat. 5, 19.; Virg. JEn. 9, 585.; 
Ovid. Met. 5, 406. 

PALINURI prom, cape Palinuro in 
Luca: da, 173. Siculd Palimirus undo., 
in the south part of the Tuscan sea, not 
far»from Sicily, Horat. Od.S, 4, 28. 

PAL1URUS, Nahil, a river of Mar- 
marica in Africa, and near its mouth a 
eognominal town. Strab. 17, 838. 

PALLANTIA, Palencia, a town of 
the Vaccaei in Leon, on the river Cea, 
Mel. 2, 6. 

PALLENE, a triangular peninsula of 
Macedonia, with a eognominal town, 
326.; Liv. 31, 45.; 45, 30. hence 
Pallene?isis oger, ib. 44, 11. the 
Country of Proteus, Virg. G. 4, 390. 
and of the giants ; hence Triumphi 
Pallencei, the triumphs of Apollo over 
them, Slat. Silv. 4, 2, 56. Pallenvisis 

isthmus, Piin. 4. 1 0. Also a burrow 

in Attica, Herodol. 1, 62. A town 

in Aehaia Propria, and in Arcadia, 
called likewise Pellene, Strab. 9, 385. 

PALLENSES, a people of the island 

Ophalenia, Liv. 38, 28 their city 

Pal a or Pal<sa, Pulyb. 5, 3.; Pausan. 
6, 15. 

PALMARIA,Palmarola, a small island, 
over against Tairacina in Latimn, 
Win. 3, 6, 



PALMTRA, Tadmor, a city in the 
deserts of Syria, 594.; Plm. 6, 2S s, 
30. hence Pulmyrena, sc. regio, et Pal' 
myrence solitudmes , ib. 

PALUMBINUM, a town of Samnium, 
Liv, 10, 45. 

Palus M^otis, the sea of Asopb. 
See M/eotis. 

PAMISUS, a river of Thessaly, Herodol. 
7, 120. ; Plin. 4, 8. 

PAMPHYLIA v. -ifio, a conntry of 
Asia Minor, 589. ; Inh. Pamphylii, 
Liv. 37, 40. et Pamphpli, ib. 44, 14. 
Pamphylium mare, Plin. 5, 27 •; Nep* 
22, 8. Pamphy Hits simts, Liv. 37, 
23. 

PaN(Etolium, an assembly of the Mto- 

lians, Liv. 31, 29, et. 35, 32. 
PANCHAIA, a part, as it is thought, 
of Arabia Felix, fertile in frankincense, 
Virg. G. 2, I3g. ; Culex. 87. Hence 
Panchcei odores, Arabian perfumes, 
Lucret. 2, 417. ignes, the burning of 
incense, Virg. G. 4, 379. Panchaica 
tellus, Arabia, Ovid. Met. 10, 309 —- 
Panchcei Ophiophagi, a people inhabit- 
ing the deserts of Lybia, Mel. 3, 9. 
PANDATARIA v. -leria, Sta-Maria, 
an island in the Tuscan sea, on the 
coast of Lucania, 173. 
PANDOSIA, a town of the Bruttii, 173 . 

and of Epire, Plin. 4, 1. 
PANGjEUS, plur. -cea, -orum, a moun- 
tain of Thrace, 345. Pangcea nivosis 
cana jugis, Lucan. 1, 679. Pang&a 
saxa, ib. 7, 482. Pangcea Jlumbia, 
the streams which flow from it, Ovid. 
Fast. 3, 739. 
PAN IONIUM, a sacred place at the 
foot of mount Mycale, where the 
deputies of the 12 cities of Ionia 
(«arav laviev) assembled, Herodot. 1, 148 ; 
Strab. 14, 639. 
PANNONIA, Hungary, 575. Inh. 
Pannonii, Ovid, ad Liv. 390. sing. 
Pannovius, Lucan. 3, 95. Pannonius 
ferox, Stat. Silv. 1, 4, 78. fallax, 
Tibull. 4, 1,109. Pannonicum bellum, 
Suet. Aug. 20. Pannonis vrsa, -Uis, 
an Hungarian bear, Lucan. 6, 220. 
PANOdPE, Panopeus v. Phayioteus,\. Pha- 
notea, a town of Phocis. Ovid. Met. 3, 
19.; Stat. Theb. 7, 344.; Liv. 32, 
18.: Homer. 11. 2, 27.,* Odyss. 11, 
580. ; Pausan. 10, 4. 
Panopolis, a town of Mysla on the 
Hellespont, Liv. 32, 33. and of the 
Higher Egypt, Herodot. 2, 91. whence 
the district was called Nnmos Panopo- 
lites, Plin. 5, 9. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



809 



PANORMUS, Palermo, the present 
capital of Sicily, 270.; Inh. Panormi- 
tani. Hence Porius Panornatanus, 
the,harbour. — Also the na ne of se- 
veral other places. 

PANOTII, v. Fanessi,2L people cfScythia 
with very large ears, Plin. 4, 13 s. 27. ; 
lsidnr. 11,2. 

PANTAGIAS, v. -ies, -<e, Porcabi, a 
river of Sicily, 259. 

PANTANUS locus, the lake of Lesina 
in Apulia, near the mouth of the river 
Frento, Plin. 3, 12. 

Panth2on, a temple at Rome, of Jupi- 
ter, and all the gods ; whence its name, 
Plin. 36, !5, — 34, 3, et 9, 35. 

PANTICAPjEUM, Kerche, a town of 
the Chersonesas Taunca, on the Cim- 
merian B"Sphfirus, 3 54. 

Panticapes, supposed to be the Samara, 
a river of Scythia, which joins the Bo- 
xysihenes above Porowis. Herudotus 
saYS ntar the sea, 4, 54. 

PANYASUS, a river of Illyrieum, 
which runs into the Hadriatic near Dy- 
racchium. 330. 

PAPHLAGOMA, Penderachia, a 
country of Asia Minor, 591- Cic Rull. 
2, 2, & 19. Inh- Haphlagones, 
Curt. 6, 11, 4. sing. Paphlagon, Nep. 
14, 2. 

PAPHOS, Bafo or Bafa, a city of 
Cyprus, 592. where Venus was wor- 
shipped, Plin. 2, 96. ; Firg. JEn. 10, 
86. whence she was called Paphia 
Venus, Tacit. Ann. 3, 62. ; Hist. 2, 2. 
Regina Paphi, Horat. Od. 1 , 30, I . 
and the myrtle trees sacred to her, 
Myrti Paphice, Ovid. Art. Am. 3. 
181. 

ParadTsus, a town of Sjria in La- 
odicene, rear the source of the Oron- 
tes, P'in 5, 23.J Strab. 16, 7 56. 
There was in the plain of Jericho a 
palace, and adjoining to it a delight- 
ful garden planted thick with aromatic 
shrubs, called Balsami Paradisus, 
ib. 763. 

PAR.ETACE vel Par<etuceni, a people 
of Persia, on the confines of Me.iia, 
Nep. 18, 8.: Strab. 11. 524. their 
country, Pnr&tatcne, extended to the 
Porlce C spice, ib. 16, 744. or beyond 
th«m. Pirn. 6, 26. Herodotus places 
them in Media, 1, 10: . 

PAR/ETONIUM v. Ammonia, a fron- 
tier town of Egypt towards Marma- 
rica or Cyrenaic-a, with a large har- 
bour, Strab. 17, 798.; F/or. 4, 11. 
where Isi3 was worshipped, Ovid. Met. 



9, 772.; Amor 2, 13, 7« whence 
Parcetonius ior Egyptius ; thus ; Parae* 
tonius Nih/s, S:at. Theb. 5, 12. Rares 
Parcetonice, Ovid. Art. .-mo. 3, 390. 
Parcelonm urbs, Alexandria, so called 
from its vicinity, Liu an. 10, 9 Parce- 
tovics Syrtes, two bays on the African 
coast, dangerous" for shipping by their 
shallows and eddies, a great way to 
the north of Paraetonium, Lucan. 3, 
295. Parcethonius serpens, Sil. l/ 3 
450. 

PARENTIUM, Parenzo, a port town 

of Istria, Plin. 3, 19. 
PAR'SII, the people of the Isle of 

France, Cces. G. 6, 3 . Parisiorum civi<- 

tas, Paris. See Lutetia. 
PARiUM, Camanar, a town of 

Mvsia on the Propontis, Plin. 7, 2, 

e<36, 5. 

PARMA, Parma, a city of Gallia Cis- 
padana in Italy, 135. Liv. 39, 45, 
celebrated for its wool, Martial. 5, 13, 
8, et 2. 43. 4. next to Apulia, ib. 14, 
155. as it is now for its cheese; Inh„ 
Parmevses, Cic. Phil. 14, 3. vel 
Parmani, Vnrr. L. L. 7, 31. Cassius 
Parmensis, Horat. Ep. 1, 4, 3. 

PARNASSUS vel Parnasus, a mountain 
of Phocis "near Delphi, 30*>. Liv. 42, 
16.; Ovid Mel. 1,317-; Lucan. 5, 
71. calle! Biceps, because it had two 
remarkable sumrnics, Ovid. Met, 2. 
221.; Si I. 15. 311. Tithoreus and 
H-ampeus, Lucan. ib. et 3, 173. 
called also Cm ha and - vsa, see p. 382. 
hc ce Parnasia rupes, Virg* E(d. 6, 29, 
laurus, G.2. 18. templa, the temple of 
D Iphi, at the foot of it, Ovid. Met. 
5, 278. Laurits Parnassis, -tdis, Ovid. 
Mpi 11, 165. 

PA»<NE>, -etis, m. a mountain of At- 
tica, fertile in vi'ies, Slat. Theb. 12, 
620. 

PAROPAM1SUS, the Stony Girdle, 

or Indian Caucasus, an extensive ridge 

o' lofty m uniains, in the north of In- 

da. 645. Strab. 15, 723. 
PAROPUS," Colisano, a town on the 

north side of Sicily, Polyb. 1, 24. Inh, 

Paropini, Pim. 3, 8. 
Pakor/ea. a .list riot between Macedonia, 

and Epire ; Inh. Paror/Ei, Strab. 7, 

325. 

Paroreia, a district of Thrace, near 
mount Haemus or Rhodupe, L'w. 39, 
27, et 42, 51. — Paroreion v. -os, a 
district of Phrygia Magna, near the 
moutnains, as the term denotes, Strab* 
12, 576. 



810 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



FAROS, one of the Cyclades, in the 
Egean sea, 3-38. Ink. Parii, Nep. 1, 
7- Parius lapis, Parian marble, the 
whitest in the world, Plin. 36, 17. 
Virg.JEn. 1, 593. G. 3. 34. Parium 
marmor, Horat. Od. 1, 19, 6. Pa- 
ria?za civitas, Cic. Fam. 13, 53. 

Parrhasia, a town, and Parrhasius, 
a mountain of Arcadia ; Inh. Par- 
rhasii, 285. ; whence Parrhasio more, 
in the Arcadian manner, Virg. Mn. 

8, 344. Parrhasia dea, Carmenta, 
the mother of Evander, Ovid. Fait. 
1, 618. Parrhasia, sc. terra vel re- 
gio, Arcadia ; Parrhasis, -idis, the 
Arcadian nymph, Calisto or Helice, 
Ovid. Met. 2. 460. vel Parrhasia 
virgo, Trist. 2, 190. feigned by the 
poets to have been converted into the 
constellation nained Ursa Major ; hence 
called Parrhasis Helice, Lucan. 2. 237. 
Parrhasides slell<z, Calisto and her son 
Areas, when converted into two con- 
stellations, the Ursa Major and Bootes, 
Id. Fast. 4, 577. 

PARTHENIA, the ancient name of the 
island Samos. Plin. 5, 31. 

PARTHENIUS, a mountain of Arcadia, 
285. hence Parthenii campi, the Ar- 
cadian plains, ih. ; valles, Ovid. Ep. 

9, 49, but Parthenii saltus, the forests 
of the mountain, Virg. Eel. 10, 57-— 
Also a river of Bithynia and Paphla- 
gonia, Plin. 6,2. and of the Regio Tau- 
rica, called Rapax, Ovid. Pont. 4, 10, 
49. 

Parthen6n, the temple of Minerva, in 
Athens, 300. 

PARTHENIUM, a town and prom, in 
the south-west side of the Chersonesus 
Taurica, Mel. 2, l. 

Parthenope, the ancient name of 
Naples, 153. frequently used by the 
poets, Sil. 12, 28. derived from one of 
the Sirens, ih. 33. hence Parthhwpeia 
mcenia, the walls of Naples, Ovid. Met. 
14, 106. 

PARTHIA vel Parthene, originally an 
inconsiderable country to the east of 
Media ; (Exigua provincia Pellce, a 
small province of the Persian empire, 
conquered by Alexander, Lucan. 10, 
53.) but after the conquests of AR- 
SACES, who revolted from the suc- 
cessors of Alexander, B. C. 230. it 
became the most powerful empire of 
the east, and the rival of Rome ; com- 
prehending, between the Caspian and 
Arabian seas, eighteen kingdoms, Plin. 
6, 25. Curt. 6, 2. InhT PARTHI, 



denoting in the Scythian language, 
Exules, exiles, Justin. 41. 1. called 
Feroces, Horat. Od, 3, 2, 3. They 
fought on horseback, and were particu- 
larly for, ridable by their dexterity in 
discharging arrows, while they pretendc " 
to Hy,(missa post terga sagittd, Lucan. 
1, 230. Refugi Parthi, ib. 6, 50.) 
Justin. 41, 2. Hence a Parthia 
{Parthu.s) is said to be Versis animosi 
equis, Horat. Od. 1, 19, 11. Fid 
fuga versisque sagittis, Virg. G. 3, 31 
and of this the Roman soldiers were 
most afraid, Horat. Od. 2, 13, 17. 
Parthica Romanos solverunt damna fu- 
rores, the destruction of Crassus by the 
Parthians let loose the civil rage of the 
Romans, by opening the way for a 
breach between Pompey and Caesar, 
which the influence of Crassus, while 
alive, had prevented, Lucan. 1, 106. 
Parthos reposcere signa, the standards 
lost by Crassus, wh ; ch were restored to 
Augustus, Firg.JEn. 7, 606. 

PARTHINi, a people of Illyricum, Cic, 
Pis. 40. Liv. 29, 12.; 33, 34. et 44, 
30. Suet. Aug. 19. 

Pasargad/e v. Pasagardee, the ancient 
residence of the kings of Persia, where 
was the tomb of Cyrus, Slrah. 15,730. 
Plin. 6, 26. The people called Pa- 
sargadje were the noblest of the Per- 
sians, and among them was the tribe 
of the Ach&memdce ; whence the 
kings of Persia were descended, He- 
rodot. 1, 125. 

PASSARO v. -on, a town of Molossis in 
Epire, Liv. 45,26. & 33. where the 
kings, after sacrificing to Jupiter, 
swore that they would govern accord- 
ing to law, and the people swore that 
they would defend the kingdom, Plu- 
tarch in Pyrrho. 

PATALA, -ee v. -orum, Tattanagar, 
a celebrated harbour in the island Pa- 
tale, Patalia, Patalena, v. -e, at the 
mouth of the Indus, Arrian. 6, 17, 
Curt. 9, 7. where that river divides in- 
to two branches, and forms a DELTA, 
like the Nile, Strah. 15, 701. seep. 
646. This town Pliny places within 
the torrid zone, 2, 73. 

PATARA, -orum, Patera, the capital 
of Lycia, where was a temple and ora- 
cle ofApoilo; hence he is called Pa- 
tareus, Apollo, of three syllables, 
Horat. Od. 3, 4, 64. and his temple, 
Palarxa regia, Ovid. Met. 1, 516. 
Inh. Patarenses vel Patarani, Cic* 
Flacc. 32. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. Sll 



PATAVIUM, Padua, a town in the 
territory of Venice, to the west of that 
city, 135.; Inh. Patavini, Liv. 10, 
2, et 41, 27. Patavinus ager, Plin.3, 
16. Patavina puella, i. e. virtuously 
educated, Martial. 11,17,8. Pata- 
vinitas, a provincial impropriety of 
style, peculiar to the people of Padua, 
into which Pollio alleged Livy, who 
was a native of that place, had some- 
times fallen, Quinctilian, 1, 5, 56. 
et 8, 1, 3. 

PATMOS, Pathmos; an island in^the 
Egean sea, one of the Sporades, 
342. 

PATRiE, Patras, a town of Achaia 

Propria, 281. Liv. 27, 29. et 36, 21. 

Inh. Patrenses, Cic. Fam. 13, 19. 
Pausilypus, Pausilippo, a mountain 

near Naples, 153. 
PEDASA, -orum, a town of Caria, in the 

terrritory of Halicarnassus, Liv. 33, 

30. 

PEDUM, a town of Latium, Liv. 2, 39.; 
8, 13. ; Inh. Pedani, Liv. 8, 14, 
Regio Pedana, Horat. Ep. 1, 4, 2. 

PEGiE, a fountain at the foot of mount 
Arganthus or Arganthonus in Bithy- 
nia, into which Hylas fell, Propert. 1, 
20, 33. — From snjyjj, a fountain, 
the fabulous winged horse Pegasus 
was named; and from a mountain on 
mount Helicon in Bceotia, Hippo- 
crene, said to have been produced by a 
stroke of the hoof of Pegasus ; the 
Muses, who delighted in that fountain, 
were called Pegasides, see p. 394. hence 
Pegaseium melos, a song inspired by the 
Muses, Pers. pr. 14. JEnone Pegasis 
-idis, the nymph JEnone, one of the 
Naiades, who delighted in fountains, 
Ovid. Ep. 5, 3., Pegasis unda, i. e. 
the fountain Hippocrene, Martial. 9, 
56, 6. 

Peeagonia, a northern district of Mace- 
donia, Liv. 26, 25-5 31, 28.; et 45. 
29. Inh. Pelagones, 45, 30. 

PELASGI, the original inhabitants of 
Greece, so called, from their wandering 

' from place to place. 288. Several 
parts of Greece were anciently named 
from them : thus Thessaly, Pelasgi- 
cum Argos, Plin. 4. 7 s. 14. Pelo- 
ponnesus, Pelasgia, ib. 4, 4 s. 3. So 
Lesbos, Id. 5, 31 s. 39. ArcadiaVz- 
lasgis, -Mis, ib. 6 s. 10. &c. hence Pe- 
lasgi, the Greeks, Virg. Mn. 2,83.; 
et 6, 503. Ars Pelasga, Grecian ar- 
tifice, ib. 106, & 152. Pelasga pules, 
the Grecian youth, ib. 9, 154. So 



Reges Pelasgi, 1, 624. Urbes Pelas- 
giades, the Grecian cities, Ovid. Ep. 9, 
3. De Pelasgis omnibus colligere, 
from the multitude at large, Cic. Fino 

2. 4. A district of Thessaly retained 
the name of Palasgiotis, 320.; hence 
Sinus Pelasgicus v. Pagasicus, the gulf 
between Magnesia and Pthiotis, now 
the gulf of Volo. — Pelasga quercus, 
the prophetic oaks of Dodona, Ovid* 
Art. 2. 541. ; Amor. 3, 10, 9. 

PELETHRONIUM, a town of Thessaly 5 
Inh. Pelethronii. Lapithce, the first 
breakers or tamers of horses, Virg. G. 

3, 115. Lucan supposes the Centaurs 
to have been produced there, (in Pele- 
throniis antris,) 6, 387. 

PELIGNI,a brave people of Italy, con- 
tiguous to the Marsi, 138. Liv. 8, 6. 
& 29. ; 9, 41. ; 10, 30. ; 22, 9. ; 28, 
45. the country of Ovid ; hence Gens 
mea Peligni, regioque domestica Sulmo, 
. Pont. 4, 14, 49. So Amor. 3, 15, 8. 
A cohort cf them (Peligna cohors,) of- 
ten distinguished itself in the Roman 
armies, Liv. 25, 14.; 44,40. &c. Pe- 
lignum rus, Ovid. Am. 2, 15, 1. arva, 
ib. 16, 5. solum, Pont. 1, 8, 42. Pelig- 
nce anus, sorceresses, Horat. Epod. 
18, 8. 

PELINNA v. PellincBum, a town of 
Thessaly, Liv. 36, 10, & 14. 

PELION et Pelios, v. -ius mons, a moun- 
tain of Thessaly, 321. Lucan. 6,336. 
hence Pelium nemus, Cic. Caes. 8. Pe- 
liacus apex, Ovid. Fast, l, 308. Vertex, 
Id. Am. 2, 11, 2. Peliaca cuspis, the 
spear of Achilles, the shaft of which 
had been cut on mount Pelion, Ovid. 
Met. 12, 7. vel Pelias hasta. Id. Rem. 
Am. 47. Arbor Pelias, adis, the ship 
Argo, the wood of which had grown on 
this mountain, Id. Ep. 12, 8. Pelion 
altius Ossd, Ovid. Fast. 3, 441. 

PELIUM, a town of Macedonia, Liv. 
31, 40. 

PELLA, Palatisa, the residence of the 
kings of Macedonia, 325, Liv. 42. 
41.; Mel. 2, 3. whence Pell&us juve- 
nis, Alexander, Juvenal, 10, 168. Pel- 
Icei proles vesana Philippi, Lucan. 10, 
20. Pellce littora, Sil. 15, 300. Pel- 
laum diadema, the Egyptian crown, 
because the Ptolemies kings of Egypt 
were sprung from Macedonia, Lucan. 
5, 60. PeU<zi muri et arces, the walls of 
Alexandria, ib. 9, 153.; 10, 511. 
PelUa domus v. aula, the palace' of 
Alexandria, ib. 8, 475.; 10, 55. 
PelUus pucr, Ptolemy, who ordered 



S12 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



Pompey to be slain, ib. 8, 607.; rex 
9, 1016. Pelleeus gladius, the sword 
of Ptolemy, ib. 9, lo73. Pellcec guta, 
the taste of the people of Alexandria, 
Martial. 13, 85. 

PELLENE, a town of Achaia Propria ; 
Pellenensis ager , Liv. 33, 14. 

PELOPONNESUS, Morea, (q. Pelo- 
pis ?iesos v. insula.) a peninsula to the 
south of the rest of Greece, 279. Inh. 
Peloponnesii et Peloponnenses ; Pe- 
loponesUe civitates, Cic. Att. 6, 2. 
Peloponesiacum helium, Nep. 7, 3. ,* 
Cic. Off. 1, 24. vel. Peloponnesium, 
Nep. 16, 1. 

Pelopea Mcenia, i. e. Mycen/e or A li- 
ons, or the cities of Peloponnesus and 
Greece in general, Virg. Mn. 2, 193. 

PELORUS, Peloris, -idis, v. -ias, -ittdos, 
f. Cape Faro, one of the three princi- 
pal capes of Sicily, 256. Angus ti 
clauslra Pelori, the straits of Messina, 
Virg. Mn. 3, 41 1. angusta sedes, ib. 
687. 

PELTiE, Ushak, a town of Phrygia. 

PELUSIUM, Tineh, not far from 
Damiat or Damietta, the bulwark 
and key of ancient Egypt, Liv. 44, 
19. ; et 45, 11. near the most eastern 
mouth of the Nile; hence called Os- 
tium Pelusiacum, Liv. 45, 11. Pe- 
lusia vada, Lucan. 8, 466, vel Pelusi- 
acvs gurges Nili, ib. 10, 53. hence 
Pehtsia littora, the shores of Egypt, ib. 
9, 83. Pelusiucus Candpus, i. e. 
JEgyptius, ib. 8, 543. Pelusiaca lens, 
the Egyptian lentil, Virg. G. 1, 128, 
Pelusiaua mala, Egyptian apples, Col. 
5, 10. Pelusiacum stamen, linen of 
Egypt, Sil.'d, 25. 

PENEUS a river of Thes.saly, 319. 
hence Peneia Daphne, Daphne the 
daughter of Peneus, Ov. Met. 1, 
452. Seep. 371- Nymptia Penea, ib. 
504. Pene'is, -tdis, ib. 472. — Also a 
river in Elis, 281. 

PENNINUM, the top of the Alps, Liv. 
5, 35. ; 21, 38. 

PENTAPOLIS, a district of Cyrenaica, 
denominated from its five cities, 677. — 
Also of the Philistines, named from its 
five cities Gaxa, Gain, Ascalon y Azo- 
ttis, and Ekron. 

PENTELlCUS, a mountain of Attica, 
300. 

PEPARETHUS, an island in the Egean 
sea, one of the Sporades, Plin. 4, 12. 
with a town of the same name, Liv. 
18, 5.; et 31, 28. 



TERM A v. Berera, the part of Judjea 
beyond Jordan, 596. Plin. 5, 14. — 
Also a district of Garia, belonging to 
Rhodes, 519. Liv. 32, 33. ; et 37, 21. 

— Also a town of jEolis, Liv. 37, 
21. 

PERGA, a town of Pamphylia, Liv. 38, 
57. 

PergAmus, -i, f. v. ~um, Bergamo, a 
city of Mysia, the residence of king 
Eumenes, and of the other Attalic 
princes, Liv. 29, 11.; 31,46. where 
a spectacle of cock-fighting was annual- 
ly exhibited, as also of gladiators, Plin. 
10, 21 s. 24, Inh. Pergameni, Liv. 
33, 21. Pergamenus rex Eumenes, 
Nep. 22, 10. Pergamenas naves, ib. 
11.5. PerGamena, sc. charta, parch- 
ment which was first invented at Perga- 
mus, Plin. 13, 11 s. 21.; lsidor. 6, 11. 

— PERGAMA, -orum, the citadel of 
Troy, Virg. Mn. 1, 655.; 2, 555, & 
571. Lavinia Pergama, the city of 
Lavinium, Sil. 13, 64. Pergameae 
arces, Virg. Mn. 3, 110. ruvnee, ib 
476. Gens Pergamea, the Trojan na- 
tion, ib. 6, 63. Vales Pergamea, Cas- 
sandra Propert. 4, 1, 51. Pergamem 
Lar, for Lares, the Lores and Pe- 
nates, or household godsj which iEneas 
brought from Troy, Mn. 5, 744. 

PERGUS, a lake in Sicily near the city 
Enna, where Proserpina is said to have 
been carried off by Pluto, Ov. Mel. 5, 
386. 

PERIMELE, an island, one of the Echi- 
nades, Ovid. Met. 8, 590. 

PER1NTHUS, afterwards Heradea, 
Erekli, a town of Thrace on the 
Propontis, 350.; Liv. 33, 30. ; Nep. 
7. 7. hence Perinthia, sc. fabula, 
a play of Mena rider's, Ter. And. Prol. 
9. 

PERIPATOS v. Peripatus, the walking 
place of the Lyceum, near Athens, 
where Aristotle taught those who at- 
tended him, as it is said, walking ; 
whence he was called the Peiipatetic, 
and his followers Peripatetics, 294. 

Permessus, v. -is, -idis, a small river 
of Bceotia, issuing from mount Heli- 
con, and sacred to the Muses, 3o4. 

PERRHiEBfA, a district of Thessaly, 
on the confines of Epire and iEtolia, 
318. ; Liv. 31. 42; 52, 15 ; 36, 33. ; 
44, 2. at the foot of mount Pindus, 
which was therefore called Perrhxbus 
Pindus, Propert, 3, 5, 33. ; Inh. Per- 
RHJERI Pii7l, 4, 1. ; Liv. 33, 34. ; 39,34. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX- 



813 



PERSIA v. Persis, -tdis, a large country 
of Asia, 597-5 Inh. Pers^, often put 
by the poet3 for the Parthians, Horat. 
Od. 1, 2, 22.; et 21, 15.; whence Red- 
ditus Cyri solio, restored to the throne 
of Parthia, ib. 2, 2, 17. Graves Perscs, 
formidadle on account of their having 
cut off Crassus and a great part of his 
army, Horat. Od. 3, 5, 4. by artifice; 
hence called vifidi, ib. 4, 15, 23. Rex 
Persarum,. rarely Persies, the king of 
Persia, Cic.Verr. 3, 32.; Liv. 1, 41.; 
Ti/sc. 5, 12. ; #ora«. 0<f. 3, 9, 4. 
Regmim Persicum, Juvenal, 14, 228. 
Persici apparatus, Persian luxury, 
Horat. Od. 1, 38, 1. Persica bracca, a 
trouser worn by the Persians, Ovid. 
TrisL 5, 10, 34. — Persicus sinvs, the 
Persian gulf, which Pliny calls Rubrum 
mare, 6, 26. See Mare Erythrceum. 
Persici ornatus, splendid dress, Cic. Sen. 
IT . Persica P or lieu s, a portico in the 
villa of Brutus at Lanuvium, Cic. Alt. 
15, 9. so named in allusion to one at 
Lacedsemon, built from the spoils of 
the Persians, Vitruv. 1,2. Themistoclem 
unum intra annum optime locutum esse 
Persice constat, learned to speak the 
Persic language in one year, Quincti- 
Uan, 11, 2,extr. 
Persepolis, Estaker, or Tehelminar, 
the capital of Persia, Plin. 6, 26. ; 
Strab. 15, 729. 
PERUSIA, Perugia, a city of Etru- 
ria, Liv. 9, 37. et 10, 37- ; Inh. Pe- 
BUSINI, Liv. 10, 30.; 28, 45. Pe- 
rusina cohors, ib. 23, 17. Perusina 
fames, the reduction of Perusia by fa- 
mine, Lucan. 1, 41. see p. 136. 
PESSlNUS, -untis, f. a town of Phrygia 
Magna, 592, where was a magnificent 
temple of Cybde ; hence called Pessi- 
nuntia ; and Pessinuntius sacerdos, 
her priest, Cic. Sext. 26. From this 
temple the image of Cybele was car- 
ried to Rome, Liv. 29, 10, & 11. 
PETELIA v. Petilia, Strongoli, a 
town of the Bruttii, 181; Inh. Pete- 
lini, Liv. 23, 20. 
PETELINUS lucus, a grove near Rome, 

Liv. 6, 20. 
PETRA, an elevated place (locus editus) 
near Dyracchium, Lucan. 6, 16. & 

70.; Cxs. Civ. 3, 42. A town of 

Medica, in Thrace, Liv. 40, 22. — of 
Pieria in Macedonia, Liv. 39, 26. ; 
44, 32. — of Arabia, now Krac, 
which gave name to that part of 
the country called Arabia Petrasa, 
596. — of Sicily, pear Hybla^ Plin. 



3, 4. Petrcea, sc. urbs, Sil. 14 t 

248. 

PETRINUM v. -» f> a village near Si- 

nuessa, on the confines of Latium and 

Campania, Horat. Ep. 1, 5, 5. 
Petrogorii, the people of Perigord in 

Guienne, Cess. 7, 75. 
PEUCE, Piczina, the island formed by 

the southraost mouth of the Danube. 

Inh. Peucinij or ihe mouth itself, 

Plin. 4, 12. ; Lucan. 3, 202. 
PEUCETIA, a name of a part of Calabria,, 

163. Inh. Peucetii. Peucetii sinus, 

Ovid. Met. 14, 513. 
PHACUSA, a town of Egypt, on the 

eastmost branch of the Nile. 
PttdEACUM insula et urbs, the island 

and town of Corcyra, 330. sing. 

Ph^ax, an indolent person, Horat. 

Ep. 1, 15, 24. Tellus Phcsacia, Tibull. 

4, 1, 78. Phceacice Silvce, the gar- 
dens of Alcinous, Propert. 3, 2, 13. — 
Phcscasium, a kind of Grecian shoe, 
Senec. Ben. 7, 21 : et ph&casiatus, 
wearing such a 6hoe, Id. Ep. 113.; 
Juvenal. 3, 218.; but whether or not 
this comes from Pcehax is uncertain. 

Ph^casia v. Phecussa, a small island 
in the Egean sea, one of the Sporades, 
Plin. 4, 12. 

Phalacrine v. -urn, a village of the 
Sabines, in the district of Redte, the 
birth-place of Vespasian, Suet. 2. 

PHACIUM, a town of Thessaly, Liv. 
32, 13.; et 36, 13. 

PH.ESTUM, a town of Thessaly, Liv. ♦ 
36, 13. 

PHALANNA, a town of Perrhaebia, 
Liv. 42, 54. Phalannceus ager, ib. 
65. 

PHALARIUM, monte Licata, a ci- 
tadel of Sicily, where stood Phalaris's 
brazen bull, 264. 

PHALEREUS partus Phalerum v. -a, 
-orum, one of the three ports of Athens, 
293. 

PHALERIA, a town of Thessaly, Liv. 
32, 15. 

PHANiE, a port of the island Chios, Liv. 
36, 43. 

PHANETA, a town of Epire, Liv. 43, 
21. 

PHANORIA, a town of Phocis, Liv. 

32. 28. 

PHARtE, a town of Achaia; of Crete, 
&c. 

PHAROS, a small island over against 
Alexandria in Egypt, where was a fa- 
mous light-tower, 669. » Plin. 4,31, 
& 85,; 36, 13.; MeL 2, 7.Phari<$ 



814 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



fiammte, the lights in this tower, Lu- 
can. 9- 1005. — often put for Egypt ; 
thus Regina Phari, i. e. Cleopatra, 
Stat. Silv. 3, 2, 102. Petimus Pharon 
arvaque Lagi, We make for Egypt, 
Lucan. 87, 443. so 8, 184, 277, 499, 
514.; 9, 1022. Phariireges, the Egyp- 
tian kings, ib. 2, 636. Pharia unda,th.e 
Nile, 3, 260, Pharium eequor, the 
Egyptian sea, 4, 257. Pharius gurges, 
7,892. Pharius tyr annus, the king of 
Eg)?', 6 » 308.; 7, 704.; 8, 555. 
Pharia Jides, perfidy, 8, 624. Pharium 
scelus, the murder of Pompey, 9, 207. 
Pharium velamen, a linen robe, 9, 
1012. Juvenca Pharia, Isis, Ovid. Art. 
Am. 3, 635. 

PHAROS, v. -ia, Leswa, an island in 
the Hadriatlc, near the coast of Dal- 
matia. Met. 2, 7. 

PHARMACUSA, an island north-west 
from Miletus, on the coast of Caria, 
near which Julius Caesar was taken by 
the pirates, Suet. 4. 

PHARNACE v. -ia, a town of Pontus, 
Plin. 6, 4. 

PHARSALUS, Farsa, a town in Thes- 
saly, near which Caesar defeated Pom- 
pey, 322. PHARSALIA, the country 
or plains around Pharsalus, Lucan. 1, 
38.; 7, 175, 823. often put for the 
battle itself, or the slaughter in it, 6, 
313.; 7, 61, 204, &c. Vincendum pa- 
riter Pharsalia prcestitit orbem, gave 
Caesar the world to conquer, or an 
opportunity of conquering it at once, 
ib. 3, 297- so Pharsalia tuas fecit opes, 
7, 745. Pharsalicum prcelium, 7, 385. ; 
Cic. Dejot. 5. Pharsalicus annus, the 
year in which the battle was fought, 
Lucan. 5. 39 1. Pharsalica fata, the 
defeat and its consequences, S, 516. 
hence the poem of Lucan concerning 
the civil war between Caesar and Pom- 
pey is called PHARSALIA. 

PHASELIS, a town of Lycia, on the 
confines of Pamphylia, Cic. Ferr. 4, 
10.; Inh. Phaselitce, Cic. Rull. 2, 
18. 

PHASIS, M & tdis, Faoz, a large river 
of Colchis, 592.; Plin. 6, 4. and near 
it a town of the same name, where was 
the temple of Phryxus, and a grove, 
famous in fable for the golden fleece 
which it contained, Mel. 1, 19, seep. 
440. — Hence Phasiana, sc. avis v. 
Pasianus, sc. ales, a pheasant, which 
is said to have been first brought into 
Greece from Phasis by the Argonauts, 
Martial. 13, 72. ; Plin. 10, 48. 



PHENEUS, a city of Arcadia, 286. Inh. 

Pheneatce, Cic. N. D. 3, 22. 
PHERiE, a city of Thessaly, 321, Cic. 

Divin. l, 25.; Inh. Pheiuei, Cic. 

Invent. 2, 49.; Liv. 36, 9. ; 42, 56. 

Pheraece Vaccce, the cows of Admetus 

fed by Apollo, Ovid. Art. Am. 2, 239. 

Also a town of Laconica, Liv. 35, 30. 

and of other countries. 
PHILA, a town of Macedonia, Liv. 42, 

67.: 44, 2, & 34. — Phila v. Phla, 

an island in the lake Tritonis, Herodot. 

4, 178. 

PHILADELPHIA v. -la, Alah- 
Sher, or the Beautiful City, in Ly- 
dia, 388. ; Inh. Philadelpheni, Plin. 5, 
29. 

PHILiE, an island and strong place in 
the Nile, above the lesser cataract, 
Senec. Nat. 2, 4, 2. ; Lucan. 10, 
313. Pliny places it opposite to Syene, 
5, 9. 

Philen6n ar<e, altars erected to two 
brothers, called Phil<sni, who allowed 
themselves to be buried alive for their 
country; the boundary between the 
people of Carthage and Cyrene, Sallust. 
Jug. 19, & 79.; Sil. 15, 704. 

PH1LIPPI, a town of Macedonia, on 
the confines of Thrace, 328. where 
Brutus and Cassius were defeated by 
Antony and Augustus ; hence Philip- 
pense helium, Suet.' Aug. 13. prcelium, 

Plin. 7, 45. Philippicus, -a, 

urn, comes from Philippus, king of 
Macedonia; as Philippics, sc. ora- 
tiones, the orations of Demosthenes 
against Philip; in allusion to which 
Cicero called his orations against An- 
thony by the same name, Cic. Alt. 2, 
21. so Philippcei nummi aurei, gold 
coins, with the image or superscrip- 
tion of Philip, Liv. 34, 52.; 37, 59.; 
30, 5. & 7 ; 44, 14. called simply 
Philippi v. -ti, Horat. Ep. 2, 1, 234, 
et Plaut. passim. 

Philippopolis, a town of Thrace, 
Liv. 39, 53. and of Thessaly, ib. 25. 
called also Philippi, near Pharsalia. 
Emathii Philippi, Lucan. 9, 271. 
whence some reconcile what is said, 
Virg. G. l, 490.; Ovid. Met. 15, 
824. 

PH1LOMELUM v. -ium, a town of 
Phrygia Major. Cic. Att. 5, 20.; Inh. 
Pl-i/.omelienses, Cic. Verr. 3, 83. 

PHINTIA v. -as, a town of Sicily, be- 
tween Gela and Agrigentum, Cic. Verr. 
3, 83. 

PHINTHIAS, a fountain in Sicily, in 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 815 



which it is said nothing would sink, 

P/m.Ul, 2. 
Phintonis insula, Figo, a small island 

between Sardinia and Corsica. 
PHLEGRA, the ancient name of the 

peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, the 

country of the giants, 326. hence 

Phlegrcea prcelia, their battle with the 

gods, Stat. Silv. 5, 3, 196. Phlegrcei 

campi, see page 152. 
FHLEGYiE, a sacrilegious people of 

Thessaly, Serv. ad Virg. JEn. 6,618. 

but the best commentators consider 

Phlegyas here as a proper name in the 

nominative. 
PHLIUS, -nntis, f. Stephlica, a town 

of Achaia Propria, Cic. Alt. 6, 2. ,• 

Inh. Phliasti & Phliurdii, Tusc. 4, 3. 

Philasia rcgna, Ovid, in Ibin. 329. 

> — and of Ar<rolis now Drepano, near 

Nauplia. 

PHOC.-EA, Fochia, a city of Ionia, 587- 
at the mouth of the Hermus, having 
two harbours, Liv. 3/, 31. the mo- 
ther country of Marseilles, Liv. 5, 34.; 
Inh. Phoctenses, ib. 38, 39. ; Plin. 
3, 4. vel Phoc^i, Horat. Epod. 16, 
17. who being besieged by Harpagus, 
the general of Cyrus, took to their 
ships, and left their city, Herodot. 1, 
164. hence Murex Phocaicus. Pho- 
caean purple, Ov. Met. 6, 9. Phocais 
{-idis,) juvenilis, the youth of Mar- 
seilles, Lucan. 3,301, Phocaicce carinas 
the ships of Marseilles, ib. 3, 583. but 
Phocaicte manus, the troops of Phocis 
in Greece, ib. 172. — So Phocaica 
laurus, the laurel of Parnassus, Lucan. 
5, 144. 

PHOCIS, -Mis, a part of Greecia Propria, 
306. Liv. 32, 18. Inh. Phocenses, 
Justin. 8, f. Phoccea rura, Ovid. 
Met. 5, 276. Juvenis Phocceus, Py- 
lades, the son of Strophius king of 
Phocis, the friend of Orestes, Ovid. 
Amor. 2,6, 15. Lucan seems to con- 
found Phocis with Phocoea, 3, 340. et 
4, 256. 

PHCENICEv.-ia, apart of Syria, 594. 
Inh. Phoenices, the first inventors of 
letters, Herodot. 5, 58.; Plin. 5, 12; 
Lucan. 3, 221. put for the Cartha- 
ginians, Sit. 13, 730. hence Phce- 
nissa Dido, Vir^. JEn. 1, 670. ; 6, 450. 
Tyros, Ovid. Met. 15, 288, agmina, 
Si!. 17, ]47. classis, ib. 7, 409. Pha>- 
nicius v. -ens, of a purple colour, such 
as the Tyrian purple, which was in the 
highest estimation, Plin. 21, 23, et 
25, 13. J Lucret. 2, 829. Chlamys 



Phoenicia, Ovid. Met. 14, 345, vestis, 
ib. 12, 104. hence Phoenicopterus, 
a bird with red feathers, a pheni copter, 
whose tongue was reckoned a great de- 
licacy among the Romans, Martial. 13, 
71, et 3, 58, 14. ; Juvenal. 13, 139.; 
Plin. 10, 48. ; Suet. Cal. 22, & 57. ; 
Fit. 13. 

PHOEMCE, a town of Epire, Liv. 29, 
12. 

PHOENICUSA, Feucudi, one of the 

Lipari islands, 276. 
PHOENIX v. Phoenicus, a port in 

Crete, Liv. 36, 45. and in other 

places. 

PHOLOE, a mountain of Arcadia, 
285. Plin. 4, 6.; Ovid. Fast. 2, 273. 
Another of Thessaly, near mount 
Othrys, and like it the residence of the 
Centaurs, Lucan. 3, 198.; 6, 388.; 
7, 449. 

PHRAGAND^E, a town of Thrace, Liv, 
26, 25. 

PHRICIUM, a town near Thermopylee, 

Liv. 36, 13. 
PHRYGIA, an extensive country of Asia 
Minor, divided into Major, the 
Greater, and Minor, the Less, 587, & 
592. hence Phrygia utraque, Liv. 37, 
56. Inh. Phryges, said to have been 
the most ancient people in the world, 
Herodot. 2, 2. Phryges sero sapiunt, re- 
pent of their folly when it is too late, 
Cic. Fam. 7, 16. Phryx plagis emenda- 
tur, a slave is amended only by blows, 
Flac. 27. Phrygiee urbes, i. e. the cities 
of Phrygia Minor or Troas, Virg. JEn, 
6, 783. Phrygia mater, Cybele, Ovid. 
Fast. 2, 55. Phrygius lapis, marble. 
Horat. Od. 3, 1, 41. Phrygius judex, 
Paris, Catul. 56. Phrygiee arces, the 
Trojan towers, Ovid. Met. 13, 44 c 
Phrygii cantus, grave or solemn music, 
Cic. Divin. 1, 50. opposed to Lydian 
or cheerful strains. As the Greeks 
called all the Asiatics barbarians ; hence 
Barbarus is put for Phrygius ; thus, 
Sonante mixtum libiis carmen lyrd, Hac 
Lydium, illis Barbarum, Horat. Epod. 
9, 5. So Gratia Barbaric collisa, en- 
gaged with the Trojan nation, Horal. 
Ep. 1, 2,7. Barbarico postes auro spo- 
liisquc superbi, adorned with Trojan 
gold, Virg. JEn. 2, 504. Barbara 
turmcz, the Trojan troops, Hor. Od. 2, 
4, 9. Astante ope baxbarica, \vhile tha 
kingdom of Troy flourished, Cic. Tusc. 
2, if. 85. Barbara crurum tegmina, i. e. 
Phrygian, adorned with needle-work, 
or embroidery, Virg, JEn. 11, 777. 



816 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



which art the Phrygians are said to 
hive first invented, P/z'?/. 8, 48 s. 74. 
hence Phrygio -mas m. an embroi- 
derer, Plant. Aul. 3, 536. Phryg/ancc 
v. Phrygia vestes, embroidered clotiies, 
Plin. ib. 

PHPJXI templu>n, a t<-mple of Colchis 
on the river Phasis, where Plnyxus 
dedicated the golden fleece, Slrab. 11, 
498. see p. 410. 

PHRYXUS, a small river of Ar oUs. 

PHTHf A, the city of Achilles in Thes- 
sa!y which gave nam* 3 to th( district 
Phthwtis, -idis, 3 '20. hence Pht ki- 
ns A'hiUes, Horat. Od. 4, 6. 4. Vir 
Phlhius, Proper t. 2, 14, 38. Ii.h. 
Phthiolcs, Phthiota stnex, Cic. Tusc. 
1, 10. Phthiotica Tempt, plur. Catul. 
62, 35. 

PHYCUS, -untis, Ras-al-Sem, a pro- 
montory of Cyrenaica. 

PHYLACE, a town of M dossis in Epire, 
Liv. 45, 26. — Another in TheSoaly, 
Slrab. 9, 433.; Lucan. 6, 352. 

PHYLE, a strong citadeiof Attica, Nep. 
8, 2. See p. 301. 

PHYSCUS, Physca, a town of Caria, 
opposite to Rhodes, Strab. 14, 663. 

PICENTIA, the ancient capital of the 
Picentini, and ager Picentinus, on 
the Tuscan sea, south of Campania,^ 
126. Sil. 8, 580. Picentina ala, Tacit. 
Hist. 4, 62. 

PICENUM vel ager Picenus, a principal 
division of Italy, 137, Liv. 21, 6.; 
22, 9.; 27, 43. Inh. Picentes, ib. 
10. 10. Picentnm acies, Sil. 10, :31J. 
hence Piceris ager, Cic. Sen^c, 4 . 

PICTI, the Picts, a people of Scotland, 
mentioned only by later writers, Mar- 
cellin, 27 , 18. Claudian. rie 111. Consu- 
lar Honor, v. 54. 

PICTONES, the people of Poictou in 
France, on the south of the Loire, 
Cces. B G. 3, 11. 

PIERIA, a district of Macedonia, 324. 
named from mount Pierus ; whence 
Pierides, the Muses, v. Chorns Pte- 
rins, 333. ei Grex Pterins, Martiak 9. 
88, 3. Calabra Pihides, the poems of 
Eimius. born at Rudise in Calabria, 
Horat. Od. 4, 8, 20. Pierid prcelia 
Jlort tuba, to sin^ of ba'tles with a 
poetical geuius, Martial. 11,4, 8. Pie- 
ria pellex, either skilled in music, or a 
native of Macedonia, Horat. Od. 3, 
10, 15. 

PIGRUM mare> the northern sea, from 
its being frozen, Tacit. G. 45. the 



same with the Septentrionalis oeeanusof 
Pliny, 4, 13. So Pigra pains, i. e. 
P.iiw. : Mseotis, Ovid. Pont. 4, 10,61, 

PJMPLA, a m. uniain of Bceotia, 304. 
and a f< uniain of the same name; 
whence the muses weie called Pim- 
plcides, Festus, hence Pimpleum an- 
trum, Martial. 12, 11, 3. Pimtlea, a 
Muse, Stat. SHv. 1, 4, 26, el 2, 2, 
36.; Horat. Od. 1. 26, 9. but in this 
last passage some read Pimplei, voc from 
Pimpleis, -idis. Strabo places Ptmpla 
in that part of Thrace which was an- 
n xed to Macedonia. 

PINARA, a town of Pieria in Syria, 
to the south of mount Aruanus ; Inh. 
Pinar'itce, Phn. 5,25. — Also of Ly- 
cia, Strab. 14, 661. 

PliNARUS v. Ptndus, Deli-fou, a riv 
of Cilieia, near Issus, Strab. 14, 676. 

PliNCUM, Graddisca, a town of Moe 
s'-a Super io>, on the river PINCUS 
or Prk-river. 

PINDENISSUS. a town of Cili cia, nea 
Issus, taken by Cicero after a siege o 
twenty-five days, Cic. Fam. 2, 10. 

PI? DUS, a chain of mountains, sepa 
rating Macedonia, Thcssaly, and Epi 
rus, 318. 

PINTIA, postea FaUis Oletana, no 
thi night to be Yalladolid, a tow 
of Spain in Old Castile. 

PINNA FestiJiomm, Civita di Pknna 
near the motith of the Matrinus, whic' 
runs into the Hadriatic to the south 
Picenum, Sil. 8, 518. 

PIRAEUS v. -evens, portus, vel Pirjeuivt 
pi. -cea, the chief harbour of Athens 
292. hence Pircea liitora, i. e. Attica 
Ovid. Met. 6, 446. 

PIRENE, a fountain in the citadel o 
Corinth, 280. (Fons Corinthiensis, 
Plain. Aul. 3, 6, 23,) sacred to the 
Muses, called pallide, because excessiv 
study makes men pale, Pers. pr. 4, e 
5, 62. On das hauriat Pirentdas, Se- 
nec. Med. 745. 

PIRUST.E, a people of Illyricum, Liv. 
45, 26. 

PISA, a city of Elis on the Alpbeus, on 
the ruins of which Olympia is thought 
to have been built, 281. hence Pi- 
sari campi, the plains in which the 
Olympic games were ceh brated ; and 
Pisatis, -idis, f. the country. Pisceet 
manus, the troops of Pisa, Luran. 3, 
176. Piseea aula, the hall of Oeno- 
maus, who slew the suitors of hi« 
daughter, 2,165. Seep. 404» 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 817 



PiSJi, Pisa, a city of Tuscany, founded 
by a colony from Pisa in Elis, 281.; 
Inh. Pisani, Liv. 45, 13. Pisanus 
ager, Liv. 39, 2. 
PISAURUM v. -us, Pesaro, a town of 
Umbria, on the river PISAURUS, 
Foglia, 136. Liv. 39,44.; 41 ,27. j 
Inh. Pisaurenses, Cic, Att. 2, 7. 
PISIDIA, a country of Asia Minor, for 
the most part mountainous, 589, Liv. 
37, 54, & 56. Inh. Pisidje, Id. 35, 
13. Cic. Div. 1,1. Nep. 14, 8. 
PISTORIA v. -ium, Pjstoja, a town of 
Etruria, about twenty miles north-west 
of Florence, at the foot of the Appen- 
nines, 136. Inh. Pistaurienses, Plin. 
3, 4. Ager Pistoriensis, the territory ; 
where Catiline was defeated and slain, 
SallustCat. 57. 
PITANE, a town of ^blis in Asia, 
Ovid., Met. 7, 357. Lucan. 3. 205. 
Inh. Pitano?i, v. Pilanitae, who made 
bricks so light as to swim on water, 
Vitruv. 2, 3. Strab. 13, 423. — An- 
other of Laconica, on the Eurotas, 
Pindar. Olymp. 6, 46. 
PITHECOSA v. Inarime, an island on 

the coast of Campania, 150. , 
PITH^EIA regna, i. e. Trcezene, where 
Pittheus, the grandfather of Theseus, 
reigned, Ovid. Ep. 4, 107- 
PITYUS, -untis, f. Pitchinda, a town 

of Colchis, Plin. 6, 5. 
Pityus.e, Ins. islands opposite to the 
mouth of the Sucro in Spain, 485, 
Plin. 3, 5. — Also a name of Chios, ib. 
5, 31. — Another island in the Argolic 
gulf, Plin. 4, 12. 
PLACENTIA, Placenza, a city of the 
Cispadana, in the duchy of Parma, near 
the confluence of the Trebia and Po, 
Liv. 21, 25, & 56, &c. Inh. Placentini, 
Liv. 37, 10. Placentinus ager. Id. 34, 
56. 

Platte v. -a, a city of Boeotia, near 
which Mardouius, general of the Per- 
sians, was defeated by the Greeks, un- 
der Pausanias and Aristides, 306. Inh. 
Plat^enses, Nep. l, 5. PlaUense 
prcelium, ib. 3, 2. 

PLAVIS, Pjava or Piave, a river of Ve- 
netia in Italy. 

PLEMMYR1UM, Massa Oliveri, a 
promontory opposite to the great har- 
bour of Syracuse, 263. 

Pleumosii, a people of Belgica, sup- 
posed to be near Tournay, C<es. 5, 38. 

PLEURON, a city of ^tolia, near Ca- 
lydon, Plin. 4, 2. Sil. 15, 310, Ovid. 
Mel. 7,382. 



PNYX, Pnycis, f. a place where the pub- 
lic asemblies at Athens used sometimes 
to meet, 291. Nep. Attic. 3. 
Poecile, a portico at Athens, 291. 
POENI, the Carthaginians, (q. Phoeni, 
quia a Phcenicibus orti, Serv. ad Virg. 
Mn. 1, 302.) sing. Poenus, Hanni- 
bal, Lucan. 7, 799. Uterque Poenus, 
the Inhabitants of Carthage in Africa, 
and of New Carthage in Spain, Horat. 
Od. 2, 2, 11. Marte Pcenos proteret al- 
tero, will defeat the Carthaginians in 
a second engagement, or in another 
war, ib. 3, 5, 34. — dim. Poenulus 
the name of one of the plays of Plau- 
tus; — adj. Pceni leones, Virg. Eel. 5, 
27. Pcenus sermo, Stat. Silv. 4, 5, 45. 
Pceni manes, Lucan. 1, 39.; 4, 790. 
cineres, 2,91. Pcenus Mars, the Car- 
thaginian army, ib. 3, 350. Pcenum 
ve!amen,S'il. e>, 407. Pcenicus ignis, Sil. 
1, 602. but oftener Punicus ; as, Pu- 
nka bella, Lucan. 3. 157. In Punica 
nati lempora Cannarum Trebiteque, 
born in the time of those wars, Lu- 
can. 2, 45. infecta dolis, stained by 
artifice, or abounding in stratagems, ib. 
4, 737- hence Punica fides, perfidy, Liv. 
21,4.; et 22, 64, Sallust. Jug'. 108. 
Pxnus plane est, He is quite treach- 
erous or perfidious, Plaut. Pcen. prol. 
113. Punica arbor, a pomegranate tree, 
Col. 10, 243. Punica poma vel mala, 
pomegranates. Martial. 1, 44, 6. Ovid, 
Fast. 4, 608. — Punicum sagum, a mili- 
tary garment, of a red or purple colour, 
Horat. Epod. 9, 27. the same with Pu- 
niceum v. Phveniceum : So Color /lore 
rosce puniceee prior, Horat. Od. 4, 10, 
4. Puniceis invecta rotis Aurora rube- 
bit, Virg. JEn. 12, 77« Puniceumpo- 
mum, a red apple or pomegranate, Ovid. 
Met. 5, 536. — Punicani lectuli, mean, 
coarse couches, such as the Carthagini- 
ans used, Cic. Murcen. 36. So Puni* 
canes fenestra, Varr. de Re Rust. 7, 7, 
3. — Punice loqui, to speak the Cartha- 
ginian language, Plaut. Pcen. 5, 2, 22. 

The Carthaginians were also called 
Agenorid^:, from Agenor, Sil. 8, 1, 
& 215. a king of Phoenicia, the son 
of Neptune, and father of Cadmus and 
Europa, seep. 426. Apollodor. 3, 1, 
or Agenorei, Sil. 6, 303. hence hue- 
tor Agenor eus, Hannibal, 12. 282.; 
et 13, 3. Agenor ea nubes, the army 
of Hannibal in motion, ib. 120. Colli s 
Agenoreum dirimebat ab aggere ra/- 
lum Ausonio, separated the camp of 
Hannibal from that of Marcellus, Sil, 
3 G 



818 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



15, 343. Reseravit Dardanus arces 
Ductor Agenoreas, Scipio, the general 
of the Romans, laid open the citadel, 

1, e. conquered the city of Carthage, 
Sil. 1, 14. called Agenoris urbs, Virg. 
/En. l f 338. — From Elisa, a name of 
Dido, the senators of Carthage are call- 
ed Elisscei patres, Sil. 6, 346. Cce- 
tera Elissceis aderat gens Sicana votis, 
the rest of Sicily favoured the Carthagi- 
nians, Sil. 14, 258. Elissceilacerti, the 
arms of the Carthaginians, ib. 15, 524. 

POLA v. Pietas Julia, Pola, a town of 
Istria, at the south point of the Penin- 
sula, Plin. 3, 9. founded by a colony 
of Colchians, Mel. 2, 3. whence Po- 
laticus sinus et prom. Polaticum, Ponta 
Promontorio. 

POLEMONIUM, Vatisa, a town of 
the Regio Pontica, to the east of the 
mouth of the river Thermodon. 

POLICHNA, a town of Troas, on the 
highest part of mount Ida, Herodot. 
6, 28. — Another of Crete, Thucydid. 

2, 85. 

POLITORIUM, a town of Latium, 
Liv. if 33. 

POLLENTIA, Polenza, a town oligu- 
ria, Cic. Fam. 11, 13. Suet. Tib. 37. 
celebrated for its black wool, Plin. 8, 
48. SiL 8, 598. — Another of Pice- 
num, Liv. 39, 44. ; 41, a?. — Another 
of Majorca, Plin. 8f Mel. 

FOLLUPEX, Final a port town in 
the territory of Genoa. / 

POLUSCA, a town of the Volsci, in 
Latium, Liv. 2, -33. 

POMETIA, a town of the Volsci, in La- 
tium, Liv. 2, 16. v. Pometii, Virg. 
JEn. 6, 775. hence ager Pometinus, 
Pomptinus, v. Pontinus, Liv. 2, 34. j 
4, 25. ; 6, 5, & 21. Pomptinum, Cic. 
Orat. 2, 17. a villa, Cic. Fam. 7, 18. 
Pomplina v. Pontina talus, an ad- 
joining lake of great extent, Juvenal. 

3, 307 • 5 Plin. 3, 5. paludes, the Pon- 
tin Fens, Lvcan. 1, 85. ; Martial. 10, 
74, 10. through which the Via Ap- 
pia was carried at a vast expence ; hence 
called Via uda, Lucan. 3, 85. Pontini 
campi, Martial. 13, 112.; Sil. 8, 381. 
See Suessa. 

POMPEJI v. -ia, a town of Campania, 
Liv. 9, 38. overwhelmed by an earth- 
quake, 154. 

PoMPEiopbus v. Soli, a town of Cilicia, 
Mel. 1, 13. 

POM FELON, Pampeluna, the capital 
of Navarre in Spain ; Inh. Pompdonen- 
*es, Plin. 3,3. 



PONTIA v. Ponza, an island in the 
Tuscan sea opposite to Formise, Plin. 
3, 6. ; Liv. 9,28. Inh. Pontiani, Liv. 
27, 10. 

PONTUS is used by the poets to signify 
the sea in general ; but it properly 
denotes the Euxine sea, (Pontus 
Euxinus,) Plin. 4,12.; et 6, 1. v. 

PONTICUM MARE, Liv. 40, 21. 

PONTUS also denotes several countries 
round the Euxine sea.- 1 . A large 
country of Asia Minor, 590. Cic. 
Arch. 9. the kingdom of Mithridates ; 
whence Lassi Pontica regis Prcelia, the 
battles of Pompey against that king, 
when exhausted, Lucan. 1. 336. Pon- 
tica signa, Pompey's triumph over him, 
ib. 8.26. Largus habeiris Ponticus eques, 
horsemen from Pontus with loose reins, 
sent by Pharnaces the son of Mithri- 
dates, as auxiliaries to Pompey against 
Caesar, ib. 7, 225. Pontica pinus, a 
ship of Pontic pine wood, Horat. Od. 
1, 14,11. The dominions of Mithri- 
dates, when reduced by the Romans 
into the form of a province, were called 
Provincia Pontica : but the name of 
Pontus was still retained, Tacit. Ann. 
12, 21, & 63.; 15, 10. ; Hist. 2, 6.; 
3,47.; Suet. Ner. 1 8. and is sometimes 
divided into three parts, Pontus Gallatin 
cus, the part on the west ; Cappadocius, 
on the east ; and Polemonicus, in the 
middle, so named from Polemo, whom 
Anthony the Triumvir made king of it. 
— — 2. The lowest part of Moesia, 
south from the mouth of the Ister or 
Danube to mount Haemus, was also 
called PONTUS, the place of Orid's 
banishment, Ov. Trist. 5, 10. pr. Ustus 
ab assiduo frigore Pontus, ib. 3,2, 8. 
whence he wrote his six books De Tris- 
tibus, and four books of epistles from 
PONTUS. 

POPULONIA v. -ium, a town of Etru- 
ria, near Pis«, Virg. JEn. 10, 172.; 
Mel. 2, 4.; Plin. 3, 5. Inh. Populoni- 
enses, Liv. 28, 45. 

PORATA, Pyrethus, v. Hierasus, the 
PRUTii,ariver of Dacia, which joins the 
Danube a little below Axiopoli. 

Pordoselkne, an island before Ephesus, 
Plin. 5, 31. 

Porphyris, -tdis, v. Porphyra, a name 
of the island Cythera, 332. 

POSIDIUM v. -eum, a town on the con- 
fines of Macedonia, near the river Stry- 
mon, Plin. 4,10. — Another in Syria, 
below mount Libanus, ib. 5, 20.— Also 
a promontory of Ionia, ib, 29- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



819 



POS1DONIA, the same with Pjestum, 
Plin. 3, 5. Inh. Posidoniatce, Herodot. 

I, 167. 

Pot amos, a village of Attica, near Su- 

nktm, Strah. 9, 398. 
POTENTIA, Potenza, a town of 

Picenum, Liv. 39, 44.; Cic. Harusp. 

28. 

POTIDjEA, a town of Macedonia, 326. 
afterwards Cassandria, Liv. 44, 

II. hence Potidaeensis v. osaticus. 
POTIDANIA, a town of iEtolia, Liv. 

28, 8. 

POTNIA, a village of Boeotia, near 
Thebes, where Glaucus, the son of 
Sisyphus, kept mares, which he fed 
on human flesh to render them more 
fierce; and when they wanted food they 
devoured himself; hence Virgil calls 
them Potniades equce, G. 3, 266. So 
• Ovid, inllin. 555. 

PRACTIUS, a river of Mysia. 

PRjENESTE, -is, n. v. -is, -is, f. Pa- 
LEStrina, a city of Latium, 145. 
Inh. Pr^nestini, Cic. Div. 2, 41. 
Liv. 6, 21, &c. Pr<e?iestinus ager, Cic. 
Rull. 2, 28. Pr&nestini montes, Liv. 
3, 8, Prcenestince sorores, two images 
of Fortune, resembling two sisters, in 
the temple of that goddess, at Praeneste, 
Stat. Silv. 1, 3, 80. Prcenestince 
sortes, the oracle of Praeneste, Cic. Di- 
vin. 2, 41. Prcenestina via, the way' 
from Rome to Praeneste, 184. 

PRESIDIUM, Warwick, as it is 
thought. 

PRETORIA, Augusta, Cronstadt, 
a town of Dacia. — Another of Pied- 
mont, Aosta or Aoust. 

PRjETORIUM, supposed to be Co- 
ventry or Paterington, near the 
mouth of the Humber. 

PRjETUTIANUS ager, the territory 
of the Pr&tutii, in Picenum, Liv. 22, 
9 ; 27, 43. hence Prcetutia pules. Sil. 
15, 571. 

PRASIANE, Verdant, a large island, 
formed by one of the mouths of the 
Indus, Plin. 6, 20. 

PR AS IAS, -ados, f. a lake on the con- 
fines of Macedonia and Thrace, near 
which was a silver mine, Herodot. 5, 17. 

PRASII vel Prasiatce, the most power- 
ful people of Hither India, in the time 
of Alexander, Curt. 9, 2. 

PRELIUS Locus, v. Prilis, v. Pretius, 
the lake of Castiglione, in Tus- 
cany, Cic. Mil. 27. ; Plin. 3, 5. 

PRIAPUS, Caraboa, a sea-port at the 
north end of the Hellespont where 



Priapus was worshipped, said to have 
been founded by him. Plin. 5, 32. 
whencehe is called Deus Hellespontiacus, 
Virg. G. 4, no. — Also an island near 
Ephesus, Plin. 5, 31. 
PRlENE, an ancient city of Ionia, the 
birth-place of Bias, Cic. Parad. l. 
p. 588. 

PRIVERNUM, Piperno Vecchio, a 
town of the Volsci in Latium ; Inh. 
PrivernAtes, Liv. 8, l, &c. Pri- 
vernas ager, Cic. Div. i, 43, et Pri- 
vernus, Rull. 2, 25. 

Prochyta, v. -te, Procida, an island 
on the coast of Naples, 150. 

PROCONNESUS, an island in the Pro- 
pontis, 350. opposite to Cyzicus; 

' whence its marble was called Marmot 
Cyzicenum, Plin. 5, 32 s. 43. Its mo- 
dern name is Marmora; aud hence 
the Propontis is called the sea of Mar- 
mora. 

PROERNA v. Proarna, a town of Phthi- 
otis, in Thessaly, Liv. 36, 14. 

PROPONTIS, the sea of Marmora, 
between the Hellespont and Thracian 
Bosporus, as it were the vestibule to 
the Euxine sea; hence Propontiaca 
or a, Ovid. Trist. 1, 9, 29, unda, 
Propert. 3, 22 pr. 

PR0TESILA1 turns et delubrum, the 
monument of Protesilaus, who was the 
first of the Greeks that landed on the 
coast of Troas, and was slain by Hec- 
tor, Ovid. Met. 12, 67. erected on the 
Thracian Chersonese, near the Helles- 
pont, Plin.A, 11. ; Mel. 2, 2. ; Hero- 
dot. 7, 23. 

PRUSA, Bursa or Prusa, the capital of 
Bithynia, near the foot of mount Olym- 
pus ; whence Prusensis, Plin. Ep. 10, 
66. There was another town of this 
name in Bithynia, and also one called 
Prusias. 

Prytaneum, a place at Athens, where 
those who had deserved well of the 
state were supported at the public ex- 
pence, 291. 

PSOPHIS, -Ms, a town of Arcadia,, 
Ovid. Met. 5, 607. 

PSYLLI, a people of Marmarica, or in 
the south of Cyrenaica, whose bodies 
were (by some natural force, QvtriKn 
avnxu&uei) secure against the poison 
of serpents, and possessed the power of 
curing those who had been wounded by 
serpents, Herodot. 4, 173; Mlian. Hist, 
Animal. 16, 28.; Strab. 17, 814.; 
Plin. 7,2.; 8, 25.; 25, 10.; 28, 3. ; 
Lucan. 9 3 894, — 93 7. ; Plutarch, in Ca- 
3 G 2 



320 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



tone ; Suei. Aug. 17. ; Cels. 5, 27, 3. ; 
Solin. 40.; Gell. 16, 11, Dio says, 
that this virtue was peculiar to men, 
and was never found in women, 51, 14. 
Strabo says something similar of a 
people inTroas, 13, 588. 

PTELEUM, a town of Thessaly, Liv. 
35, 43.; 42, 67. vel Pteleos, Lu- 
can. 6, 352. 

PTOLEMAIS, -tdis, a city of the Higher 

Egypt, opposite to Coptos. A name 

of Aco or Aeon in Palestine, and of 
some other places. 

Ptolem^i Fossa, a canal cut from the 
eastern branch of the Nile to the north 
extremity of the Arabian gulf, 665. 

PULCHRUM prom. Ras Afran, a 
promontory to the north of Carthage, 
Liv. 29, 27. 

Purpurarke insidce, Langarota and 
Fortuventura, islands in the Atlantic, 
to the west of Mauritania Tingilana t 
683.; Plin. 6, 31. et 35, 6. 

PUTEOLI, Pouzzola, a city of Cam- 
pania, on the Sinus Puteolaivus, 152. 
called by the Greeks Diccearchia, Plin. 

3, 5. hence Dicarchea urbs, Sil. 13, 
385. Dicarchi maenia, Stat. Silv. 2, 
2,-96. also by Silius Italicus, Pherecy- 
adum muri, 12, 159. the origin of both 

which names is unknown. • Pu- 

teolanum, a villa of Cicero's near 
Putebli, Cic. Fam. 5, 15. 

PUTICULvE v. -i, the burying-place 
for persons of the lowest rank, with- 
out the Esquiline gate of Rome, Varr. 
L. L. 4, 5. Paul, apud Fest. This 
rendering the place disagreeable, Au- 
gustus gave several acres of that field 
to Maecenas, who converted them into 
a garden, Horat.Sat. 1, 8, 8. 

PYDNA, a town of Pieria in Macedonia; 
Inh. Pydncei, Liv. 44, 6 & 45. 

PYGEL/E, a sea-pert town of Ionia, 
Liv. 37, 11. 

PYLiE, the famous pass from Gr&cia 
Propria to Thessaly, called from its 
hot-baths Thermopyl£, Liv. 32, 

4. ; et 36, 15. hence Pylaicus convenius, 
Liv. 33, 3.; Pylciicum concilium, the 
is;embly of the Amphictiones, or de- 
puties of the states of Greece, who met 
there, Liv. 33, 35. — so Pylcc Tauri, 
Cic. Att. 5, 2, &c. 

PYGM.Ef, Pygmies, a diminutive race 
of people in Thrace, not above a foot 
high, (named from fuyuv, v. rruyeuv, 
cubitus) who carried on a perpetual 
war with the cranes, Juvenal. 13, 
16S. Pliny says, that they were driven 



from Thrace by the cranes, 4, 11 $. 
18. He afterwards places them in In- 
dia, 7, 2. So Gellius,who makes^hem 
to be of a greater size, 9, 4. — hence 
Virgo Pygmeea, of a small size, Juv. 6, 
505. Nec quce Pygmceo sanguine gaudet 
avis, i. e. a crane, Ovid. Fast. 6, 176. 
Mater Pygmcea, i.e. Gerana, a matron 
worshipped by the Pygmies as a goddess, 
and converted by Juno imo a crane, 
Ovid. Met. 6, 90. ; Homer. 11. 2,460. 

PYLUS v. -05, Navarin, a town of 
Messenia in Peloponnesus, the city of 
Nestor, 283. hence called Nestoria Py~ 
los, Senec. Here. Fur. 7. as he was 
called Pylius Nestor, Ovid. Pont. 1, 4, 
10, Pylii dies, the great age of Nestor, 
Ovid. Trist. 5, 5, 62. In Pylios amios 
vivere, to the age of Nestor, Id. Pont. 
2, 8, 41. PyMee Neleia mella senectcs t 
the eloquence of Nestor, the son of Ne- 
leus, Sil. 15, 459. Pylium cevum, 
Martial. 4, 1, 3. Pylii agi~i, the lands 
of Pylos, Ovid. Met. 2, 685. 

PYRA, the place on mount Oeta where 
Hercules was burnt, Liv. 36, 30. 

Pyramides, the Pyramids of Egypt, 665. 
& 677 . hence pyramidatus, made in the 
form of a pyramid, Cic. Nat. D. 1, 24. 

PYRAMUS, a river of Cilicia, Mel. l 
13.; Cic. Fam. 3, 11. 

PYRENE, et Pyreneeus mons,v. Pyren 
monies, the Pyrenean mountains, be 
tween France and Spain, 482, said t 
have been named from Pyrene, th 
daughter of Bebryx, a king of tha" 
country, Sil. 3, 420. 

PYRGI, an ancient town of Etruria 
Firg. JEn. 10, 184.; Liv. 36, 3. 
the sea-coast, Martial. 12, 2.; In 
Pyrgenses, Cic. Or. 2, JP1. 

PYRRHEUS, a place in the city Am 
bracia, Liv. 38, 5. 

PYRRHI castra, a place in Lucani- 
Liv. 35, 27. 

PYTHIUM v. eum, a town of Thessaly, 
Liv. 42, 53.; 44, 2. 

PYTHO v. Python, the same with Del 
phi in Phocis, Pausan. Phoc. 5. ; He 
mer. II. 2, 26. ; Pindar. Olymp. 2,71 
hence Pythius Apollo, i. e. worshippe 
at Delphi, Liv. 23, 11. ; 29, 1 ; d 
Fo7it. 10. Pythicum Oracidum, th 
oracle of Apollo at Delphi, ib. 5, 15 
Cic. Div. 1, 1. Pylhicce sortes, th 
answer of the oracle; Liv. 1, 56. Fa- 
tes Pythia, the prophetess or priestess 
of the temple, Juvenal. 13, 169. Py- 
thia, -iorum, games in honour of 
Apollo, Ovid. Met. 1, 446. — But 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 821 



these words are commonly derived from 
Python, the name of a sttpent, seep. 
360. 

Q 

QUADI, the people of Moravia in Ger- 
many, Tacit. Ann. 2, 63. G. 42 & 

QuERQUETULANUS mOUS, vel CallUS, 

one of the seven hills of Rome ; so 
called from a throve of oaks which grew 
on it, Tacit. Ann. 2, 65. Querquetu- 
lana porta, Plin. 3, 5. 
QU1RINAL1S monsy Monte Caval- 
lo, another of the hills of Rome, Liv. 
1, 44. named from a temple of Quin- 
nus or Romulus which stood on it ; or 
from the Sabines removing thither from 
Cures,¥estus; called also Collis Quirini, 
Ovid. Fast. 4,375. Jugum Quirinale, 
ib. 6, 218 or Colles Romidei, for Collis 
Romuleus, Ovid. Met. 14, 845. Porta 
Quirinalis, the gate through which 
people went to the mount, Fest. 
QUIRlTES, the Romans; so called 
from Cures, a city of the Sabines, Liv. 
1, 13. or from QuirInus, a name of 
their first King, Serv. ad Virg. Mn. 
7, 710. as they were called Romani, 
from his usual name Romulus, or 
from the city which he founded, 
Justin. Instit. de Jure Nat. § 2,— 
Quirites was the name by which the 
magistrates and orators addressed the 
people, Liv. S? Cic. passim. Mohilium 
turla Quiritium, the fickle crowd of 
citizens, or the Roman people at large, 
Horat. Od. 1 , 1, 7 . Jus Quiritium, the 
right of Roman citizens, Cic. Verr. 2, 
12. Una Quiritem vertigo facit, the 
master's turning a slave once round be- 
fore the Praetor makes him a Roman 
citizen ; alluding to the form of ma- 
numitting slaves, Pers. 5, 75. Anna 
dona Quiritis, for Quiritium, the honours 
or offices which the favour of the 
people conferred, Horat. Ep. 1, 6, 1. 
Jgnotus Quiris, an ignoble citizen, Ovid. 
Am. 3,14,9. Minimus deplele Quiris, 
ib. 1, 7, 29. so Juvenal, 8, 47- Patres 
et Quirites, the senate and people, Ho- 
rat. Od. 4, 14, 1. Tcnues Quirites, the 
poor citizens, Juvenal. 3, 1 63. Nivei, 
clothed in a white toga, ,as Roman ci- 
tizens were, Id. 10, 45, & 109. 

QUIRITES was opposed to Milites, as 
togatus to sago indutus, Juvenal. 16, 
8c Hence Caesar is said to have 



quelled a sedition of his soldiers, by 
simply calling them Quirites, Suet. 
70.; Lucan. 5, 358. so Alexander 

Severus, Lamprid. 53 . Hence Qui- 

ritor v. -o, -ari, to implore the assist- 
ance of the citizens, Varr. L.L.b,1.% 
Liv. 39, 8. & 10.; 2, 23.; 3, 41 ; 
Cic. Fam. 16. 32. Quiritatio, -onis 
f. vel quiritdtus, -us, m. an imploring 
of this assistance, Liv. 33, 28.; Plin. 
Ep. 6, 20, 14.; Vol. Max. % 2, 1. 

Quiritium Fossa, a ditch, with 

which Ancus surrounded the city ; so 
called, because he made it by the as- 
sistance of the people, Festus Liv, 
1, 33. 

R 

RAVENNA, Ravenna, a town of the 
Lingones, on the Hadriatie, 135. called 
paludosa, because surrounded with 
marshes, Sil. 8, 603. ; Inh. Raven- 
nates. Ravennas ager, Col. 3, 13, 9. 
Ravennates ranee, Maitial. 3, 93, 8. 
Good water was so scarce at Ravenna, 
that Martial says it was sold at a 
higher price than wine, ib. 56, & 
57. 

RAURACI v. Raurici, a people of Gaul, 
Cess. G. 1, 5. their chief town was 
RAURlCUM v. Augusta Rauracorum, 
now Augst, a village on the Rhine, 
near Basil. ) 
RE ATE, -is, n. Rieti, a town of the 
Sabines, 139. ; Liv. 25, 7. 5 26,11.; 
Inh. Reatini, Liv. 28, 45. Pree- 
fectura Reatlna, the district of Reate, 

Cic. Cat. 3, 2. N. D. 2, 2. ReaHnus 
ager, Rull. 2, 25. called from its plea- 
santness, Reatinorum Tempe, Cic. Att. 
4, 15. Reatina palus, the lake Velinus 
near the town, Plin. 2, 103. vel 
paludes, Plin. 31, 2. The fertile fields 

and pastures round these lakes Virgil 

calls Rosea rura Velini, Mn. 7, 712. 

See Varr. R. R. l, 7-; PUn. 17, 4. 

The grandfather of Vespasian was a 

citizen of Reate, (Municeps Reatinus,) 

Suet. 1. 

REGILLUM v. Regilli, a town of the 
Sabines, Liv. 2, 16. ; Suet. Tib. 1. — 

. REGILLUS lacus, a lake above 

Tusculum, where Posthumius the 
Dictator defeated the Latins, Liv. 2, 
19. ; adj. Regillanus. 

REGIA, supposed to be Armagh in 
Ireland ; and REGIA Altera, Li- 
merick. 

3 G 3 



822 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



KEGINUM v. Castra Regina, a town of 
Vindelicia, Regensburg, on the ri- 
ver Regen ; or Ratisbon in Bavaria. 

REGIUM Lepidum, v. -i, Regio, a 
town of Modena ; Inh. Regienses, 
Cic. Fam. 12, 5.j et 18, 7- i Plin. 3, 
15. 

REGNUM, Ring wood, in Hampshire. 

REMI v. Rhemi, the people of the north 
part of Champagne in France. Their 
principal town, Duricortorium, took the 
name of the people, as was usual in the 
lower ages, RHEIMS, C<bs. G. B. 2, 
5. Iccius Rhemus, ib. 6. Provincia Re- 
mensis, Plin. 4, 17. 

RESiENA v. Resaina, a town of Meso- 
potamia, to the south-east of Carres, 
where Gordian defeated Sapores king 
of the Persians. 

RETINA, a village near the promontory 
Misenum, Plin. Ep. 5, 16. 

RHA, Volga, a river of Russia, the 
largest in Europe, little mentioned by 
ancient authors. A root of great use 
In medicine, which grows on its 
banks, was called Rha-barbarum, Rhu- 
barb. 

RrLETI vel Rheti, a brave people 
who occupied the Alps, from the con- 
fines of the Helvetii in Gaul, to Ve- 
netid and the limits of Noricum on the 
east, to Vindelicia on the north, and 
the flat country of Cisalpine Gaul on 
the south, Horat. Od. 4, 4, 17 ; et 4, 
14, 15. descended from the Tuscans, 
Plin. 3, 20. 

RHiETIA, their country, is now partly 
possessed by the Grisons. Virgil ce- 
lebrates the wine of Rhaetia, {Rhcetica, 
sc. vina,) G. 2, 96. Rhtticce vites, 
Plin. 14, 2. 

RHUMNUS, -untis, f. a village of At- 
tica, near which was the temple of 
Nemesis; hence called Rhamnusia, 
seep. 301. 

RHEDAS, -a;, v. -antis, m. vel Rhesus, 
a river of Bithynia, running into the 
Thracian Bosporus at Chalcgdon. Rhe- 
bantia, the territory on its banks, 
Strab. 

RHEDftNES, the people of Rennes and 
St. Malos in Brittany, Cees. G. 2, 
34. 

RHEGIUM, Rheggio, the last town 
of Italy towards Sicily, 175. Inh. Rhe- 
gini, Cic. Arch. 5.; Liv. 43, 30. 
Rhegina littora, Sil. 13, 94. 

RHENUS, the Rhine, one of the prin- 
cipal rivers of Germany, the ancient 



boundary between Germany and Gau?, 
535. Csas. G. 4, 10, called Bicornis, 
because, before the canal of Drusus was 
cut, it ran by two mouths into the sea, 
Virg. Mn. 8, 727. — Rhenana manus, 
the troops on the Rhine, Martial. 9, 
36, 4. Cisrhmani, those who lived on 
the side of Gaul, or on the west of the 
Rhine ; Transrhenani, the Germans on 
the east, Cces. G. 4, 16. — Also a river 
of Italy, the Rheno, which runs into 
the Po on the south near Bologna, 135. 
Plin. 16, 36. ; Sil. 8, 600. 

RHINOCOLORA v. Rhinocorura } a 
town on the confines of Palestine and 
Egypt, Liu. 45, 11. 

RHIUM v. ~o?i, a promontory cf Achaia 
Propria, at the bottom of the Corin- 
thian gulf, opposite to Antirrhium, 
both called the Dardanelles of Le- 
panto, 313, also the strait itself between 
Naupactus and Patrae, Liv. 27, 30. ; 
38,7- 

RMZONlT,E, a people of Illyricum, 
Liv. 45, 26, their chief town Rhizi- 
mum, Risino, nearRagusa. 

RHODA, Roses, a port town of Cata- 
lonia, Liv. 34, 8. Inh. Rhodenses. 
— Also an ancient town on the Rhone, 
which is said to have given name to 
that river, extinct in the time of Pliny, 
3, 4. 

Rhodanus, Rhone, a large and rapid 
river of France, 535. Caes. G. 1, 1. ; 
Lucan. 1, 433. ; 6, 475. ; Sil. 3, 447. 
Feree Rhodani gentes, the fierce nations 
that lived along its banks, ib. 145. 
Rhodani potor, i. e. Gallus, Horat. Od. 
2, 20, 20. 

Rhodope, a range of mountains in 
Thrace, 345. Medium porrecta sub 
axem, extending to the north, Virg. G, 
3,351. Pede barbaro lustrata, frequent- 
ed by the frantic worshippers of Bacchus, 
Horat. Od. 3, 25, 1 1 . Orpheus Rhodo- 
peius, of Thrace, a Thracian, Ovid. 
Met. 10, 50. ; Art. Am. 3, 321. Rhodo- 
peia arces, the rocks or summits of Rho- 
dope, Virg. G. 4, 461. Rhodopeia spi- 
cula, Thracian darts, Sil. 12, 399. 

RHODUNIA, the top of mount Oeta, 
Liv. 36, 16. 

RHODUS v. ~os, Rhodes, a celebrated 
island near the coast of Lycia, and 
a cognominal city, 341, illustrious for 
its power by sea, called Clara by 
Horace, Od. 1, 7, l, either on account 
of its celebrity, or the remarkable 
clearness of its air, Plin, 2, 62. as by 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



8§S 



Lucan, Clara sole,*, 247 . and Phabeia, 
favoured by Apollo, 5, 5 <>- so Ovid. 
Met. 7, 365. In the most cloudy 
weather the sun is said to shine at least 
once a-day on Rhodes, according to 
fable, on account of his love to a Rho- 
dian nymph; Inh. Rhodji, Liv. 27, 
30. 3 1. ; 2. adj. Rhodius, Rhodiensis et 
Rhoditeus. 

RHOETEUM, a town and promontory 
of Troas, 587- hence Littora Rhcetea, 
Virg. ;En. 6, 505. Beroe Rhceteia, a 
nativeofRhoeteum.it. 5, 646. Ductor 
Rhceteius, the Trojan leader ^neas, ib. 
12, 456. put also for Scipio, bit. 17. 

RHOETIUS MONS, Monte Rosso, in 

RHOSO* a town of Cilicia, celebrated for 

its earthen ware ; whence Rhosiaca vasa, 

Cic.Att. 6, l. - A 
Rhoxalani, a people of Seythia to the 

north of the Palus Maiotis, Tacit. Hist. 

1 79« 

RIGODULUM, Rigol, a village near 
Cologne, on the north side of the Mo- 
selle, Tacit. Hist. 4,71* 

RIPHjEI montes, v. Rhipcei, a chain ot 
mountains on the north of Seythia, 
Plin. 4, 12. Riphcece arces, the sum- 
mits of them, Virg. G. 1, 240. always 
covered with snow, ib. 4, 518.; Lucan. 
4, 118. Riphasus Eurus, a wind blow- 
ing from those mountains, it. 3, 382. 
The Tanais was thought to spring from 
this mountain, {vertice lapsus Riph&o,) 
Lucan. 3, 372. Rtphaice manus, the 
inhabitants of those mountains, xl. 2, 

RODUMNA, Roanne, a town of the 

iEdui on the Loire. 
ROMA, Rome, the capital of Latium 
in Italy, 140. and anciently of the 
world, (Caput orlis terrarum, Liv. 1. 
16. et 21, 30. Caput rerum, Tacit. 
Hist. 2, 32. Caput mundi, Lucan. 2, 
136.) Inh. Romani, Domini rerum, 
Virg. Mn . 1 , 2 8 2 . Romanus populus ; 
ager, the territory of Rome, the same 
with Latium; Romana gens, ib. 33. 
also in poets, gens Romula, the Ro- 
man nation, from Romulus their first 
king, Horat. Carm. Secul. 6. So Ro- 
mula tellus, Virg. iEn. 6, 876. vel 
Romuleumregnum,S\\. 10,280. Romu- 
lea urls, the city of Rome, Ovid. Met. 
15, 625. Romulei muri, the walls of 
Rome,S^. 7, 485. et 11, 7 5. Colles 
Romulei, the hills of Rome, Ovid. Met. 
? 14,845. Romuleoquereanshorrelatre- 



gia (sc. casa) culmo, and the cottage of 
king Romulus was new thatched with 
Roman straw, Virg. Mn. 1, 654. — » 
Romuume, -arum, the Romans, ib, 
621.; Pers. 1,31.; Lucret. 4, 687- 
ROMULEA, a town of the Samnites s 

Liv. 10, 17- . „ , 

ROSCIANUM vel Ruscia, Rossano, the 
port of Thurii in the country of the 
Bruttii. ,„ , , „ 

ROSA v. Rosea, beautiful and fertile 
plains nearReate, Cic. Att. 4, 15. Ro- 
se* campus, Varr. R. R. 1, 7, 10. Ko- 
searura, Virg. Mn. 7 > 712. 
ROSULUM, Monte Rosi, a town ot 
Etruria 



etruria. . 
ROTOMAGUS, Rouen, the capital ot 

Normandy. _ 
Roxolani, a people of Sarmatia, Tac, 

Hist. 1,79. „ . 

RUBE^E promontory, North Cape, the 

most northern point of Scandinavia. 
RUBI, Ruvo, a town of Apulia, Horat. 
Sat. 1, 5, 94. hence Rubea virga, for 
virg*, rods or twigs of the bramble 
bush, or which grew near Rubi. Serv. 
ad Virg. G. I, 266. Inh. Rubishni. 
RUBICON, v. -0, -onis, m. Rugone, 
a river which separated Gallia Cispa- 
dana from Italy, the boundary of Ce- 
sar's province of Gaul, which he was 
prohibited by the laws to pass while 
in actual command, 136, Suet. Css.Ql. 
hence, Caesar ut Hesperiatvetitis consti- 
tit arvis, Lucan. 1, 224. It is formed 
/ of three brooks, and now called at its 

mouth Fiumisino. 
Rubiginis lucus, the grove of the god- 
dess Rubigo, near Rome, Ovid. Fast. 

RUBo/the river Dwina, which falls into 

the Baltic at Riga. ./ 
Rubra Saxa, a place in Etruria, near the 
river Cremera, about nine miles trom 
Rome, Liv. 2, 49. 
RUBRUM MARE, the Red Sea, or 
the sea to the south of Arabia, which 
divides itself into two bays or gults s 
the Arabian and Persian, Plm. 6, 23, 
& 24 Livy likewise seems to mean the 
Arabian sea, or Indian ocean,by Rubrum 
mare, 36, 17-; «, 5»-5 4 „ 5 ' 9- 90 
Horace, by Ruber oceanus, Od. 1, J5, 
32 Lucan , by Rubri stagna profundi, 
8, 853.; Silius Italicus, by Rubra 
undce, 12, 231.; Proper^ by 
brum Saturn, 13,6.; Tlbullus, by 
Rubrum mare, 2, 4, 30. et litlus,4, 2, 
19.; and Virgil, by Rubrum httus, 
Mn. 9, 686. But Rubrum squor 
3 G 4 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



oceani, in Virgil, G. 3, 359. denotes 
the Western or Atlantic ocean, made 
red by the rays of th<> setting sun. — 
Plena maris rulri spoliis, Cleopatra, 
adorned with pearls, Lucan. 10, 139. 
See Mare Erythrceum. 

RUDLE, a small town of Calabria, 169. 
the birth place of Ennius, hence called 
Rudius, v.Ruditms homo, Cic. Arch. 10. 
Nunc RudicB solo memorabile nomen 
alumna, Sil. 12, 397. Inh. RudIni, 
Cic. Orat. 3,42. 

RUFIANA, Rufasii, in Alsace. 

RUFRiE, a town of Campania, Virg. 
JEn. 7, 739.; Sil. 8, 568. Inh. Ru- 
freni, Cic. Fam. 10, 71. 

RUFRIUM, Ruvo, a town of Samnium, 
Liv. 8, 25. 

RUCIA, Rugen, an island in the Bal- 
tic. 

RUSClNO, a town of Gallia Narbon- 
nensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 
near Perpignan, Liv. 21, 24.-— 
Also a sea port town of Africa, ib. 30, 
10. 

RUSELUE, a town of Tuscany, Inh. 
Rusellani, Liv. 28, 45. Rusellanus 
ager, Liv. 10, 4, & 37. 

RuspIna, a town of Africa Propria, be- 
tween Leptis and Adrumetum, Sil. 3, 
260 ; Hirt. Bell. Afr. 6, & 10. 

Rusuccurum v. -ium, a town of Mau- 
ritania, supposed to be Algiers. 

RUTANI v. Ruteni, the people of Ro- 
vergne, in Guienne. Can. G. 1, 45. 
Rutinorum zirbs, Rhodes. 

RUTtlBA, a river of Liguria, Plin. 3, 
5. — Another of Latium, running into 
the Tiber, Lucan. 2, 422. 

RUTCrLT, a people of Latium, the most 
ancient inhabitants of that country, 
Plin. 3,5. Castr a Rutula, Tibull. 1. 
5, 47. Colics Rutuli, Virg. jEn. 7, 
68. 

RUTUPI^E, Richborough or Sand- 
wich in Kent; hence Rulupina lit- 
tora, Lucan. 6, 67 . Rulupino editafundo 
ostrea, Juvenal. 4, 141. Instead of 
Trutulensis porius, some read Rutupen- 
«'s, Tacit. Agric. 38. 

S 

SABA, a city of Arabia Felice, the capi- 
tal of the Sabei, whose country, (Sa- 
b/ea , Horat. Od. l, 29, 3. vei Sab&a 
terra, Ovid. Met. 10, 489.) produced 
frankincense, Plin. 12, 14. (a-ro <ru 
etfiiffS-eu, quod apud eos this 7iascitur, 
quo deos placamus,) Serv, ad Virg. G, 



1,57, hence Sabeum thus, incense of the 
finest kind, Id. JEn. 1, 416. Sabeua 
odor, Col. 10, 262. . also myrrh, cin- 
namon, and balsam, Strab. 16, 778. 
supposed to be the Sheba mentioned in 
scripture. 

SABATHA, Sanaa, a city of Arabia 

Felix. 

SABATHRA v. Sabrata, a small town 
of Syria, Sil. 3, 256. 

SABATA, Sabatia v. -ium, a town of 
Liguria, supposed to be Savona, in 
the territory of Genoa ; hence Sabatina 
vel Sabatia Stagna, Sil. 8, 491. Strab. 
4, 201. Sabatinuslacus, Col. 8, 16, 
2. Sabatia vada, called by Cicero 
simply Vada, between the Appenine 
and Alps, where the road was very bad, 
(locus impeditissimus ad iter faciendum,) 
Fam. 11, 10. Portus VadumSabatium, 
for Vadorum Sabatiorum, now Vadi, 
Plin. 3, 5 s. 7. Mela calls this place 
Sabatia, sc. vada, 2, 4. whence Saba- 
tina tribus, Festus. Liv. 6,5. — Also 
a town of Assyria, on the Tigris. 

SABATINI, a people of Samnium, 
living along the river Sabatus, Sabato, 
which runs into the Volturnus, Liv. 26, 
33. 

SABlNI, an ancient people of Italy, 139. 
said to be named from their piety to 
the gods, (two m ffsfistv,) Plin. 3, 
12 s. 17. et 14, 15. or from SABUS, 
their founder, Sil. 1, 423. very strict 
in theirmorals. (severissimihomines, Cic, 
Vatin. 15. Rigtdi, Horat. Ep. 2, 1, 
25. and hardy, Virg. G. 2, 532. dis- 
ciplind tristi ac tetricdinstructi, Liv.,1, 
18. Horat. Od. 2, 6 V 37.) and their 
women remarkable for their chastity, 
Ovid. Amor. 1, 101, et 3, 8, 61. 
Horat. Epod. 2, 39. Juvenal. 10, 299. 
Martial. 1, 63. Ager Sabinus, the 
country of the Sabines, Liv. 6, 27. 
Horat. Sat. 2, 7, 118, lying among 
the Appennines ; hence Ardui Sabini, 
In. Od. 3, 4, 21. Bellalrix gens bac- 
cifero nulrita Sabino, fruitful in olives, 
Sil. 3, 596. Satis beahis unicis Sabinis, 
sc. pr£ediis, sufficiently satisfied with 
my Sabine villa, Horat. Od. 2, 11, 14. 
Vile Sabinum, sc. vinum, Sabine wine 
of small value, Id. Od. 1, 20. SabeUa 
pules, the Sabine youth, Virg. G. 2, 
167. Sabellis docta Ug07iibus versare 
glebas, Horat. Od. 3, 6, 38. Sabella 
anus, a Sabine old woman, skilled in 
prognosticating futurity, the nurse of 
Horace, Id. Sat. 1, 9, 29. Sabella 
carmina, Sabine charms, or raagicaX 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



825 



incantations, Id. Bpod. 17> 28. Sabel- 

licus sus, Virg.G.3, 255. 
SABIS, Sambre, a river of Gallia Bel- 

gica, which joins the Maese at Namur, 

Cces. G. 2, 16. & 18. 
SABOTA v. Sabatha, Sanaa, a city of 

Arabia Felix. 
Sabhata vel Sabriltha, a town of Africa 

Propria, Plin. 5, 4. Sil. 3, 256. Inh. 

Sabralenses. 
3ABRINA, the Severn; SABRIANA, 

the Bristol Channel. 
SAC/E, a nation of Scythia, near the 

source of the Iaxartes, Plin. 6, 17 • 

Mel. 3, f. 

Sacer Mons, the Sacred Mount, three 
miles east from Rome, beyond the 
Anio, 139. Liv. 2,32. et 3, 52. Cic. 
Br. 14. — Sacra Via, a street of 
Rome, which led from the Forum to the 
capitol, Liv. 2, 13. Cic. Plane.']. Att. 
4, 3. Horat. Sal. l, 9, l. called Sacer 
clivus from its ascent, Od. 4, 2, 35. 

SACRIPORTUS, a place near Signia, 
in the countiy of the Volsci, where 
Sylla defeated the younger Marius, Fell. 
2, 26. Liv. Epit. 8 7. Lucan. 2, 134. 

SACRUM Prom. Cape St. Vincent in 
Spain, which Strabo calls the most 
western point of the earth, 3, 137. 
Several other capes were called by this 
name. 

SACRA^I, a people of Latium, so 
named, because they are said to have 
been descended from one of the priests 
of Cybele, Serv. ad Virg. Mn. 7, 795. 
or because they were born during a 
ver sacrum, Festus. Sacrance acies, the 
troops of the Sacrani, Virg. ib. 

SjETABIS, a town of Hither Spain, on 
an eminence, near the river Sucro; 
celebrated for its fine linen, Sil. 3, 373.; 
hence Setaba sudaria, Catull. 12, 14, 
et 23, 7- 

SAGALASSUS, Sawaklu, a town of 
Pisidia, on the borders of Phrygia ; Inh. 
Sagalassenses ; Sagallassenus ager, Liv. 
38, 15. 

Sagaris, -is, a river of Scythia, Ovid. 

Pont. 4, 4, 47. 
SAGRA v. -as, a river of the Bruttii, 

between Locri and Caulon, Cic. N. D. 

2 2. 

SAGUNTUM v. -us, Mitrviedro, a 
town of Spain, between the Iberus and 
Sucro, 483. Sill 1, 271. Liv. 21, 7. be- 
sieged and taken by Hannibal, ib. 15. 
which gave occasion to the second Punic 
war; Inh. Saguntini, Liv. 21, 2. 
Saguntina rabies, the rage which makes 
the inhabitants of a city, when besieged, 



destroy themselves, as the Saguntines 
did, rather than submit to the enemy r 
Liv. 31, 17. Saguntino pocula jicla 
luto, earthen cups made at Saguntum, 
Martial. 14, 108, et 4, 46, 14. Sa- 
guntina Jicus, Cato, R. R. 8, 1. 

SAIS, -eos, f. Sa, the ancient capital of 
Lower Egypt ; Inh. Sait/e : whence 
the district was named Sailes nomos : 
and one of the mouths of the Nile, 
Saiticum ostium, Stvab. 17, 802. This 
mouth, Strabo makes the same with 
the Ostium Taniticum, the eastmostbut 
one, whereas he places Sais, with other 
geographers, two schami from the west- 
most mouth but one, ib. 803. Hero- 
dotus gives a different account of this 
matter, 2, 17. 

SALA v. Isala, the Issel, joined to the 
Rhine by the cut of Drusus. — Also a 
river of Germany, running into the 
Elbe ; near which were salt-pits, as 
there still are ; hence this river was 
thought to produce salt, Tacit. Ann, 
13, 57. 

SALA, a town of Phrygia Magna. — 
Another of Mauritania. 

SALAMIS v. -in, -mis; v. -ina, -<e, 'f. 
Colouri, an island of Greece, in the 
Saronic gulf, Virg. Mn. 8, 158. near 
which the Greeks defeated the fleet of 
Xerxes, by the able conduct of The- 
mistocles, 334.; Inh. Salaminii, Cic. 
Arch. 8. Att. 5, 21. Salaminia pug- 
na, Nep. 3, 2. Mare Salaminiacum, 
the sea round Salamis, Lucan, 5, 109. 
Salaminiaca trop&a, Sil. 14, 283.— » 
Also a town in the east side of Cyprus., 
built by Teucer, 451, termed ambigua, 
Horat. Od. 1, 7, 22, in opposition to- 
the former, which is called vera, Lu- 
can. 3, 183. 

SALAPIA, Salpe, a town of Apulia, 
near the river Aufidus, 160. Plin. 3, 
-11 ; Inh. Salapini, Cic. Rull. 2, 27. 
Salapitani, Liv. 27, 28. Salapina Pa- 
lus, Canale de St. Antonia, Lucan. 5, 
377. 

SALARIA, a town of Spain. 

SAL ARIA Via, the way by which salt 
was carried from the salt-pits near 
Ostia, to the country of the Sabines, 
184. 

SALASSI, a people inhabiting a valley 
between the Alpes Pennine, and Grain, 
or the Great and Little St. Bernard ; 
now Pal d' Aousta, Liv. 21, 38. 
named from the capital of a colony 
afterwards settled there, called Augus- 
ta Prcetoria, Plin. 3, 17. at the foot 
of the Alpes Grau,lJi\. 21, 38» 



826 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



SALERA, a town of Africa, Liv. 29, 34. 

SALERNUM, Salep.no, the chief town 
of the Picentini, on the Tuscan sea, 
south of Campania, 156. Liv. 34, 45. 
famous for a medical school in the 
lower ages, 156. Salemitana laiebra, 
Plin. 13, 3. 

SALGANEA, a town of Bceotla, near 
the Euripus, Liv. 35, 37, 46, 51. 

SALLENTINI v. Salentini, a people of 
Calabria, Liv. 9, 42. SaUentinus ager, 
their country, Id. 25, 1. Sale?Uini 
campi, Virg. JEn. 3, 400. SaUntinum 
prom, the same with Japygium, Cape 
de Leuca, Serv. ib. et Mel. 

SALIA, a town and river of Asturia, in 
Spain, Mel. the country of the poet 
Prudentius. 

SALICA, a town of Spain, towards the 
source of the Anas. 

SALINiE Dacite, salt-pits near Torda, 
in Transylvania. 

SALMACIS, a fountain of Caria, near 
Halicarnassus, p. 363. 

SALMANTICA, Salamanca, a city of 
Leon, in Spain. 

SALMONE, a town of Elis, where Sal- 
moneus reigned, Strab. 8, 356. whence 
Nympha Salmdnis, his daughter, Flacc. 
by 478. ; Ovid. Amor. 3, 6, 43. — Also 
& promontory on the east side of 
Crete, Acts, 27, 7- called likewise Sal- 
mdnis, -zdis, Dionys. 5, 110. and Sa- 
monium,VYm.et Mel. now Cape Salomon. 

SALO, Xalon, a small river of Spain, 
near Bilbilis, in Arragon, whose waters 
were excellent for tempering steel, 
(armorum temperator) Martial. 4, 55, 
15. (brevis Salo, qui ferrum gelat,) ib. 
1, 50, 12. This river is sometimes 
called llbilis, and runs into the Ebro. 
It is often mentioned by Martial, who 
was born near it, 10, 20, l.j et 10, 
103, 2, &c. 

SALODURUM, Soleure, a town of 
the Helvetii, now the capital of a can- 
ton of that name in Switzerland. 

SALONA v. -x, v. Salo, a maritime 
town of Jllyricum, inhabited by Roman 
citizens, Hirt. B. Alex. 43. ; Lucan. 4, 
404. Near it now stands Spalatro. 

SALYES v. -yi, Salvii v. Salluvii, a 
powerful people of Gaul, occupying 
the country from the Rhone to the 
Var and Liguria, Strab. 4, per. Liv. 5. 
34, & 35.; 21, 26. ; 31, 10. 

Samachonites, a small lake in Galilee, 
into which the Jordan first falls after 
its rise. 

SAMARA v. Samera^ the Somme, a 
liver of Gallia Belgica, 



SamarobrIva, i. e. pons in Samara, after- 
wards called Ambiani, from the people j 
now Amiens, in Picardy. 

SAMARIA, called Sebaste by Herod, 
in honour of Augustus, the capital of 
the country of Samaria, or Samarltis, 
between Judaea to the south, and Gali- 
lee to the north, Plin. 5, 13. 

SAME, a name of the island Cephalenia, 
332, 

SAMNIUM, a country of Italy, IS7. 
Inh. SamnItes, -ium, v. -um, Flor. 

1, 16.; Liv. 7, 29. Samniticum beb- 
lum, ib. A kind of gladiators were 
called Samnites, Liv. 9, 40. Samnit 
gladiator, Cic. Tusc. 2, 17. Samnites 
gladiatores, Cic. Orat. 2, 80.; 3, 23.; 
Sext. 64. 

SAMOS, an island opposite to Ephesus, 
in Ionia, 342. Samia vasa, earthen 
ware made in Samos, Plin. 25, 5. ; 
Plant. Capt. 2, 2, 41.; Cic. Mur. 36. 
Samhs delectabimur , sc. vasis, Cic. ad 
Heren. 4, 52. 

SAMOSATA, a city of Commagene, 
in Syria, on the Euphrates, 593. 

SAMOTHRACE v. -ia, Samothraci, 
an island opposite to the mouth of the 
Hebrus, in Thrace, 346. Liv. 42, 25, 
& 50. Inh. Samothraces, -cum, Liv. 45, 
5. Juvenal. 3, 144, adj. Samothracius. 

Sandaliotis, a name of Sardinia, from 
its resemblance to a sandal, Plin. 3, 7» 

SANE, a town of Macedonia, on the 
Singitic gulf, 327. 

SANG ALA, -orum, a town of the Ca- 
thcei, in India. 

SANGARIS v. -ius, v. Sagaris, Saka- 
ria, a river of Phrygia, Plin. 6, 1. 
Sangarius puer, i. e. Phrygius, Gany- 
medes, born near this river, Stat. Silv. 

2, 4,41. 

SANTftNES v. -i, a people of Aquita- 
nia in Gaul, between the Loire and 
Garonne, now Saintonge, 536. Caes. 1, 
10. sing. Santonus, Lucan. 1, 422. 
hence Santonicus cucullus, a cowl or 
cap made or woven by the Santones, 
Juvenal. 8, 145, called by Martial bar- 
docucullus, 1, 54, 5.; et 14, 128. — 
Santonicus oceanus, that part of the 
mare Aquitanicum, or Bay of Biscay 
between the mouth of the Liger and of 
theGarumna, Tibull. 1,8,10. Santonum 
portus, Rochelle, or Le Seudre. 

SAP^I, a people of Thrace, Ovid. Fast. 
l, 389. 

SAPIRENE v. Saphirene, an island in the 

Arabic gulf, Plin. 6, 29. 
SAPIS vel Jsapis, Savio, a river of 

Gallia Cispadana, running into the Ha- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 827 



driatic, north of the Rubicon, Lucan. 
2, 406. ; Sil. 8, 450. ; Plin. 3, 15. 

SARACENE, a district of Arabia Pe- 
trcea; Inh. Saraceni, who after- 
wards, embracing the religion of Maho- 
met, spread their conquests so widely. 
They seem to have been the same 
with the Characeni of Pliny, 6, 28 s. 32. 

SARAVUS v. Sara, Saar, a river of 
Gallia Belgica running into the Mo- 
selle in Lorrain. 

SARDES, -dium, vel Sardis, -is, Sart, 
the capital of Lydia, 588. Vicinus 
Sardibus amnis, i. e. Pactolus, Ovid. 
Met. 11, 137. adj. Sardianus, Plin. 
15, 23. 

SARDINIA, an island in the Mediter- 
ranean, west from Italy, 278. called 
lchnusa by the Greeks, from its resem- 
blance to the sole of the foot, Sil. 12, 
358. very fertile, hence called Opima, 
Horat. Od. 1, 31, 3. Inter svbsidia 
frumentariaRomce, one of the granaries 
of Rome, Fair. R. R. prcef. 2.; Plin. 
3,7. but extremely unhealthful, Cic. 
Fam. 7, 27.; Tacit. Ann. 2, 85. and 
therefore opposed to Tibur, Martial. 
4, 60, 6. ; Inh. Sardi. After the 
reduction of Sardinia by Tiberius Sem- 
pronius Gracchus ; so many of the in- 
habitants were brought to Rome to be 
sold as slaves, that Sardi venales 
became proverbial for worthless or des- 
picable persons, Aur. Victor de vir. 
illustr. 57. Cic. Fam. 7, 24. ; Liv. 41, 
2. — Sardum mel, very bad honey, 
Horat. Art. Poet. 375. Sardois amarior 
herbis, Virg. Eel. 7> 41. Regna Sardoa, 
Ovid. Fast. 4, 289. Sardonius rims, 
a kind of laughter, produced by eating 
a certain Sardinian herb, called Sar- 
doa, which is said to have proved 
fatal to those who ate of it, Serv. in 
Virgil, ib. Hence Sardinhtm risum ri- 
dere, i. e. exitiabilem, morte luendum, 
Cic. Fam. 7, 25. Sardoce one, the 
Sardinian coasts, Lucan. 3, 64. Trium- 
phus Sardiniensis, gained over Sardinia, 
Nep. 24, 1.— SARDONYX, i. e. Sar- 
da onyx, a gem said to have been first 
found in Sardinia, Plin. 37, 7 s. 31. et 
ibid. c. 12. Solin. 36. hence Sardony- 
chala manus, adorned with a Sardonyx, 
Martial. 2, 29, 2. 
SARDICA, Triaditza, a town of 

Thrace, on the confines of Moesia. 
SARDONES, the people of Roussillon, 
in the south of France, at the foot of 
the Pyrenees, Plin. 3, 4, 



SAREPHTA, Sarfand, a town of Phoe- 
nicia, between Tyre and Sidon. 

SARIPHI, Sahar, mountains which 
separate Margiana from Ariana, east 
from the Caspian sea. 

SARMATIA v. Scythia, the north-east 
part of Europe, and the north of Asia, 
with which the Romans were unac- 
quainted, 354. ; Inh. Sarmatje v. 
Sauromat^, Plin. 4, 12. et 6, 7.; 
Ovid, ex Pont. 1, 2, 78, &c. Mel. 2,-1. ; 
Juvenal. 2, 1. called truces, from their 
ferocity, ib. 15, 125. and refvgi v. va- 
gi, from their having no fixed habita- 
tion, Stat. Silv. 4, 7, 50. sing. Sarmata 
velox, Lucan. 3, 94. hence Hiemes 
Sarmaticte, cold, ib. 5, 1, 128. Sarma- 
ticum bellum, Lucan. 3, 282. Solum $ 
Ovid. Pont. 1, 2, 50. Juga, Trist. 1, 
7, 40. Tellus Sarmalis, -Idis, ib. 1, 2, 
82. Saimatice loqui, ib. 5, 12, 59. 

SARMIA, the island Guernsey. 

SARMIZEGETHUSA, Warhel, or 
Gradisca, a town of Dacia, the royal 
residence on the river Sargetia, Sereth 
in Walachia. 

SARNUS, Sarno, a river of the Picen- 
tini in Italy, 154. running past Pom- 
peii, hence called Pompeianus, State 
Silv. 1, 2, 265. 

SARONlCUS Simis, the gulf of Engia 
or Eglna, between Attica and Argolis, 
287. 

Sarpedon, a promontory of Cilicia, 590. 
Liv. 38, 38.; Mel. 1, 13. 

SARRA, the ancient name of Tyre, 
Gell. 14, 6. hence Sarranum ostrum, 
Tyrian purple, Virg. G. 2, 506. ; Col. 
10, 287. Sarrance vestes, purple gar- 
ments. Picta Sarrana aulcea togas, the 
triumphal robe adorned with purple and 
embroidery, Juvenal. 10, 38. Gens 
Sarrana, the Tyrian nation, Sil. 1, 72, 
Sarrano murice fulgens, Sil. 15, 205. 
Justum Sarrana ducebat cade triumph-* 
um, triumphed over the Carthaginians, 
SiL 6 s 662. 

SARRASTES, -ium, the people who 
lived along the Sarnus, 154. 

SARS, Lezara, a river of Gallicia, near 
Cape Finisterre. 

SARSlNA vel Sasslna, Sarsina, a 
town of Umbria, dives lactis, Sil. 8, 
463.; Martial. 9, 59, 4. Mela lactis 
Sassinale de Silva, v. Sarsinate, cheese 
produced there, ib, 3, 59, 35. Inh. 
Sarsinates, Plin. 3, 14 s. 19.J sing. 
Sarsmas or anciently Sarsinatis. 
— The birth-place of Plautus, to 



828 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



which he is supposed to allude. Most. 

3, 2, 8. 

SARUS, a river of Cappadocia, Liv. 
33, 41. 

SASON v. Saso, Sasone, an island mid- 
way between Epire and Brundusium, 
Slrab. 6, 281; Lucan. 2, 62?.; 5, 
650. genit. Sasdnis, Sil. 7, 480. 

SATARCHjE, a people near the Palus 
Maeotis, Mel. 2, 1. ; Flacc. 6, 144. vel 
Saturchei, Plin. 6. 7„ 

SATICULA, a town of Samniumj Liv. 
9, 21.; 23, 39. Inh. Saticulani, ib. 
27, 10. Saticulus asper, Virg. Mn. 
7, 729. Saticulanus ager, Liv. 23, 14. 

SATRICUM, a town of Latium, near 
Corioli, Liv. 2, 39. ; 6, 8.; Inh. Sa- 
TRICANI, ib. 9, 12 ; 28, 1 1. 

SATRiE vel Sarrce, a people of Thrace, 
who always preserved their indepen- 
dence, Herodot. 7, 111. 

SATUR/E palus, a part of the Pontine 
lake, Virg. JEn. 7, 801. ; Sil. 8, 382. 

SATURUM v. -eium, a town of Cala- 
bria, near which was fine pasturage for 
horses ; hence Caballus Satureianus, a 
fine horse, Horat. Sat. 1, 6, 59. 

SATURNIA tcllus, the land of Saturn, 
'an ancient name of Italy, Virg. G. 2, 
173.; JEn. 8, 39. — Saturnia, sc. 
urbs, a city built by Saturn on the 
Tarpeian mount, ib. 358. which was 
also called Mons Saturnius, Varr. L. L. 

4, 6. et Festus. 

SATURNIA, formerly Aurinia, a co- 
lony of Roman citizens transplanted to 
the territory of Caletra in Etruria, Liv. 
39, 55. 

SAVO, Saone, the boundary between 
Latium, when extended, and Campa- 
nia, Plin. 3, 5. a slow river (piger), 
Stat. Silv. 4, 3, 66. 

SAVO v. Savona, a town of Liguria, 
among the Alps, Liv. 28, 46. 

SAVUS, the Save, a river of Pannonia, 
running into the Danube at Belgrade. 

Saxones, a people of Germany, near the 
isthmus of the Chersonesus Cimbrica, 
Jutland, Ptolem. 3, 11.; Claudian. in 
Eutrop. 1, 392. not mentioned by any 
more ancient author. See p. 567. 

Scjek porta, a gate of Troy, Virg. JEn. 
2, 612.; SU. 13, 73. 

SCALA Tyriorum, the Ladder of the 
Tynans, a high mountain on the coast 
of Phoenicia, Joseph. B.J. 2, 17. 

SCALABIS, St. Irene or Santaren, a 
town of Estremadura in Portugal. 

SCALD1S, the Scheldt, a river of 
Belgica, which below Antwerp divides 



into two branches, one of them johnny 
the Maese, Cces. 6, 33. 

SCALDIS PONS, Conde, a strong 
town of Hainauk, on the Scheldt. 

SCAMANDER v. Xanthus, a small 
river of Troas, issuing from mount 
Ida, 587. Horat. Epod. 13, 14. 

SCAMANDRIA, a small town on the 
Scamander, Plin. 4, 30. 

SCANDINAVIA v. Scandia, Norway, 
Sweden, Lapland, and Finland, sup- 
posed by the ancients to be an island* 
{insulam esse incomperta magnitudinis,) 
Plin. 4, 13. 

SCAPTIA, an ancient town of Latium, 
Plin. 3, 5. whence Scaptia pubes, Sil. 
8, 397» Scaptia tribus, Liv. 8, 17- 
Trihdes Scaplienses, those who compo- 
sed that tribe, Suet. Aug. 38. 

SCAPTESYLA v. Scaptachyla. Skip- 
silar, a place near Abdera in Thrace, 
famous for its gold mines, 346. Lucret. 
6, 810. belonging to Thucydides, in 
right of his wife, where he wrote his 
history, and where he was slain, Plu- 
tarch, in Cimone; et de exilio, c. 19» 

SCARDON v. -ona, Scardona, a town 
on the confines of Liburnia and Dal- 
rnatia, Slrab. 7, 315. 

SCARDONA, Isola Grossa, an 
island in the Hadriatic, on the coast of 
Liburnia. 

SCARDUS mons v. Scordus, Monte A*- 
gentare, a range of mountains which 
separate Dardania and Msssia from 
Illyricum, Liv. 43, 20. 

SCARPHEA, a town of Locrls, not far 
from Thermopylae, Liv. 33,3.; 36, 19. 

Sceleratus Vicus, a street in Rome, 
where Tullia rode over the dead body 
of her father Servius Tullius, Liv. 1 , 
48. lnfamemque locum sceleris, 
quce nomine fecit, Ovid, in Ibin. 365.-— 
Sceleratus Campus, a place without 
the walls of Rome, where a vestal 
virgin, who had violated her vow of 
chastity, was buried alive, Liv. 8, 15. 

SCENA v. Senus, the Shannon, the 
largest river of Ireland, Oros. 1, 2. 

SCENA, a town on the confines of Baby- 
lonia; Inh. ScenIt&, Slrab. 16, 748. 

SCENITvE, the Bedouin Arabs, who 
live In tents, without any fixed habita- 
tion, Slrab. 16, 747- properly ex- 
pressed by the Latin term Campestres, 
Plin. 6, 28. Solin. 63. Marcellinus 
observes, that the ScenUte were afterr 
wards called Saraceni, 22, 15. et 23, 6. 

SCEPSIS, a town of Mysia or, Troas, 
where the writings of Aristotle and 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



829 



Theophrastus, being long concealed be- 
low "round, were damaged by the wet 
and worms, Strab. 10, 609. whence 
MetrodOrus Scepsius, a native of this 
place, of a remarkable memory, Plin. 7, 

27. Cic. Tusc. l, 24. Or. 1, 11 '. et 2, 
88. 

SCILLUS, a small town of Ells, where 
Xenophon wrote his history of Greece, 
468. 

SCHERIA, a name of Coreyra, Plin. 4, 
12. 

SCIATHOS, an island in the jEgean sea, 
north of Euboea, Liv. 31, 45. Herodot. 
7, 179. Val. Flac. 2, 8. 

SCIONE, a town of Macedonia, on the 
Thermaic gulf, Plin. 4, 10. 

SCIRESSA, a mountain of Arcadia, 
Plin. 4, 5. 

SCIRONIA saxa, v. Sciromdes petrce, 
rocks between Megara and Corinth ; 
named from a robber Sciron, who in- 
fested that place, and Was slain by The- 
seus, 302. A disagreeable north-west 
wind, blowing from thence, was called 
at Athens Sciron, Senec. Nat. Q. 5, 
17. Plin. 2, 47. 

SCGDRA, Scutari, or Iscorlar, a town 
of Illyricum, the residence of king Gen- 
tius, Liv. 43, 20.; 44, 31. Inh. Sco- 
DRENSES, lb. 45, 26. 

SCISSIS, a town of Spain, Liv. 21, 60. 

SCORDISCI, a people of Maesia or Pan- 
nonia, Liv. 41, 19. 

SCOTI, the Scots, who gave name to 
Scotland, concerning whose origin au- 
thors are not agreed, 491. They are 
mentioned by Claudian, as a different 
nation from the Picts, De tertio Consu- 
latuHonorii,vers.54. and represented by 
Jerome as cannibals, who fed on human 
flesh, Contra Jovin. lib. 2. So Chry- 
*ostome, in Sermon, de Pentecost.— -adj. 
Scoticus, Claudian. de Laud. Stil. 2, 
254. — It is remarkable that the name 
of Scots is unknown in the Erse lan- 
guage. If an unlettered Highlander be 
asked of what country he is, he replies 
that he is an Albanich or Gael. 

SCOTUSSA, a town of Macedonia, near 
the Strymon; Inh. Scotusscei, Plin. 4, 
10. -—Also a town of Thessaly, Liv. 

28, 5, & 7.; 36, 14. Scotuss&us ager, 
Liv. 33, 6. 

SCULTENNA, Panaro, a ri*er of 
Gallia Cispadana, running into the Po 
at Padinum, Plin. 3, 16. Liv. 41, 12. 
& 18. 

3CYLACEUM v. Scylacium, Squil- 



lace, a town of the Bruttii, cn the 
Sinus Scylacius, 178. Scylacea littora, 
Ovid. Met. 15, 701. 
SCYLLzEUM, Skilleo, a town and 
prom, of the Brut Hi, near the north end 
of the Fretum Siculum, where is a dan- 
gerous rock, anciently supposed to be 
the residence of the fabulous monster 
Scylla, 174. — Also a prom, of Ar- 
gons, 287. 
SCYROS, Syra, an island in the Egean. 
sea, to the east from the middle of Eu- 
boea, where Achilles was educated, 336. 
hence Scyria membra, the limbs of 
Achilles, Ovid. Ep. 8, 112. Scyria 
pubes, the forces of Pyrrhus, Virg. Mn. 
2,477. Scyriades, the women of Scyrosj, 
Stat.Achil. 2, 147. 
SCYTHIA vel Sarmatia, the name given 
by the ancients to that part of Europe 
and Asia on the north, with which 
they were unacquainted; supposed to be 
higher than the south, Virg. G. 1, 
240.; Inh. Scythe; sing. Scytha 
v. -es; Campeslres, living in plains, or 
by pasturage, Horat. Od. 3, 24, 9- 
Profugi vel errantes, wandering with- 
out any fixed habitation, ib. 1, 35, 9. et 
4, 14, 42. Lucan. 3, 267, represented 
as very just, Justin. 2. pr. But they 
were not all of the same character, 
Strab. 7, 302. Hence Scytha, for a 
cruel or inhospitable person, Lucan. 
10, 455. — Sythici siderapoli, thestars 
round the north pole, Martial. 6, 58, 
2. Scythicus pontus, the Euxine sea, 
Lucan. 2, 580. vel Scythicce undce, ib. 
42o. which last phrase is also put for 
the Palus Mcedtis, ib. 5, 441. Scythicus 
Jster, the Danube, 2, 50. Tanais, 9, 
4 14. Libertas Scythicum bonum, 7,435. 
Scythici plaustri patiens palus, the palus 
Maeotis, when frozen, 2, 641. Scythi- 
ca ara, the altar of Diana, in the 
Chersonesus Taurica, where strangers 
were sacrificed to that goddess, ib. 7, 
777« — 1 — Scythtdes, -um, Scythian wo- 
men, Ovid. Met. 15, 360. Flacc. 5. 
-— Datames Scythissa matrenatus, Nep. 
14, l.—Scytheeh sometimes put for the 
Parthians, who were sprung from the 
Scythians. So Scythicce orce, Sagittee, 
&c. for Parthicce, Lucan. 2, 553; 8, 
353, & 432.; 9, 238, & 827. Horace 
includes, under the name of Scythians, 
all the nations to the north-east of the 
Hadriatic, Od. 2, 11, 1. Jam Scythes 
laxo meditantur arcu cedcrecampis, think 
of submitting to Augustus, ib. 3, 8, 23, 



830 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



SCYTHOTAURI, a people of Cherso- 
nesus Taurica, PHn. 4, 12. who immo- 
lated strangers, Solin. 20. 

Scythopolis, olim Nysa, a city of De- 
capolis, in Syria. Plin. 5, 18. 

SEBASTE, i. e. Augusta, a name 
given to several cities in honour of Au- 
gustus. See Samaria. 

Sebethus v. Sebethos, Sebeto, a river 
running past Naples, 153. LymphaSe- 
lethis, -Mis, Col. 10, 134. 

SEBINUS v. Sevhius, the lake of Iseo, 
which transmits the river Ollius into 
the Po, Plin. 3, 19. 

3EDONI, a people of Gaul on the 
Rhone ; Sedunorum Civitas, Sion, in 
the Valaisy Caes. G. 3, l. 

SEDUSI1, a people of Germany, Cxs. 
l, 51. 

SEGALAUNI, the people of Valenti- 

nois, in Dauphine. Plin. 3, 4. 
SEDETANI, a people of Spain, Liv. .34, 

2o. Sedetanus ager, ib. 38, 24. Sedeta- 

na Conors, Sil. 3, 372. 
SEGETASITICA, a town of Spain, Liv. 

34, 17. 

SEGESTA, a town of Sicily. See 
JEgesta. 

SEGNI, a people of Gallia Belgica, now 

Limburg, Cass. G. 6, 31. 
SEGOVIA v. Segobia, Segovia, a city of 

Old Castile, in Spain, 483. 
SEGOBRIGA, Segorbe, the capital of 

Celtiberia ; Inh. Segobrigenses,V\"m. 3,3. 
SEGONTIUM, Carnarvon, in North 

Wales ; Inh. Segontiaci, Cses. G. 5. 21 . 
SEGUSIANI, a people of Gaul, in Lio- 

nois, C&s. G. l, 10. Plin. 4, 18.— 

Segusianorum Forum, Feurs, on the 

Loire. 

SEGUSIO, Susa, a town of Piedmont, 
on the river Durias or Doria, Plin. 3. 
17 s. 21. 

SEGUSTERO, Sisteron, a town of 
Provence on the Durance. 

SELASIA v. Sellasia, atown ofLaconica. 
285. iiu. 34, 28. 

SELEUCIA, Bagdad, a city at the con- 
fluence of the Tigris and Euphrates.— 
Another about five miles north of the 
mouth of the Orontes, in Syria, which 
gave the name of SELEUCIS to that 
part of the country, 594. called Sdeucea 
v. -la Pieria, because it stood at the foot 
of mount Pierius, Cic. Alt. 5, 20. Plin. 
5,22. nowSuvEDiA; Inh. Sekuscnses. 
— Also the royal residence of the Par- 
thians, Cic. Fam. 8. 14. — Also the 
name of several other places. 



SELEUCIS, a district of Syria, called 
Tetrapolis, from four cities ; built 
by Seleucus, termed the Sister cities; 
Antiochla, named from his father ; Se- 
leucia, from himself ; Apamia, from his 
wife ; and Laodicea, after his mother, 
Strab. 16, 749. 

SELGA, a town of Pisidia, Liv. 35, 13. 
Inh. Selgenses. 

SELlNUS, -untis, a city of Sicily, not far 
from Lilybeeum ; Inh. Selinuntii, 268. 
Near Sellnus were THERMS Se- 
linuntia, now Sciacca, ib. — Also a 
town of Cilicia, Liv. 33, 20. where Tra- 
jan died ; whence it was called Trajano- 
polis, Xiphilin. — Also the name of two 
small rivers which encompassed the tem- 
ple of Diana near Ephesus, Plin. 5, 29. 

— Another in Cilicia, Strab. 14, 669. 

— Selinusius lacus, a lake at the mouth 
of the river Cayster, Strab. 14, 642. 

SELLETiE, a people of Thrace near 
mount Hsemus, Liv. 38, 40. 

SELLI vel SelU, a people of Epire, near 
Dodona, Strab. 7, 328. of great anti- 
quity ; hence called veteres, Lucan. 3, 
180. 

SELYMBRIA, Selivria, a city of 
Thrace, on the Propontis, Liv. 33, 39. 

SEMNONES, a people of Germany, be- 
tween the Elbe and the Oder, 567. 

SEMURIUM, a plain near Rome, Cic. 
Phil. 6, 6. ; Macrob. Sat. l, 10. 

SENOGALLIA v. Sena Gallica, Seno- 
gaglia, a town of Umbria, 136. Liv. 
27, 46. near the river Senna, Luton. 
2, 407. Smonum de nomine Sena, Sil. 
8, 455. Relictum Gallorum a populis 
servat per Secida nomen, Sil. 15, 555. 
Senensis populus, ib. 38. Senogalliensis 
colonia, Frontin. de colon. 

SEN I A, Segna, a town of Liburnia, 
Plin. 3, 21 s. 25. 

SENCNES, Senonnm, a people of Gaul, 
living along the Seine, next above the 
Parisii, Cxs. G.B.I , 1)> &c. a colony 
of whom invaded Italy, took and burned 
Rome, Liv. 5, 35, &c. 

SENTINUM, Sentina, a town of Um- 
bria; whence Sentinas ager, Liv. 10, 
27, & 30. Inh. Sentinates, -turn. 

Senus. See Sce?ia. 

SEPIAS, Cape de St. George, a cape in 
Magnesia of Thessaly, 321. 

SEPLASIA,a place at Capua, where oint- 
ments were sold, Cic. Pis. 7 & 11.; 
Agr. 2, 34. 

SEPPHORIS, afterwards Diocxsaria, a 
town of Galilee. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



831 



SeptemAqu/e, a place in the territory 
ofReate,a part of the lakes, or the 
whole, Cic. Alt. 4, 15,.— Septem 
Frvtres, Gebel-Mousa, seven moun- 
tains in Mauritania, so named from their 
number and resemblance, Sjrab. 17-; 

MeL 5> J, Septem Maria, the 

seven mouths of the Po, so called by 
the natives. See Padus. 

SEPTEMPEDA, St. Severino, a town 
ofPicenum. 

Sevtizonium, a particular kind of budd- 
ing at Rome, Suet. Tit. 1. more than 
one, Marcellin. 15, 7- Spartian. be- 
vet. 19« 

SEPYRA, a village at the Foot of mount 

Amanus, in Cilicia, Cic. Fam. 15, 4. 
SEQUANA, the Seine, a noble river of 

France, C«. 1. l,r Sesuani, 

the people of Franche Compte, between 
the Sofcne, mount Vosgue, and mount 
Jura, C«s. B.G. 1, 1, 8, & 31.; 4, 
10. i Tacit. Ann. 3, 45. Sequanagens, 
Lucan. 1, 425. Sequanum genus vitium, 
PHn. 14, 1. Sequanic* pinguis text- 
triris alumna, sc. Endromis, a thick 
kind of garment, wrought by a woman 
of the Sequani, Martial. 4, 19, 1. 
SERES, sing. Ser, a people of Asia, on 
the confines of India and Scythia, now 
Cathay, or the north part of China, 
642. Virg. G.2, 121.; Plin. 6, 17 s. 
20.; Lucan. 1, 19. termed colorati 
from their dusky colour, Ovid. Amor. 
1, 14, 6. Serica, sc. regio, their 
country; hence Ser ics. vestes, gar- 
ments woven by the Seres, i. e. silk, 
concerning the manner of fabricating 
which the ancients were ignorant, Plin. 
21,3.; Jsidor. 19,27. Virgil speaks 
of the Seres, as getting their materials 
for making cloth, (vellera, fleeces,) 
from the leaves of trees, like cotton, 
G. 2, 121. Serici /ntZm/ft, Horat. Epod. 
8. 15. Pallia Serica, Stat. Silv. 3, 4, 
89. Sericatus, dressed in silk, Suet. 
Cat. 52,—SagitU Series, i. e. Scy- 
thian or Parthian arrows, Horat. Od. 
1,29,9. Lucan mentions Seres in 
Ethiopia, 10, 29. 
SERiPHUS, Serpho, one of the Cy- 
clades, 337. Inh. Seriphii. Tacitus 
calls this island nothing but a rock. 
Saxum Seriphium, Tacit. Ann. 4, 21. 
SERRHEUM, a fort in Thrace, Liv. 31, 
16. 

Servilius Lacus, a lake near Rome, Cic. 

S. Rose. 32. 
SESSlTES, Sessia, a river of the Le- 

pootii, in Cisalpine Gaul, running into 

7 



the Po below Casal, Plin. 3, 16. 
SESTOS v. -us, Zeminic, a town'of 
Thrace on the Hellespont, opposite to 
Abydos, 349. Liv. 32, 33.; 37, 9. 
Xerxes pontibus admovit Seston Abydo, 
joined them by a bridge, Lucan. 2,674, 
the native place of Hero, the mistress 
of Leander ; whence she is called Sestias, 
-adis, Stat. Theb. 6, 547. Sestiacum 
pelagus, Auson. in Mosell. 287- 
SETIA, Sezza, a town of the Volsci, in 
Latium, Liv. 6, 30.; 32. 26. situate 
upon the declivity of a hill, (Pendula,) 
above the Pontine marshes and plains, 
Martial. 10, 74, 10, et 13, 112. Inh. 
Setihi, ib. 8, l. Setinus ager. Cic. 
Rull. 2, 25. very fertile in corn and 
wine, {Setinum, sc. vmurn,) Martial. 6, 
86, 1.; et 10, 74, 11. which Augustus 
13 said to have preferred to all other 
wines, Plin. 14, 6. hence Setia is said 
to be Ipsius mensis seposta Lyai, Sii. 8, 
378. The wine of Setia is also cele- 
brated bv Juvenal, 5, 34. ; et 10. 27. 
SEVERUS, a mountain of the Sabines, 

Virg. Mn. 7, 713. 
SEVINUS. SeeSebinus. 
SEVO mons, Fiell or Do/re, a range of 
mountains between Norway and Swe- 
den, Plin. 4, 13. 
SEXTliE AQUjE, Aix, a city of Pro- 
vence, so named from its founder Sex- 
tius, and from the number of its cold 
and hot springs, Liv. Epit. 61. ; Fell. 

SIBARIS v. Sybaris, an ancient city of 
Lucania, on the Tarentine gulf, 170. 
Inh. SiBARlTffi, sing. ~ila v. -tes, re- 
markable for their luxury and effemi- 
nacy, Quinctiliaji, 3,7, 24. hence Siba- 
ritici libelli, obscene, Martial. 12, 97, 
2. the same with SibarUis, -tdis, Ovid. 
Trist. 2, 417. — Sibaritanus exercitus s 
the army of Sibaris, Plin. 8, 42. 
SICAMBRI v. Sugambri, a warlike peo- 
ple of Germany, ihhahiting the country 
on the south side of the Lippe, against 
whom Caesar crossed the Rhine, Cas. 
G. 4, 18. They were conquered by 
Augustus, and brought over to the 
other side of the Rhine, Tacit. Ann. 
12, 39.; Suet. Aug. 21.; Horat. Od. 
4, 2, 36.; et 14, 51. 
SICAMBRIA, Guelderlano, the coun- 
try of the Sicambri, Claudian. in Eu- 
trop. 1, 383. 
SICANI, a people originally from Spam, 
who seized on part of Italy, and, being 
driven from thence, took possession of 
Sicily, which was from them called SI- 



832 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



CANIA, Serv. ad Virg. Mn. 8, 
328.; Thucydid. 6, 2, &c 3. and from 
their leader Siculus, SICILIA. Dionys. 
1 . Some of the Sicani seem to have 
remained in Italy, Virg. Mn. 7, 795. 
Pliny mentions them among the ancient 
inhabitants of Latium, 3, 5. hence 
king Latinus mentions a tract of conn- 
try contiguous to the Tiber, extending 
westwards from Laurentum to the ter- 
ritories of the Sicani, Virg. Mn. 11, 
316. — Virgil always shortens the first 
syllable, and lengthens the last in Si- 
cani, Mn. 5, 23. &c. Fluctus Sicani, 
the Sicilian waves, Ed. 10, 4. So 
Horat. Epod. 17, 32. ; Proper t. 1, 16, 
29. But Silius Italicus has gens Si~ 
cana, 14, 258. All the poets make Si- 
canius, Virg. Mn. 3, 692. ; Ovid. Met. 
15, 279.; Lucan. 3, 59, & 177.; 6,66. 

SICCA, a town of Numidia ; Inn. Sic- 
censes, Sallust. Jug. 56. ; Plin. 5,3. 

SICILIA, Sicily, the largest island in 
the Mediterranean, 256.; Inh. Sicu- 
JA,acuti, Cic. Verr. 3, 8. dicaces, ib. 
4, 43. faceti, Orat. 2, SA.frugi et so- 
brii, Verr. 3, 27. under the patronage 
of Cicero, Att. 14, 12. made Roman 
citizens by Anthony, ib. — their rights 
before that, Verr. 2, 13. Siculi mon- 
ies, Virg. Eel. 2, 21. Tyranni, Horat. 
Ep. 1, 2, 58. Siculee dapes, i. e. deli- 
catce, from the Sicilians paying parti- 
cular attention to cookery, Id. Od. 3, l , 
18. • Sicelides muses, Virg. Eel. 4, 1. 

— Siciliense /return, vulgo Siculum, 

the Straits of Messina, Cic. Nat. D. 3, 
10. Siculum mare Pceno purpureum 
sanguine, the sea round Sicily, tinged 
with Carthaginian blood, Horat. Od. 2, 

12, 2. by the Romans, first under Dui- 
lius, p. 237. and then under Lutatius 
Catulus, ib. Ferris Siciliensis prcetura, 
which Verres bore in Sicily, Verr. 2, 6. 
Siciliaise ediclum, the edict which Ver- 
res published as Praetor in Sicily, Verr. 
1,43. Qucesturamea Siliciensis, Att. 

13, 38. Siliciensis annus the year which 
Cicero spent in Sicily as Quaestor, Brut. 
92. Silicienses pecunia, money brought 
from Sicily tobribe the judges of Verres, 
Verr. 1, 8. — Sicilisso -are, to speak the 
J" icilian language, Plaut. Men. Prol. 12. 

SIC0R1S, the Seore, a river of Cata 
Ionia in Spain, Plin. 3, 3. ; Lucan. 4, 

14, & 130. 

SICYON, Basylico, an ancient city 
of Achaia Propria, near the river 
Asopus, abounding in olives ; hence 
termed ollvifera, Ovid, in lbin. 



317. ; Stat. Theb. 4, 50. .and Sicyoni* 
bacca, an olive, Virg. G. 2, 519. the 
native place of ARATUS, the cele- 
brated general of the Achaean league, 
474. where the general assembly of 
that confederacy used frequently to be 
holden, Liv. 32. 19. — Sicyonius ager, 
ib. 33, 15. — Sicyonii calcei, a particu- 
lar kind of shoes, the wearing of which 
was thought effeminate in men, Cic. 
Orat. 1, 54. vel Sicyonia, sc. calcea- 
menta, Lucret. 4, 1118. Pliny calls 
Sicyon Officinarim omnium metallorum 
patria,the country of all excellent work- 
men in all metals, because Dipcemis 
and Scyllis, the first distinguished sta- 
tuaries, settled there, 36, 4. 
SIDA, a city of Pamphylia, Cic. Pam, 

3, 6. ; Liv. 37, 33. ; Inh. Sidetce, Liv, 
35, 48. sing. Sidetes. 

SIDICINI, the inhabitants of the country 
round Tednum Sidicinum, in the north 
of Campania, on the left bank of the 
Liris, Liv. 7,29.; 8, 1.; 22, 57.; 
Cic. Phil. 2, 41. extending to the sea, 
Virg. Mn. 7, 727. Sidicinus miles, 
Si I. 8, 513. Sidicinus ager, Liv. 10, 
14.; 26, 9. 

SIDON, Seide, or Zazde, a city of 
Phoenicia, Mel. l, 12. ; Inh.- Sidonii, 
Justin. 18, 3. famous for their inge- 
nious manufactures (even in the time 
of Homer, II. 5, 2S9. ; Slrab. 1,41.) 
particularly of glass, Plin. 5, 19. and 
purple, Lucan. 2, 217. ;adj. Sidonius, 
with do sometimes long, as Virg. Mn. 
1, 446, and 613.; 9, 266.; 11, 74.; 
Ovid. Met. 3, 129.; &7. 5, 474.; 6, 
85, & 343. {so Sidona, the accus. of 
Sidon. Virg. Mn. 1, 619. and Sidone, 
abl. Ovid. Met. 4, 572.) but oftener 
short, Virg. Mn. 1, 678.; 4, 75, 
137, 545, & 683.; 5. 571, &c. ; Ovid. 
Met. 4, 543. ; Poiit. 1, 3, 77-5 Trist. 

4, 2, 27.; Sil. 6, 109. SoSidonis, 
-idis, i. e. Dido, born at Sidon, Ovid. 
Met. 14, 80. Anna, the sister of 
Dido, Sil. 8, 70. or Europa, Ovid. Fast. 
5,610,& 618. or the country of Si- 
don, Met. 2, 840. but we also find 
Sidonis; as, Collocat hanc siratis con- 
cha Sidonide tinctis, on couches covered 
with cloth dipt in purple dye, extracted 
from a Sidon ian shell-fish, ib. 10, 26?. 
(as the Greeks said either X/^aiv, -wva?, 
vel ~2 3avos)» But do in Sidoyriis, Sidoni- 
as, and Sidonio t must always be short in 
an hexameter verse and long in Sidonia 
and Sidonius, when followed by a word 
beginning with a vowel. So Sidunzda, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 833 



Sik 8, 194. from Sidwiis, ib. 200. and 

Sklon ice, ib . 213. Ductor Sidonius 

Hannibal, Sil. 12, 627. et 13, 144. vel 
Rector, ib. 514. 
SIENA Julia, Sienna, a city of Etruria, 
136. ; Inh. Senenses v. Senienses, Cic. 
Brut. 18. Se?iiensis colonia, Tacit. Hist. 
4, 45. 

SIG A, Ned-Roma, a town of Mauritania, 
the residence of King Syphax, over 
against Malaga In Spain j Sigensisportus, 
the harbour. 

SIGEUM, Cape Ineihisart, a town, 
port, and promontory of Troas, 587- 
CO stadia along the shore to the south 
of the promontory Rhaeteum, Strab. 
13, 595. hence Sigea freta, Virg. 
ikn. 2, 312. littora, Ovid. Fast. 4, 
279- et Sigeia, Id. Met. 13, 3. 

SIGNIA, Segni, a town of the Vol- 
sci in Latium, Liv. 1, 55.; 2, 21.; 
celebrated for its wine, fiil. 8, 380. 
Inh. Signini, ib. 27, 10. — ■ — Also a 
mountain above Apamia in Phrygia, 
Plin. 5,29. 

SILD, Silva, a woody mountain of the 
Bruttii near Rhegium, noted for pro- 
ducing pitch, Cic. Brut. 22. of vast ex- 
tent, "Virg.Mn. 12, 715. 

Silarus, vel SiUr, Silaro, a river 
of Lucania, 1/2. running through 
the territory of Salernum, Lucan.2, 
425. Its waters are said to be of a 
petrifying uature, Plin. 2, 103. ; Sil.2 f 
582. 

SILICIS MONS, Montseuci, a town in 

the territory of Padua. 
SILIS, a river of Venetia in Italy, Plin. d, 

18. 

SILPIA, a town of Spain, Liv. 2 8, 12. 

SILVANECT/E v. -es, the people of 
Senlis, in the Isle of France. 

SILVIUM, Gorgolione, a town of Apu- 
lia ; Inh. Silvini, Plin. 3, 1 1. — Also 
a town of Istria, now Cadi Sei.va. 

SILfjRES, the people of South Wales, in 
Britain, 491, & 496. 

SIMlLiE, lucusy a grove near Rome, 
Liv. 39, 12. 

Simbruina stagna, three beautiful 
lakes in Latium, formed by the river 
Anio, Tacit. Ann. 14, 22- called Sim- 
brivium, Sil. 8, 371. near the Sim- 
bndni colles, whence Claudius brought, 
water to Rome, ib. 11, 13. These 
lakes gave name to SUBLAQUEUM, 
Subjaco, (q. sub Lacus,) a town of 
the jEqui, Plin. 3, 12. near which 
was a villa of Nero's, Tacit. Ann. 14, 
22. 



SIM.ETHUS, v. Symcethvs, Giaretta, 
a . river of Sicily to the south of Catana, 
259. Rapidi vada Jlava Simcethi, 
Sil. 14, 231. Simcethia Jlumina, Virg, 
Mn. 9, 58-t. whence NymphaSimcethis, 
zdis, the daughter of Simaethus, Ovid. 
Met. 13, 750. — Also a town near this 
river, Plin. 3, 8. 

Simkna, a town of Lycia, near mount 
Chimera, Plin. 5, 27 s. 28. 

SIMOlS, -entis, m. a small river of Troas, 
which issues from mount Ida, and, 
mingling with the Scamander or Xan- 
thus, runs into the sea below Troy, 
587. ; Plin. 5, 30. ; Virg. Mn. 1, 100, 
& 618.; 5, 261. 

SJNJE, the people, as it is thought, to 
Camboja, and Cochin-China, east 
from the Sinus Magnus, or the 
gulf of Si am ; according to Ptolemy, 
the most remote people of the east, 
7/3. 

Sind.e insidx, supposed to be the NI- 
CABAR islands in the bay of Bengal. 

SINDICA et Sindicus portus, Sundiik, 
a port-town on the Euxine sea, to the 
south of the Palus Mcedtis ; Inh. Sindi, 
Herodot. 4, 28. 

S1NGARA, Sinjar, a city in the north 
of Mesopotamia, supposed by some to 
have been the ancient Shinar, men- 
tioned, Genesis, 11,2. but others place 
Shinar nearer Babylon. 

SINGULIS, Xenil, a river of Andalusia, 
in Spain, which falls into the Gua- 
dalquiver, n: j ar Grenada. 

STNGLS, Porto Figuero, a town of 
Macedonia on the Smgiticus sinus, the 
gulf of Monte Sando. - 

SINOPE, Sin ae, the chief city of 
Paphlagonia, the most ilustrious of tha 
Pontic cities, 591. Liv. 38, 18. the 
residence of the kings of Pontus, Cic. 
Monil. 8. Inh. Sinopenses, Liv. 42, 2„ 
Cynicus Sinop.eus,\i\ three syllables, i.e.. 
Diogfines, Ovid. Pont. 1,3, 66. 

SINTICE, a district of Macedonia, south 
of the Strymon, 327,. 

SINUESSA, anciently Sinope, Liv. 10, 
2i. a town of Latium" south of the 
Liris, on the confines of Campania, 
148. to which it anciently belonged, 
Plm.3, 5. Sinuesscmus ager* fertile in 
wine, called Sinuessannm, sc. vinum, ib. 
Simiessance aqucs, hot baths n^ar Si- 
nuessa, Liv. 22, 13.; Plin. 31, 2.; 
Tacit. Ann. 12, 66.; Hist. 1, 72. 
whence Sinuessa is called tepens, Sil. 8, 
529. 

SION, one of the four hills on which 
3 H 



834* 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Jerusalem was built, 595. h^nce it is 
o'ten used in Scripture for the Jewish 
church . 

SIPHNUS, Sifano, a srTia'l is'and in 
the Fgean sea, one of the Cyclades, 
338. foimerly called Meropia and Acis. 
Plin. 4, 12, Inh. Si hnii, who to- 
gether with the Seriphii, joined Greece 
against Xerxes, and were almost the only 
islanders who refused the barbarians 
earth and water in token of subjection, 
Herodot. 8, 46. 

SIPONTUM, vel Sipus, -untis, f. Sipon- 
to, a town of Apulia, 1 60. Liv. 8, 24.; 
34, 45. ; 39, 22. ; Cic. All. 6, 2. Si- 
pontina siccitas, Cic. Rull. 2, 27. 

SIPfLIS, a mountain of Lydia, 588, 
or Phrygia, Liv. 36, 43. hence Si- 
pyleia mater, Niobe, who was supposed 
to have been converted into a stone on 
the top of this mountain, Stat. Silv. 5, 
1,33. See p. 428. 

SIRBO, \e\Serbonis, idis, SebaketBar- 
doil, a lake between Egypt and Pales- 
tine, Plin. 5, 13. 

SIREN USiE, the islands of the Sirens, 
three desert rocks at the bottom of the 
Sinus PastamtSj In the south of Cam- 
pania, 155. 

"SIRIS, a town and river of Lucania, 170. 

Also the name given to the Nile 

by the Ethiopians, before it united into 
one stream, Plin. 5, 9 s. 1 0. 

S1RMIO, -o?iis, f. Sermione, a beau- 
tiful peninsula in the lake Benacus, 
where the poet Catullus had a villa, 
which he extols, Carm. 29. 

SIRMIUM, the capital of Pannonia, at 
the confluence of the Savus or Save, 
and the Bacuntius, now Bozzeut, near 
mount Almus, Eutrop. 9, 11. This 
distrist between the Save and the Da- 
nube is still called Sirmia. 

S1SAPO, At. m aden, a town of Baetica 
in Spain, Cic. Phil. 2, 19- noted for 
its mines of minium or vermillion, Plin. 
33,7- 

SISCIA, Sisseg, a town of Pannonia, at 
the junction of the Save with the Colapis 
or Kulp. 

SISIMITHRjE Petra, a fortress of Bac- 
triana, where Alexander celebrated his 
nuptials with Roxane, the daughter of 
Oxyartes, said to be 15 stadia high, 80 
stadia in circumference, and plain at 
top, so fertde as to maintain 500 men, 
Strnb. lli 517. 

S1THONIA, the country between the 
Toronaean and Singitic gulfs, '327. He- 
rodot, 7 , 122. — — Also a name of part 



of Thrace, or Sithox. Gell. 14, 6. 
Inh. Sithonii, Rural. Od. 1, 18, 9. 
whence Sitlwniee nives, Thracian snows, 
Virg. Eel. 10, 66. Agri Sithonii } 
Ovid. Met. 13, 571. So Unda Sitho- 
nis, -zdisy the sea which borders ou 
Thrace, Ovid. Ep. 2, 6. 

SITONES, the people of Norway as it 
is thought, Tacit. G.45. 

SITTACE, a town of Assyria, 15 stadia 
on this side the Tigris ; whence the 
circumjacent country was called Sitta- 
cene, Xenophon. Anab. 2. ; Plin. 6, 
27. 

SMARAGDUS, a mountain of Egypt to 
the north of Berenice, on the Arabia - 
gulf, where emeralds (smaragdi) we" 
dug out of mines, Strab. 16, 779 
Various places where emeralds we' 
found mentioned by Pliny, 37, 5. 

SMINTHA, a town of Troas; when 
Apollo was called Smintheus, 367. 

SMYRNA, Smyrna, a principal city 
of Ionia, 587 ; Inh. Smyrnjei, who 
claimed Homer as their countryman; 
whence he is called Smyrnceus vates, 
Lucan. 9, 984. Mantua Smyrnceiseemxila 
plectris, i. e. Virgil, born near Mantua 
the rival of Homer, Sil. 8, 595. 

SOGDIANA, Usbec-Tartary, a coun- 
try in Farther Asia, between the rivers 
Oxus and Iaxaries ; Inh. Sogdiani- 
Plin. 6, 16. 

SOLI, v. Solce, v. Pompeiopolis, a town o 
Cilicia, 590. Mel. 1, 13.; Liv. 33, 
20. ; 37, 56. ; Cic. Leg., 2, 16. — An- 
other SOLI, Soloe, v. -ee, in Cyprus, 
502. Plin. 5, 31 s. 35. so named, be- 
cause it is said to have been founded by 
the advice of Solon, while an exile in 
that island. Plutarch, in vita ejus. 
Strabo says it was founded by two 
Athenians, Phalerus and Acamas, 14, 
683. Inh. Solii. — Some Athenians, 
settled at one or other of these places, 
having, in the course of time, lost the 
purity of their language, are said to have 
given rise to the term Solqecismus, 
v. Solicismus, for any impropriety of ex- 
pression, or violation of grammar. But 
of this Strabo speaks doubtfully, 14, 
663. So Suidas, in voce So* ot. 

SOLTCINIUM, Sultz, a townofGer- 
many on the Neckar. 

SOLOE1S, -entis, v. Solus, -imtis, et So- 
luntum, Solanto, a town of Sicily, 
between Panormus and Himera. Plin. 
3,8. built by the Phenicians, Thucydid. 
6, pr.; Inh. Solentini, Cic. Ferr. 
3, 43.— — Also a promontory of Libya, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



the extremity of Atlas, now Cape Can- 
tin, Herodot. 4, 43. 

SOLONA, Sole, a town of Gallia Cis- 
padana, in Romagna, on the west side 
of the river Utens. 

SOLONIUS Campus, v.Solonium, a plain 
near Lanuvium, in Latium, Cic.Div.l, 
36.; et 2, 31. Alt. 2, 3, & 7. 

SOLOTHURUM, Solo th urn, the 
capital of a canton of that name in 
Switzerland. 

SOLVA, Solfeld, a town of Noricum. 

SOLYMA, v. -i, -arum, Jerusalem, 
the capital of Judaea, Joseph. Ant. 1, 
11, commonly called by profane writers 
Hieiosolpnta, which name Tacitus says 
was derived from the Solymi, a warlike 
people of Pisidia or Lycia, Hist. 5, 2. 
celebrated by Homer, 11. 6, 184.: 
Plin. 5, 2 7. afterwards called Mily.se, 
Herodot. 1, 173. Leges Solymce, the 
Jewish laws, Juue?ial,6, 543. So So- 
lymus pulvis, the dust of Jerusalem, 
VaL Flac. 1, 13. 

SORA, a town of Latium, Inh. Sorani, 
Snranus ager, Liv. 10, 14. 

Sophene, a district of Armenia Major, 
Lucan. 2, 593. 

SORACTE, n. et -es, is, m. Saint- 
Oreste, a mountain of the Falisci in 
Etruria, sacred to Apollo, Plin. 7,2.; 
Virg. Mn. 11, 785.; Sil. 8, 494., 
Horat. Od. 1, 9, 1. Soractince lapici- 
dince, the stone-quarries of Soracte, 
Fitruv. 2, 7. 

SOTIATES et Sotiatum oppidum, Sos, 
a people of Aquitania on the river 
Aturus, Cces, G. 3, 20. 

SPARTA v. Lacedcemon, the capital of 
Laconka, and long the chief city of 
Greece, 283. without walls, Nep. 17, 
6. ; Liv. 34, 38. ; 39j 37. till it fell 
under the power of tyrants, ib. 34, 38. 
The walls were pulled down, and the 
institutions of Lycurgus abolished, 
when Sparta became subject to the 
Achaeans, ib. 38, 34. The place 
where it stood is now called Paleo- 
CHORI, i. e. rta.Xaia, %wpot, °^ 
place. The modern town Misitra 
is about four miles from the ruins of 
ancient Sparta; Inh. Spartiat.Z£ vel 
Spartani. Pueri Spartidtce, Cic. Tu&c. 
5, 27. Agesiidus Spartidtes, Id. Fam. 
5, 12. Gens Sparlana, Ovid. Met. 3, 
208. Virgo Spartana, Virg. Mn. 1, 
316. Spartana disciplina, Liv. 38, 17. 
Veloces Sparta catuli, Virg. G. 3, 405. 
— - Sparta is put for any task or office, 
Cic. Alt. 1, 20. et4 } 6. 



Sperchius vel Spercheus, a river of 
The^saly, running into the Maliac gulf, 
320. 

SPHACTERl A. an island which com- 
manded the port of Pylus in Messenia, 
283. 

SPINA, Primaro, a. town on the north 
side of the southmost mouth of the Po ; 
hence called Ostium Spiniticum, Plin. 
3, 16. 

SPOLETIUM, Spoleto, a town of 
Usnbria, 136. Liv. 22, 9.; 24, 10. ; 
45, 43.; Inh. Spoletani, 27, 10. 
Spoletinuspopulus, Cic. Balb. 21. Spo- 
letina lagena, Martial. 13, 120. et 14, 
116. 

Spjrades, islands scattered through the 
eastern part of the Egean sea, 350, & 
341. 

STABI/E, Castel a mare di Stabia, a 
town of Campania, stid afterwards a 
villa on the bay of Puteoll, 155. SiL 
14, 409. 

STABULUM, sc. ad, Boulou, a place 
near the pass from Gaul into Spain 
through the Pyrenefs. 

STAGlRA, Stauros, a town of Ma- 
cedonia, the birth-place of Aristotle, 
327- 

STATIELLI, StatieUMes v. -enses, a 
people of L : guria, between the Apen- 
nines and the river Taenarus, Cic. Fam, 
11, 11.; Liv, 42, 8, 21, & 22. their 
town was AGUM Staliellce, vel Statid- 
lorum, Aqcji, on the river Bormio in 
Montserrat, Statieilas ager, Liv. 42,7. 

STELLAT1S ager vel campus, a district 
in Campania of wonderful fertility, 149, 
Cic.Rult. 1,1. Stcllat.es campi, Liv. 
9, 44.; 10, 31.; 22, 13. whence 
Stellalina tribus, ib, 6, 5. 

STENA v. Slhena, i. e. fauces, a defile 
of Chaonia in Epire, Liv. 32, 5. 

Stdntoris lacus, a lake near Enos in 
Thrace , 345. Herodot. 7,58. 

STOA Poscilis vel Posctle, a painted gal- 
lery at Athens where Zeno taught, the 
founder of the sect of philosophers 
named Stoics from this place, 291. 
Slo'ici libelli,hooks written by theSioics, 
Horat. Epod. 8, 15. Stoica dogmatica 
a Cynicis tunicd distantia, the doctrines 
of the Stoics differing from those of the 
Cynics only in dress, i.e. the Stoics 
wore a tunic, but the Cynics did not, 
Juvenal. 13, 121. Juvenal calls hypo- 
critical Stoics, or those who falsely 
pretended to possess the strict morals 
of the Stoics, by way of reproach, 
Sto'icides, 2, 65. 

3 H 2 



836 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



SrOBT, a town of Paeonla in Macedonia, 

Liv. 33, 19.; 40, 21. Inh. Stobenses. 
Stoechades, Hieres, five small islands 
on the coast of Marseilles, two of them 
inconsiderable, Strab. 4, 184. sing. 
Stcechas, -ados, f. Luean. 3, 516. 
STOENI Ligures, an Alpine nation to the 

south of the Euganei, Liv. Epit. 62. 
STRATOMCEA, Eski-Sher, a town 
of Caria, Liv. 33, 30. Stratonicensis 
ager, ib. 18. 
STRATONIS turris, the ancient name 
of the city in Judaea which Herod called 
Ceesarea, in honour of Augustus, 595. 
STRATOS, a city of jEtolia, Liv. 36, 
11.; 38, 4.; 43, 21. or Acarnania, 
see p. 315. 
STRONGfLE v. -os, Strombolo or 
Strongoli, one of the Lipari islands, 27 5. 
Strophades, Striphali, two small 
islands south-east from Zacinthus in the 
Ionian sea, 332. 
STRYMON, a river, the ancient bound- 
. ary between Macedonia and Thrace, 
running into the Sinus Strymonicus, the 
Gulf of CONTESSA, 328.; Liv. 44, 41. ; 
45, 29. ; hence matres Strymoniee, 
Thracian matrons, Ovid, in lbin. 602. 
Grues, cranes which frequent the river 
Strymon, Virg. G. 1, 120. 
STUBERA, a town of Macedonia, be- 
tween the rivers Axius and Erigon, 
Liv. 31, 39. , 
STURA, Stura, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, running through the territory of 
the Taurina into the Po. 
STURIUM, Ribaudon, one of the 

islands called Stockades, 
STURNI, Ostuni, a town of Calabria; 

Inh. Sturnini. 
STyMPHALUs, plur. -a, -arum, amoun- 
tain of Arcadia, and a lake where Her- 
cules slew the birds of prey called Aves 
Stymphntides, 285. Plin. 11, 35. vel 
Stympkaliccc , Plaut. Pen. 1, 1, 4. 
Arcadiea volucres Stymphala colentes, 
Lucret. 5, 31. Stymphalia monstra, 
Catull. 66, 113. Stymphalia terra, 
Liv. 33, 14. 
STYX, Stpgis, a fountain of Arcadia 
which emitted a deadly water, 285, 
hence put for one of the infernal rivers, 
Atra Styx, Virg. G. 1, 41. Stygia 
palus, I£.n. 6, 369. Amnes Styzii, 
for Amnis Styghis, Ovid. Met. 14, 591. 
Stygius res, the infernal king, Pluto, 
Columel. 10 s. 4. ; Virg. Mn. 6, 252. 
, the same with Stygius Jupiter, Pluto, 
Virg.Mn. 4, 638. Stygxa Jimo, Pro- 
serpine, Stat.Theb. 4, 526, Slygius 



Canis, Senec. H^c. fur. 9. velJanitof^ 
1. e. Cerberus, Sil. 3, 55. NoxStygia 9 
Ovid. Met. 3, 695. Slygium os, en^ 
venomed, ib. 76. Stygice tenebr<e,V\rg. 
G. 3, 551. Stygii numina retcni, the 
deities of the infernal regions, Lucan.7 , 
169. Slygium forum, the infernal court 
of judicature, where Minos, jEacus, 
and Rhadamanthus sat as judges, Ovid. 
Trist. 4, 10, 88. 

SUANA, Soana, a town in the south-east 
of Tuscany. 

SU ARDONES, apeople of Germany near 
the mouth of the Oder, Tacit. G. 40. 

SUASA, Sasa, a town of Umbria j 
Inh. Suasini. 

SUBI, Beles, a small river of Catalonia. 

SUBLAQUEUM, Subjaco, see Sim- 
bruina Stagna. 

SUBLICIUS PONS, the first bridge built 
over the Tiber at Rome of wood, {sub' 
lic<s, stakes or planks,) whence its 
name, Liv. 1, 33. ; Plin. 36, 15. after- 
wards built of marble. 

SUBMONTORIUM, Augsburg, a 
town of Vindilicia. ' 

SUBOTA, an island to the east of mount 
Athos, Liv. 44, 28. 

SUBUR, Subu, a river of Mauritania. 
— Also a town in Spain, now Siges, 
a village between Barcelona and Tar- 
raco, Mel. 2, 6. 

SUBURRA, the name of a street in 
Rome ; whence one of the quarters of 
the city was called Regio Suburrana, 
Varr. L. L. 4, 8. Plin. 8, 3. Liv. 3, 
13. Juvenal. 10, 156. Suburrance 
canes, Horat. Epod. 5, 58. 

SUCRO, Xucar, a river of Spain, run- 
ning into the Mediterranean, below 
Valencia, at a town of the same name, 
now Culler a, Liv. 28,24. Sil. 3, 371, 
hence Sucronensis sinus, the bay of Va- 
lencia. 

SUDERTUM, a town of Etruria ; whence 
Sudertanum forum, Liv. 26, 23. 

SUESSA Aurunca, Sezza, a town of 
the Aurunci, in Campania, almost mid- 
way between Teanum and Minturnae, 
Liv. 8, 15..; v 9, 28.; 27,9.; 29, 15. 
Inh. Suessani; Ager Suessanus, v. Su- 
essanum, Cato, R. R. 22. 

SUESSA Pometia, the capital of the 
Volsci, Strab. 5, 231. Liv. 1, 53.; 2. 
25. ; called Pometia to distinguish it 
from the former; and sometimes sim- 
ply Suessa, as being the chief town of 
the name ; or only Pometia, v. Pome- 
tii, Virg. Mn. 6, 775. Cic. Phil. 3, 4.; 
4, 2.; 13, 8. , 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 837 



SUESStiNES, a people of Gallia Bel- 
gira; Suessionum civilas v. Augusta, 
SoiSSON, Cees. G. 2, 4, & 12.; 7- 
75, &c. called also Suesones ; as, Zore- 
gisque leves Suessones in armis, Lucan. 
1, 423. 

SUESSETANI, a branch of the Coselani, 
in Hither Spain, Liv. 25, 34.; 28, 24, 
Suessetaniis ager y ib. 

SUEiiiSC'LA, Castel di Sessola, a town 
of Campania, between mount Tifata 
and the river Clanius, Liv. 7, 37 - ; 23, 
14. &c. Inh. Suessulani, ib. 8, 14. 

SUESTASIUM, a town of the Suesselani, 
in Spain. 

SUETRI, the people of Senez, in Pro- 
vence, bordering on the Alps. 

SUE VI, a powerful people of Germany, 
between the Elbe and the Vistula, 566. 
termed Jlavi by Lucan, on account of 
the yellow colour of their hair, 2, 51. 
their country, Suevia, Tacit. G.43. ; 
hence Suevus, the Oder; and Suevicum 
mare, the Baltic. 

SUFETALA, an inland town of Africa 
Propria, on the right side of the river 
Bagrada. 

SUIONES, a people of Scandinavia; 
thought to be the Swedes, 568. 

SULCI v. Sulchi, Palma di Solo, a 
town and port on the south side of Sar- 
dinia, Liv. 22, 1. Inh. Sulcilani ; 
whence Sulcitanum Promontorium, now 
Punta dell V Uiga. 

SULGA v. Sulgas, Sorgue, a small ri- 
ver of Provence, which falls into the 
Rhone, Strab. 4, 191. 

SULMO, -orris, m. Sulmona, a town of 
the Peligni, in Umbria, the birth-place 
of Ovid, 138. Liv. 26, 11. Ovid. Trist. 
4. 10, 5. said to be named from Soly- 
mus, the companion of iEneas, its 
founder, Id. Fast. 4, 39. Plin. 3, 5. 
called aquosus, from its abundance of 
water, Ov.Amor.S, 15, 11. and gelidus, 
from its elevated situation, Sil. 8, 512. 
Inh. Sulmonenses, Cces. Civ. B. 1, 18. 
Mulier Sulmonensis, any plain Italian 
woman, Juvenal. 6, 186. 

Summs: Alpes, the highest part of the 
Alps, Great St. Bernard, between Va- 
iesia to the north, and the duchy of 
Aousti, in Savoy to the south ; or St. 
Godard, between Switzerland and the 
duchy of Milan. 

SUNILM, a prom, of Attica, 300. 

Superum Mare, the Adriatic, or Gulf 
of Venice, called the Higher Sea, 
Cic. Alt. 9, 3. & ult. Liv. 5, 35. Lu- 
tan. 2, 399. Virg . Mn. 8, 149. be- 



cause it was farther north, and there- 
fore thought more elevated ; as trees 
produced on the'north side of the Apen- 
nine, were called Supmiates, and those 
on the south infernates ; thus, Romce 
infernas abies supernati preefertur, Plin. 

16, 39. Those on the south were more 
dry, and therefore more durable than 
those on the north, Vitruv. lib. 2, 

c. tilt. 

SURA, Saur, or Sour, a river of Gallia 
Belgica, which runs into the Moselle. 
Also a town of Syria, on the Eu- 
phrates, still called by the same name. 

SURIUM, a town in the south of Col- 
chis towards Iberia. 

SURRENTUM, Surrento, a town on 
the south side of the bay of Naples, 
155. Inh. Surrentini, Liv. 22, 61. Sur- 
rentini colles, adjacent hills, fruitful in 
wine, Ovid. Met. 15, 7 10. Martial. 
13,110. Surrentinum prom, the prom, 
of Minerva, the most southern point of 
Campania ; only three miles from the 
island Capreae, Tacit. Ann. 4, 67. 

SUSA, -on/TO, Suster or Tuster, the ca- 
pital of Susiana, v. -e ; vel Susis -idis, 
a part of Persia, called also Memnonia 
from its founder, Herodot.5\, 54. the 
principal residence of the kings of Per- 
sia, Plin. 6, 27. Inh. Susiani, ib. put 
also for the capital of Parthia or Media, 
Lucan. 2, 49. and termed perftda, be- 
cause the Parthians had cut off Crassus 
by over-reaching him, 8, 425.-— Su- 
sides Pylce, a narrow pass from Susiana 
to Persia, Curt. 5 , 3. Susiades, Diodor. 

17, 6&, vel Persides Pylte, Arrian. 3, 
18. 

SUTHUL, a town of Numidia, where 
the royal treasures were kept, SallusL 
Jug. 37. 

SUTRIUM, Sutri, a town of Etruria*, 
about twenty-four miles north west 
from Rome, Liv. 6, 3.; 9, 32. a Ro- 
man colony, yell. 1, 14. Inh. Sutri- 
ni ; Sulrinus ager, Liv. 26, 34. Sutria 
tecta, Sil. 8, 493. Ire Sutrium, to do a 
thing with dispatch, Plaut. Cas. 3, 1, 
10. alluding, as it is thought, to the 
celerity with which Camillus recovered 
that town from the enemy, Liv. 6, 3. 
But Festus accounts for this phrase dif- 
ferently. 

SYBARIS. See Sibaris. 

Sybota, a port of Epire, opposite to 
some small islands of the same name, 
331. Cic. Att. 5,9. 

SYCURIUM, a town of Thessaly, at the 
foot of mount Ossa, Liv. 42, 54. 
3H 3 



8.3S , GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



SYENE, AsstTAN, a city in the Higher 
Egypt, on theMle; near the confines 
of ^Ethiopia, 668. 

SYLEUM v. Syilium, a town of Pam- 
phylia, Liv. 3 8, 44. 

SYMiETHUS. See Shncethm. 

Symbolum, the place where mount 
Haemus and Pangaeus join, near Phi- 
lippi, 328. 

Symfligades, sing. Sympfegas, two 
small islands in the Euxine sea, near 
the mouth of the Thracian BosphoVus, 
which were suppose 1 to dash against 
each other, and to crush ships by their 
collision, Lucan. 2, 718. Senec. Med. 
342. 

SYiNNADA, -omm, vel Syvnas -adis, a 
town of Phryuia Magna, Liv. 3 8, 15.; 
45, 34. celehiated fbr its marble, 
(Marmor Synnadicum, v. quod Phrygia 
Synnas mitlit,) Martial. 9, 77> 8. 
Siat. Hlv. 1, 5, 36. Lapis Synna- 
dicus, Plin. 35,1. which was variegated 
■with purple spots, ib. et Siat. Silv. 1, 
5, 41. See Cyaneos Insidce. 

SYPHjEUM, a town of the Bruttii, 
Liv. ;iO v io. 

8YROS v. Syra v. Syria, one of the 
Cydades, beaveen Delos and P&ros. 

SY- ACUS^-E, -urum, Syracuse or 
Syragusa, the ancient capita! of Si- 
cily, 259. Inh. Syracusani, Liv. 26, 
32. v- 1 Syracusii, Cic. Div.l, 20. 
sing. Syracusanus, Cic. Verr. 5, 32. 
Syracusance vienses, Fin. 2, 28. vel 
Syracusii, Tmc. 5,35. Syracosio ludere 
versu, to write pastoral poetry, in imi- 
tation of Theocritus, the Syracusan, 
Vv'g. Eel. 6, 1 . Quique Syracosia reso- 
nant Helicona Camena, make Helicon 
to resound wi;h pastoral poems, Sil. 14, 
30 Syracos : ws porta, Empedocles, Ovid 
i?i Ibin. 549. Syracosia ars, the art of 
Archimedes. Ovid. Fast. 6, 277. 

SYRIA, a celebrated country of Asia, 
ex i ending along the e?st end of the 
Mediterranean sea, 593 Inh. Syri, 
vel Syrii, often confounded mthAssyrii; 
as some of the ancients included As- 
syria in Syria, Mel. J, 11. Plm.b, 
12. thus Assyr'uim nnrdum, for Syriam, 
Horat. Od.2, 11, 16. a<? Syriam Malo- 
lathrum, a precious odoriferous oint- 
ment, either produced in Syria, or con- 
veyed from India to Rome, through 
Syria, ib. 7, 5. Plin. 12, 26. So 
Assyriumlittus , for Syiium, ib. 3, 4, 32. 
Assyrius for Syriua, ib. Art. P. 118. 
Syri venal es Syrian slaves exposed to 
sale, Cic. Oral. 2, 66. heuce Syrus 



is often the name of a slave in Plautus 
and Terence. Syri lecticarii, Syrian 
chairmen, Martial. 9, 3. Syra vina, 
Horat. Od. If 31, 12. Mala Syriaca, 
Col. 5, 10, 19- vel Syrica, Plin. 15, 
14 s. 15, Syriacus Prcelor, Cic. Q. Fr. 
1, 2. Syriaticum bellum, Flor.2, 9. — 
Syrophaznix. -Ids, sc. unguentarius, a 
perfumer from Phoenicia in Syria ; 
. whence the best perfumes were brought, 
Juvenal. 8, 159. Syri.ee amnes, i- e„ 
the Euphrates and its branches, ib. 8, 
166. 

SYRTES, -iuni) f. two bays of the 
Mediterranean, on the coast of Africa ; 
SYRTIS major, the gulf of Sitra ; 
and SYRTIS minor, Gabes ; which 
from their rocks and qnicksands, and 
a remarkable inequality in the motion 
of the waters, were dangerous to ma- 
riners ; — named from Hvpcu, traho, be- 
cause the waves in a storm draw along 
with them slime and sand, and large 
stones, Sallust. Jug. 78.; Plin. 3, 4, 
Lucan. 9, 303. called by Virgd Gelulce 
Syrtes, for Africa, JEx\. 5, 53. & 191. 
lnhospita Syrtes, 4, 41. and simply 
Syrtes, 6, 60 et 7, 302. by Horace, 
Barbara Syrtes, Od. 2, 6, 3. Getulce, 
Od. 2, 20, 15. exercitatce Noto, Epod. 
9, 31. Dubia Syrtis, Lucan. 1, 
686. vel Ambignce Syriidos arva, of so 
uuceitain depth, that it was doubtful 
whether it was land or sea ; whence a 
serpent in those places is called Cher- 
Sydros (ex %tp<ros, terra, et v$vp, 
aqua, i. e. amphibium serpentis genus,) 
Lucan. 9, 710, vSt 861. Fadnsce Syrtes, 
full of shelves, 5, 485. which fre- 
quently shifted ; whence Faga Syrtis, 

9, 431. Any dangerous parts of 

the sea with whhlpools and shelves, 
were called Syrtes, Virg. Mn. 1, 
111, & 146. et 10, 678. — Also any 
sandy desarts, as thosf- of Libya, Horat. 
Od. l , 22, 5.; Lucan. 9, 553, 598, &c. 

Serv. in Mn. 10, 678. Mare 

Syrticum, the sea around the Syrtes, 
Senec. de vit. Beat. c. 12. SYRTICA 
REG10, the couu.ry between the 
Syrtes, Plin. 5, 4. from the savage 
manners of its inhabitants, {Syrticce 
pentes, Senec. Fp. 90 ) termed Jnhos- 
pita Syrtis, Ovid. Met.' 8, 120. Syrtis 

carbara, Lucan. lo, 477. Syrticus 

Amman, the sandy desarts round the 
temple of Jupiter Amnion, Lucan. 10. 
y8. Cicero calls a prodigal spend- 
thrift. Syrtis patrimonii, Or. 3, 
4K 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 839 



T 

TABiE, a town of Pisidia, Liv. 38, 
13. 

Tabernce Nov^e, a place in Rome, where 
new shops were built, Liv. 3, 48. — 
Tabern.e Rhenan.e, Rhin-Zabern, a 
small town of Germany in the lower 
Palatinate, at the confluence of the 
rivulet Felback with the Rhine. 
Tabernce Triboccorum v. Tres Tabernce, 
Elsass-Zabern, or S^veme, a town 
in the west of Lower Alsace. — — 
Tabernce Riguee, Beru-castle on the 
Moselle. 

TABOR, Thabor, v. Itabyrias mons, a 
mountain of Galilee in Jurlsea. 

TABRACA, near the island Tabarca, a 
town of Numidia, on the river Tusca, 
near its mouth ; a Roman colony, Plin. 
5, 3. Mel. I, 7. Near it were exten- 
sive forests, abounding with monkeys, 
Juvenal. 10, 194. 

TABUDA, the Scheldt, so called towards 
its mouth, Ptol. 

TABURMJS, Taburo, a mountain of 
Campania, on the confines of Samnium, 
planted with olives, Virg. G. 2, 38. 
JEn. 12, 715. 

TACAPE, a town of Africa, on the Syrtis 
Minor. 

TACATUA v. Tacatta, a maritime town 
of Numidia. 

TACINA v. Tagines, Tacina, a river 
of the Bruttii, falling into the Sinus 
Squillaceus. 

Tader v. Serebus, Segura, a river near 
New Carthage in Spain. 

TjENARUS v. prom. TcsncLrium, Cape 
Matapan, (from fczwrov, from,) a 
promontory of Laconica, the most 
southern point of Europe, 284. where 
was a temple of Neptune, Nep. Pausan. 
4. and near it a cave, Tcenarice fauces, 
supposed to be an entrance to the infer- 
nal regions, Virg. G. 4, 467. 

TAGASTE, Tajelt, a town of Numidia, 
the birth-place of St. Augustin ; a muni- 
cipium, therefore called Opidum Tagas- 
tense lilerum, Plin. 5, 4. 

TAGUS, Taio, a river of Portugal, which 
runs into the Atlantic below Lisbon, 
where it forms a frith several miles 
broad, 484. anciently famous for gold 
and gems found in its channel, Mel. 3, 
1.; Plin. 4, 22.; 33, 4.; Ovid. Met. 
2,251.; Amor. 1, 15, 34.; Sil. 4, 
234. hence called Amnes aurifex, 
Catull. 27, 19. 



TAMARAy. -us, Tamerton, a river in 
Cornwall. 

TAMARIS, Tamere, a river of Gallicia 
in S[-ain, to the south of the prom. 
Celticvm. 

TAMASSUS v. Tamasnts, a town of 
Cyprus, abounding in copper, (ces Cy- 
prium,) Strab. 14 extr. Tumasenus 
ager, Ovid. Met. 10, 644. 

TAM£SIS v. -a, the river Thames, Cats. 
G. 5, u. 

TAN AGER v. Tanagrus, Negro, a river 
or'Lucania, 17 2. in summer almost dry, 
Virg. G. 3, 151. 

TAN AGRA, a town of Boectia, 306. 
Tanagrcsa merelrix, Cic. Dom. 43. 
Tanagrici galli, game cocks much used 
at this place, Varr. R. R. 3, 9, 6. 
gallince, Col. 8, 2, 4, & 13. 

TANAlS, Don, a river of Scythia, the 
common boundary between Europe and 
Asia, 132. Asiee et Europce lei minus , 
Lucan. 3, 274. called discors, because 
the nations who lived near it were prone 
to war, Horat. Od.B, 29, 28. Scythi- 
cus amnis, ib. 4, 36. exlremus, remote, 
ib. 10, 1. Nivalis, Virg. G. 4, 517„ 

Also a town at the mouth of it, 

where Asoph now stands. 

TANAS vel Tana, a river of Numidia, 
Sallust. Jug. 90. 

TANA ITS v. Tanetos, Tiianet, an island 
on the coast of Kent. 

TANETUM, Tanedo, a town in the 
duchy of Modena in Italy. 

TANFANiE lucvs, a sacred grnve and 
temple in the country of the Marsi be- 
tween the rivers Ems and Lippe in 
Germany, Tacit. Ann. 1, 51. 

TANIS, Tauna, a city of Egypt, on the 
second branch of the Nile, reckoning 
from the east; hence called Ostium 
Taniticum; and that part of the country 
Ndmns Tanltes. 

TAPHRiE v. Taphrqs, Perecop or Pre- 
cop, a town in the isthmus of the 
Chersunesus Taurica, or Crirn-Tartary, 
by which name the isthmus itself is 
likewise called, Mel. 2, 1.; Plin. 4, 
12 s. 26. 

TAPHROS vel Fossa, the straits of 
Bonifacio, between Corsica and Sar- 

TAPROBONA v. Talrobane, CEYLON 
v. Seleii, an island of India, near cape 
Comorin, 663. 

TAPSUS v. Thapsus, a town of Sicily, to 
the north of Syracuse, 259. 

TARASCO, Tarascon, a town of Pro- 
vence to the north of Aries. 

3H 4 



540 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



TARBELLI, a people of Aquitania, be- 
tween the Pyrenees and Garonne, 
Cces. B. G. 3, 27. bordering on the 
ocean, (claudit Tarbellius, vel Tarbel- 
licus csquor, for Tarbelius,) Luean. 1, 
421. From them thePyrenean moun- 
tain is called Tarbella Pyrene, Tibull. 
1, 7, 9. Aqu& Tarbelticce, ACQS 
or Dax, a town of Gascony, on the 
river Aiurus or Adour, famous for its 
baths. 

TARENTUM v. Taras, Tarento, a ce- 
lebrated city of Calabria, on the Sinus 
Tarevtinus, or gulf of Tarento, 166. 
founded or possessed by a colony of 
Lacedaemonians ; under Phalantus ; 
hence called Phalanteum, Si!, 11, 16. 
Tyndarium, Sit. 15, 320.; Inh. Ta- 
rentini, Liv. 26, 39. Tarentinus 
ctger, ib. 23,40.; Partus, 23, 33. arx, 
25, 11. Tarentini Equites, Liv. 35, 
28, & 29. 

TARICHEA v. ~(ga, a town of Galilee 
in Judaea, near the lake Genesareth, 
Plin. 5, 15. strongly fortified, Joseph. 

B. J. 3, 32.; Inh. Tarich&ata? . ■ 

Several towns on the coast of Egypt 
were called by this name, from their 
pickling fish; as Tanchce Pelusiatce, 
Herodot. 2, 15. Canopicce, ib. 113., 
&c, 

TARPEIUS mons, one of the hills of 
Rome, Liu. 1, 55. where the Capitol 
or principal temple of Rome was built 
to Jupiter ; hence called also the Capi- 
toline hill. Tarpeia sedes et Capilolia, 

1. e. the Tarpeian mount where the 
Capitol stood, Virg. Mn. 8, 347- ; 
Lucan. 5, 27. Tarpeia. Jovis sedes, ib. 
306. Arx Tarpeia, the citadel of Rome, 
Virg. Mn. 8, 652. Arces, Ovid. Met. 
15, 866. Lucan. 7, 758. Tarpeii Dei, 
Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Apollo, Mars, 
ib. 863. Jupiter Tarpews, Ovid. Fast. 

6, 34. On the side of this mount 

was a precipice called the Tarpeian 
rock, (Tarpeia rupes, vel Tarpeium sax- 
wn), whence condemned criminals used 
to be thrown, 140, 61 3 43.; Liv. 6, 
20. 

TARQUINJI, ToBCHiivft> an ancient 
town of Etruria, 136.; Liv. 1, 34.; 
27j 4. Inh. Tarquinienses, Liv. 

2, 6.; 5, 6.; 7, 12. &c. 28, 45. 
Tarquiniensis ager, ib. 6, 4. In Tar- 
quiniensi, sc. agro v. picedio, Plin. 8, 
52. et 9, 56. 

TARRAC1NA v. Anxur, Terracina, 
a town of the Volsci in Latium, 
14,7.} Inh. Tarracinensesj Caeparius 



quidam Terracinensis y Sallust. C&t, 
46. 

TARRACO, Tarragona, a town of the 
Cosetani, the capital of the Roman pro- 
vince in Spain, 483.; Liv. 21, 20.; 

34, 20. ; 39, 42. celebrated for the ex- 
cellence of its wine, Martial. 13, 118. 
hence termed Vitifera, Sil. 3, 370. 
hospita Baccko, ib. 15, 177-5 Inh. 
Tarraconenses ; whence Tarraconensis 
provincia, Mel. 2, 6. Convenius, Liv, 
26, 19. Colonia, Tacit. Ann. 1,78. 

TARSUS, Terasso, the chief city of 
Cilicia, 590. Inh. Tarsenses; Tarsense 
pelagus, Col. 8,16. 

TARTARUS, Tartaro, a small river 
of Italy, between the A thesis and the 
Po, in the district of Verona, forming 
marshes, Tacit. Hist. 3, 9. Ostium 
Tartareum, Plin. 3, 16.— TAR- 
TARUS, pi. -a, -or um, commonly 
denotes the abyse, or deepest part of 
the infernal regions, Virg. JEn. 6, 
5 77. G. 4, 482. whence Deus Tar- 
tareus, Pluto, Ovid. Trist. 1, 8, 32. 
Custos Tartareus, Cerberus, Virg. Mn. 
6, 395. Tartareus cards, Martial. 5, 

35, 4.; Cic. Tusc. 2, 0. Tartarece 
sorcres, the Furies, Stat. Theb. 5, 66. 
Tartuream intendii vocem, sc. Aleclo, 
exerts her hellish or dreadful voice, 
Virg. Mn. 7, 513. Tartar ea Megcera ? 
ib. 12, 846. 

TaRTESSUS, a town of Spain, at the 
mouth of the Beetis, where the sun was 
supposed to set ; or, according to the 
poets, went to bed ; and put up [salvebat 
et stabulabat) his horses, Sil. 3, 339, & 
411. which he again put to or yoked 
(jungebat) next morning in the east, 
ib. 6, 1. So Ovid, Presserat occiduus 
Tartessia littora Phcebus, Met. 14, 416. 
Tartessiacum cequor, the western sea or 
Atlantic, Sil. ib. Slagna in Tartessia 
Phcebus mersit equos, the sun is set, 
Sil. 10, 538. Tartesia te.Uus, Spain, 
Sil. 15, 5. et 13, 648. vel Tartessicce 
ores, Sil. 17, 591. Tartessus is 
sometimes confounded with Carteja, a 
neighbouring city, Mel. 2, 6. ; Strab. 
3, 157.; Ink. Tartesii, Liv. 23, 
26. 

TARUANA, Terrouen, a town of Artois 

on the Lis. 
TARVISIUM, Treviso, a town in the 

territory of Venice. 
Tarus, Taro, a river of Gallia CiSpadana p 

running north from the Appenine into 

the Po, between Parma and Places- 

tia. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 841 



Tarusates, the people of Tursan in 

Aqultania, Cat. G.3, 23, & 27. 
TARUSCUxM, Tarascon, a town of 

the Salii in Gaul. 
TATTA, Tuzla, a lake of Phrygia Mag- 

71a, on the confines of Pisidia. 
TAUA, Taez, a town of Egypt, in the 

Delta, Stephan. de Urb. 
Taurannitium, a district of Armenia, 

Tacit. Ann. 14, 24. 
TAULANTII, a people of lllyricnm, 

along the coast of the Hadriatic, Liv. 

45, 26. 

Taum .Estuarium, the Frith of the Tay 

in Scotland. 
TAUNUS, Heybich or Hoche^ a 

mountain of Germany, over against 

Mentz, Tacit. Annal. 1, 56. et 12, 

28. 

TAVOLA, Golo or Gualdo, the chief 
river of Corsica. 

TAURI v. Taurici, the people of Crim 
Tartary, hence called Chersonesus 
Taurica, Mel. 2, 1. Terra Taurica, 
Ovid. Pont. 1, 2, 80. Ara Tau- 
rica, the altar of Diana, on which 
strangers were sacrificed, Id. Trist.A, 
4, 63. Nefandi Taurica sacri Inventrix, 
Juvenal. 15 116. Here Taurica is 
put for Thoas, Us king, who instituted 
this horrid custom ; whence Diana is 
called Thoantea, Sil. 14, 260. 

TAURI NI, a people of Gallia Transpa- 
dana, at the foot of the Alps ; their 
capital Augusta Taurinorum. Turin, 
Liv. 21, 38, & 39. et 31, 39. Tauri- 
nus saltus, ib. 5, 34. Taurini campi, 
Sil. 3, 646. 

TAURISCI, a people of Norfcum, among 
the Alps, Strab. 4, 206. and of Mysia, 
ib. 7, 296, &c. 
TAUROMINIUM, Taormina, a town 
of Sicily, 257. Taurominitana civitas, 
Gc. Verr. 3, 6. Charybdis, Lucan. 
4, 461. Taurominitana sedes, Sil. 14, 
257- 

TAURUS, the largest ridge of moun- 
tains in the world, extending from 
Caria and Lycia on the Mediterranean 
through the whole length of Asia to 
the eastern ocean; branching out in 
various directions, and assuming dif- 
ferent names in different places, Strab. 
14,651.; Plin. 5,27. Liv.Zb, 13.; 

38. 39.; Mel. l, 15. TAURI 

prom, called also Chelidonium vel Sa- 
crum, cape Kelidoni, a promontory of 

Lycia, ib. TAURI Pylce, a narrow 

pass between Cilicia and Cappadocia, 
Cic. Att. 5, 20. Also a mountain 



in Sicily, 257.— — The Greeks called 
by the name of TAURUS every thing 
uncommonly large. 
TAXIDA, Attock, a city of India., 
645. 

Taygetus, plur. -a, -orum, a mountain 
of Laconica, extending from cape 
Tsenarus to Arcadia, 283. frequented 
by those who celebrated the orgies of 
Bacchus, Virg. G. 2, 488. and by 
hunters ; whence Taygeli canes, ib. 3, 
44. 

TEANUM Apulum, Civitate, an in- 
land town of Apulia, on the south side 
of the Frento, 159. ; Cic. Cluent. 9, & 
69. ; Inh. Teanenses, Liv 9, 20. 

TEANUM Sidicinurn, Tiano, an inland 
town of Campania, to the north of 
Capua, Liv. 22, 27. Cic. Rul. 2, 35. ; 
Phil. 12, 11. on an elevated ground 
near Cales, Horat. Ep.l, 1, 86. at no 
great distance were medicinal waters, 
Plin. 31,-2. j Inh. SiDlClNl. 

TEARUS, a river of Thrace, Herodol. 5, 
90. ; Plin. 4, 11. 

TEATE, Tieti, or Civita di ChietIj, 
the chief city of the Marucini, Sil. 8 9 
522. et 17, 457. ; Inh. Teatini, PIvl 
3, 12 s. 17. 

TECHES vel Theces, Teheh, a moun- 
tain in Pontus, south-east from Tre > 
bisond, from the top of which the ten 
thousand Greeks had the first view of 
the sea, in their memorable retreat, 
Xenoph. Anab. 4. 

TECMON, a town of Epire, Liv. 45, 
26. 

TECTOSAGES v. Tectosagi, a branch of 
the Kolas, a people of Gaul near the 

Pyrenees, Ccbs. G. 6, 23. Also of 

Galatia in A.sia, descended from those 
in Gaul, Liv. 38, 16, &c. 

TECUM v. Tichis, Tec, a river ot Gaul, 
running from the Pyrenees into the 
Mediterranean. 

TEDANIUS, v. -ium, a river of Libur- 
nia, the boundary of Japydia, Plin. 3, 
21 s. 25. 

TEGEA, Tegcsa v. Tegecea, Moklia, 
a town of Arcadia, 28 5, ; Liv. 34, 26. 
35. 27.; 41, 20.; Inh. Tegeat.e, 
Cic. Divin.l, 19- Tegeasus ends, an 
Arcadian sword, Virg. Mn. 8, 459. 
Tegeceus, sc. deus, Pan. Id. G. 1, 18. 
Volucer Tegeceus, Mercury, Stat. Silv. 
1, 5, 4. vel Tegealicus, ib. 2, IS. So 
Ales Tegealicus, the winged messenger 
of the gods, ib. 5, 1, 103. — Tegecea 
parens, Carmenta, the mother of Evan- 
der, Ovid. Fast. 1, 627. but Tegeata 



1 



842 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



sc. puella v. virgo 3 Atalanta, Ovid. Met. 
8, 317. called also Mater Tegeatis, 
zdis, Stat. Theb. 9, 5?1. So Tegeatis 
capra, Sil. 13, 329. 
TELA, Santoio, a town of Leon in 
Spain. 

TELAMON, Telamone, a port-town 
of Tuscany, Mel. 2, 4. 

TelchInes, the first inhabitants of the 
island Rhodes, Ovid. Met. 7, 365. 
originally from Crete, which was an- 
ciently called Calchinia v. Telchine, 
Stat. Silv. 4, 6, 47. 

TELEBOjE, a people of iEtolia or 
Acarnania, who removed to Italy, and 
settled in the island Capreae, Firg. Mn. 
7, 735. 

TelegSni muri. See Tuscidum, Sil. 12, 
535. 

TELESIA, Telesi, a town of Sam- 

nium, Liv. 22, 13. ; 24, 20. 
TELLEN/E, a town of Latium, now 

extinct, Liv. 1, 33. 
TELMESSUS, a sea-port town of Lycia, 

which gave name to the Sinus Telmis- 

sicus, a" bay running up between Lycia 

and Caria, Liv. 37, 16. Cicero places 

it in Caria, Div. l, 41. Pliny, on the 

confines of Lycia, 30, 1. 
TELO Martius, Toulon, a port town of 

Provence, about twenty-five miles 

south-east of Marseilles. 
TELOS, an island in the sea of Rhodes, 

famous for its ointments, called Te- 

lina, Plin. 4, 12. 
TEMENOS, a plai e in Syracuse, where 

was a beautiful statue of Ap.llo; 

whence he got the name of Teme- 

nites, Cic. Ferr. 4, 53. ; Suet. Tib. 

74. 

Temisa, v. -e, Terma, v. Tempsa, a 
town of the B uttii, near the river 
Laus, Liv. 34, 45. Tempsanus ager, 
lb. Tempsnnnm incommodum, the plun- 
dering of Temp a by the slaves, Cic. 
Ferr. 5, 15. hence also Temeseea eera, 
Ovid. Met. 7, 207.; Fast. 5, 441. 
for anciently there were copper mines 
near this place, to which Homer is 
supposed to allude, Odyss. 1, 184. ; 
Strab. 6, 255.; 12, 551. but these 
had failed in the time of Strabo, ib. 
Others refer the Ms Temesceum to Te- 
mesa or Tomassus, a town of Cyprus. 
See Didymus on Homer, and the com- 
mentators on Statius, Achill. 1, 413. 
et Silv. 1, 1, 42. 

TEMNOS, a small town of jEolia in 
Hither Asia, Cic. Flacc. 18. 

TEJ^PE, plur. n. indecl. a pleasant vale 



of Thessaly, 319. called Tempt Thes* 
salica, Piin. 31, 2 and Peneia, Virg. 
G„ 4, 317. fur there was also a Tempt 
in Bceotia. called Teumessia, rommount 
Teumessus^aJ. Helkoma, from mount 
Helicon, Ovid. Amor. 1, 1, 15. and 
CygnUa, fn ra the fate of C\ gnus or 
Cycnus, Ovid. Met. 7, 371. — Also in 
other places, see p. 319. 

TENCHTHERI v. Teuderi, a nation 
of Germany, on the Rhine, who several 
times changed their settlements, com- 1 
monly joined with the Usipii v. Usipe- 
tesy Caes. G. 4, 1, &c. Tacit. Ann. 
13, 56. Hist. 4, 21. ; 64, 77- G. 32. 

Tendeba, a towu of Caria, Liv. 33, 
18. 

TENEA, a district of Corinth j Inh. Te- 
ncealcsy Mel. 2, 3. 

Tenedos, an islat-d on the coast of 
Troas, 344. 5 Inh. Tenedii, Cic. ad Q. 
Ff. 2, 9. Securis Tenedia, ib. 

TEN OS, Tina, one of the Cy eludes, 
337.; Liu. 36, 21. Inh. Tenii. 

TENT^RA, -orum, Dendera, a town 
of the Thebais in the Higher Egypt ; 
Inh. Tentyritas, hostile to the croco- 
dile, and therefore always at enmity 
with those who worshipped that animal, 
668. ; Plin. 8, 2, & 25 s. 38. it. 28, 
3. ; Senec. N. Q. 4, 2. 

TEOS v. Te'ios> Sigakik, a city of 
Ionia, the birth-place of Anacreon, 
588. ; hence Lyrici Teia musa senis, 
Ovid. Trist. 2, 364. Anacreon Tciits, 
Horat. Epod. 14, 10. Fide TeiA di- 
cere, to celebrate in lyric verse, Od. 1, 
17, 18. 

TERGESTE, -is, n. Trieste, the 

chief town of Istria, Mel. 2,3. on the 

sinus Tergestimis, Plin. 3, 18. 
TERENA, a town of the Bruttii, on the 

sinus Terinceusy the Gulf of St. Euphe- 

mia, 174. 

TER OLI, Tirol, a citadel in the 
country of the Orisons, giving name t» 
a country. 

TERMERA, a town of Caria. Ter- 
merzum, a promontory. 

TERMESSUS. See Telmessus. 

TERMiLiE, a name of the Lycians, He- 
rodot. 1, 173. 

Terracina. See Tarracina. 

TETIS, Tot, a river of Gaul, run- 
ning from the Pyrenees by Perpignan, 
Mel. 2, 5. 

Tetrapolis. See Seleucis, and Doris. 
— - Tetrapolis, Attica, four towns in the 
north of Attica, Strab. 8, 383. 

TETRARCHIA, the government 0/ 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 843 



the fourth part of a country ; whence 
Tetrarcha v. -es, ce t ta. the go- 
vernor of such a part, appointed by the 
Romans, either from the race of its 
ancient kings, or bestowed on some of 
the natives on account of their services ; 
for the Romans never called by this 
name any of the ordinary governors of 
provinces sent from Rome. This me- 
thod of dividing large countries, was 
introduced by the Romans to render 
them less formidable. It seems to 
; have been first used in Galatia, Strab. 

12, 541, & 567. and was particularly 
I applied to the division made of Herod's 
kingdom into four pans. But in pro- 
cess of time the term Tetrarcha came to 
j denote any ruler or governor whatever, 
j besides those sent from Rome, as Sal- 
lust. Cat. 20.; Cic. Dom. 23.; Ball. 5. ; 
Fat. 12.; Mil. 18.; Phil. 2. 12.; ~AU, 
2. 9.; Lucan. 7, 2-27- and Tetrarchia, 
his principality or government, Cic. 
Phil. 2, 37.; Div.i, 15.; Dejot. c. 
ult.— Pliny calls a part of Lycaonia 
Tetrarchia, 5, 27. 
TETRICUS mans vel Tetrica, monte 
della Sibylla, a lofty rugged ridge 
of the Apennines in the country of 
the Sabines, Virg. Mn. 7, 713 ; Sil. 8. 
, 419. 

TEUCRIA, Thoy, Virg. Mn. 2, 26. 
so named from Teucer or Teucrus, ooe 
of its kings, ib.3, 108. whence the 
Trojans were also called Teucri, 
Virg. passim. Campi Teucri, the Trojan 
plains, Stat. Achil. 1, 86. In pulvere 
Teucro, on the Trojan dust, Horat. Od. 
4, 6, 12. 

TEUMESSUS, a mountain and town 
of Bceotia ; whence Teumesia arva, 
the Theban fields, Slat. Theb. 2. 
283. Amnis, the river Ismenus, 9, 
462. Cornus, i. e. hasta, 2, 624. leu, 
the lion which Hercules slew when a 
boy, 4, 86. 

TEU1HRANIA, a district of Mysia, 
where the river Caicus rises ; hence 
called Teuthrautcus, Ovid. Met. 2, 
243. 

Teutobkrgiensis sallus, a forest of 
Germany, between the rivers Ems and 
Lippe, in the bishopric of Paderborn, 
where Varus and three legions were 
cut off by the Germans, Tacit. Aunal. 
1, 60. 

TEUTONI (sing. Teutonus, Lucan. 6. 
259,) v. Teutones, -urn, a powerful 
people in the north of Germany, P'in. 
4, 14. who associated with the Cimbri, 



threatened Rome with destruction, but 
were defeated by Marius, 239, & 566, 
whence Teutonico rilu, after the manner 
of the Teutoni, or Germans, Vug. Mn* 
7, 741. Teutonici capilli, yellow hair, 
like that of the Germans, Martial. 14, 
26. Teutonicus furor, their ferocity, 
Lucan. 1,255. Teutonici triumphi, the 
triumph of Marius over them, ib. 2, 
69. 

THABUSIUM, a citadel of Phrygia 
Magna, Liv. 38, 14. 

Thadamora v. Thadmor. See Palmyra. 

TEANA, a town of Africa, on the 
Syrtis Minor. 

THALA, a strong town of Numidia, 
Sallust, Jug. 75. 

THAMUDA, a district of Arabia Felix ; 
Inh. Thamuditce vel Thamydeni. 

THAPSUS, a town of Sicily, north of 
Syracuse, 259. — Also a city of Africa 
Propria, Liv. 29, 30., 33, 4 8. near 
which Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba,. 
681. hence said to be Uberior Ruiulo 
nunc sanguine, Sil. 3, 261. 

Thapsacus, El-Der, or Porto Catena, a 
city on the Euphrates, on the confines 
of Syria and Arabia, a celebrated place 
for passing that river, 596. 

THASOS v. Thassos, Thapso, an island 
in the Egean sea, near the mouth of 
the Nessus in Thrace, 346. Liv. 33. 
30, 4*- 35. abounding in wine and 
marble, and hence very opulent, Nep, 
dm. 2. & Lys. 2. Inh. Thash ; with 
their spoils the citadel of Athens was 
adorned, ib. 

THAUMACI, a town of Thessaly, near 
the Maliac gulf, so named from the 
wonderfully extensive and variegated 
prospect which it commanded, Liv. 32, 
4. — Thaumasia, a town of Magnesia, 
Plin. 4, 9. 

THAUMASIUS, a mountain of Arcadia, 

Theangela, a town of Caria. 

THEBiE, Thebes or Thiva, the ca- 
pital of Bceotia, 303. Liv. 9, ] 8. ; 33. 
1.; 42, 44. rarely sing. Theba, -ae, 
v. -e, -es, Stat. Theb. 4, 677- called 
Hepfapylos, from its seven gates, Hygin. 
69. ; Stat. Theb. 3, 39 ; Juvenal. 13. 
27 . Cadmetz, as having been founded 
by Cadmus, Propert. 1. 7, 1. and 
[Echionice,) by Echion, Horat. Od. 4, 
4, 64. Hercuiece, Senec. Here. Fur. 
s. 4. as being the country of Hercules, 
Stat. Silv. 4, 6, 70. and so Oedipodi- 
onice, Ovid. Met. 15, 429. Inh. The- 
bani, Cic. lnv. 2, 23. Arx Thebana, 
Horat. Art. Poet. 394. Thebaldes, 



$44 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Theban women, Ovid. Met. 6, 163.; 
sinff. Thebais, the poem of Stafius 
concerning the Theban war. — Also a 
town in Thessaly called Phtluoticcc, 
Liv. 28, 7. or PhthlcB, Liv. 39, 25. 
seep. 322. — Another of Troas, in a 
plain to the south of Troy, called 
Campus Thebes, Liv. 37, 19, in- 
habited by Cilicians, and therefore 
called Cilicia, where THEBiE vel 
Thebe stood, the residence of king 
Eetion, the father of Andromache, 
Strab. 13, 611. hence called E'etionea, 
Ovid. Met. 12, 10. see Ovid. Trist. 
4, 3, 29. sumamed Placia and Hypo- 
placia, as being at the foot of mount 
Placium, mentioned by Homer, //. 1. 
366, et 6, 397. sixty stadia from Adra- 
myttium, and eighty from Lyrnessus, 
the city of Briseis, Strab. ib. Lyr- 
nessus and Thebe were destroyed, Ho- 
mer. 11. 2, 691. but the plain retained 
its name, Liv. ib. et Mel. 1, 18. — 
The most celebrated city of the name 
of THEB/E, was the capital of Upper 
Egypt, or THEBAIS, Plin. 5, 9. 
called also Diospolis, ib. and by Ho- 
mer, ixocrofivruXoi, from its hundred 
gates, II. 9, 39 : i., Mel. 1, 9. extinct 
in the time of Juvenal. Atque vetus 
Thebe centum jacet obrula portis, Ju- 
venal. 15. 16. 
THEMlSCtRA, a town of Pontus, 
near the mouth of the river Thermo- 
don, the residence of the Amazons, 
591. 

THEODONIS vel Totonis villa, The- 
onville, a strong town of Luxem- 
burg on the Moselle. 

THEODOSIA, Caffa, a town of 
Crim Tartary, on the Cimmerian Bos- 
porus, Mel. 2, 1. 

Theon-ochema, i. e. the car of the gods, 
supposed to be Sierra Leone, a 
mountain in Africa. 

Theop5lis, i. e. Dei urbs, a name given 
to Antioch in the lower ages, because 
the professors of Christianity were there 
first called Christians. 

THERA, Santorin, an island in the 
sea of Crete, 338. Inh. TherjEI, a 
colony of whom founded Cyreue in 
Africa, Sallust. Jvg. 19. ; Justin. 13, 
7 . — Also a town of Caria. 

THERAPNtE v. -e, a town of Laco- 
nica, 284. sacred to Castor and Pollux, 
Stat. Silv. 4, 8, 53. who are hence 
called Therapncei Fralres, Stat. Thcb. 
7, 793. Rure Therapmceo natapuelLa, 
i. e. Helena, Ovid. Ep. 16, 196.— 



Sometimes put for Lacedaemon, thus 
Misit Agenoreis duct or em animosa The~ 
rapne, Sparta sent Xantippus as a 
leader to the Carthaginians, Sil.'6, 303 ? 
Therapncea arma, the arms of Mene- 
laus or of the Greeks, Sil. 13, 43, 
Therapnceo a sanguine Clausi Nero, 
Claudius Nero descended from Clausus 
or Claudius, Sit. 8, 414, who came to 
Rome from the country of the Sabines, 
Liv. 2, 16. which people are said to 
have sprung from a colony of Lacede- 
monians who settled in that country, 
Dionys. 2, 49. whence Nero is called 
Amyclceus nepos, sc. telluris Oenotrite, 
Sil. 15, 546. 

THERM A, afterwards Thessalonua, Sa- 
lon ichi, a city of Macedonia on the 
sinus Ihermaiais, 325. 

THERMAE Selinuntice, Sciacca, a town 
of Sicily, where were the ancient baths 
ok Selinus, 268. — THERMAE Hime- 
rensis, Thermini, a* town near Panor- 
mus, 271. Sil. 14,13, 2. Inh. Ther- 
MiTANi, Cic. Ferr.2, 35. Thermitanus 
homo, ib.43. 

Thehmodon, -ontis, m. Termeh, or 
Carmili, a river of Pontus, 591. Virg. 
JEn. 11. 659. near'whieh the Ama- 
zons are said to have resided, Herodot. 
9, 27. whence it is called Amazonius, 
S.l. 8, 433. adj. Therm odontitis, v. 
-icus, v. -tiacus ; Thermodontiaca ca- 
terva, the Amazon?, Senec. Oedip. s. 5. 
Bipennu, an Amazonian battle-ax, 
Ovid. Met. 12, 61 1. pelta, Sil. 2, 
80. 

THERMOPYLAE, a celebrated pass 
between Qrteaa Propria and Thessaly, 
310. Ottace, at the foot of mount 
Oeta, Catull. 66, 54. 

THERMIUM. a strong town of iEtolia, 
on the river Evenus, Polyb. 5, 7. 

THESPIA v. -its, Neocorio, 'a town 
of Boeoiia, 30, Plin. 4, 7. sacred to 
the Muses , hence called Thespiades 
Dece, Ovid. Met. 5, 310. Inh. Thes- 
pienses, Liv. 36, 21. 

THESPROTIA a district of Epirus, 
316. Inh. Thesproti, Lucan.3, 179.; 
Liv, 43, 21. Thesprulius sinus, ib. 8, 
24. 

THESSALIA, J.vnna, a country of 
Greece, 319. Inh. Thessali, Liv. 
34, 51. Thessali equites, ib. 9, 19. 
Thessalicus equitatus, 4 2, 59. Thes" 
salt ignes, the night watches of the 
Greeks round the tent of Achilles, 
Horat. Od.l, 10, 15. Thessalus vic- 
tor, i. e. Achilles, ib. 2, 4, 19. Thes- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



845 



•Salicus orrbis, the climate or sky ofThes- 
3aly, Lucan. 7, 6. Thessalica pugna, 
the battle of Pharsalia, 7, 693, & 765.; 
dies, the day of it, 7, 202.; clades, the 
defeat, 6, 62.; 9, 23.; cades, 7, 448.; 
ruince, 7, 439. Thessabcs reus, sc. Pow?~ 
peius, who lost TWssaly by his defeat, 
or who was the cause of that defeat, 8, 
510. — Thessalzdes, Thessaiian women, 
Ovid. Met. 12, 19. Thessdla et Thes- 
saiis, a sorceress, Lucan. 6, 45 1 , 565, 
&c. as Thessaly abounded with such, 
and waf thought fertile in herbs, &c. 
fii for magical purposes, xb. 6, 435. 
Fox Thessala, for voces, magical in- 
cantations, Horat. Epod. 5, 45. See 
_p.4i.24. — Thessalica Sagiltoe, the celes- 
tial sign Sagittarius, supposed to be 
the centaur Chiron, a Thessaiian. Lu- 
can. 4, 528. Thessaliotis, -His, a 

district of Thessaly, 320. 
THESSALONlCA, formerly Therma, 
Saloniki, a principal city of Mace- 
donia, 325. Liv. 19, 17.; 40, 4.; 
44,\I0, & 45. Inh. Thessalonlcenses, 
Cic. Cons. prov. 2. 
THESTIA, a town gF jEtolia, between 
the AchelOus and Evenus, Polyb. 5, 7. 
Inh. Thestienses v. Thestieis, 
THIA, an island that rose in Pliny's 
time, out of the Cretan sea^ Plin. 2, 
88.; et 4, 12. 
THIRMIDA, a town of Numidia, where 

Hiemspal was slain, Sallust. Jug 12. 
TH1STJE, a town of Bceotia, Plin. 4, 7. 
THORAX, a mountain near Magnesia, 

in Ionia, Stral. 14, 647. 
THORNAX, a mountain of Laconica, 

Pausan. 2, 36. 
THRACIA vel Thraca; et Thrace vel 
threre, -es", Romania or Rumelia, 
Thrace, a large country in the east 
of Europe, 344. Inh. Tkraces ; sing. 
Thrax vel Threx ; fern. Thressa v. 
Threissa; adj.Thrdcius, Thrums, Thre- 
cius v. Threicius. Thrarius vel Thra- 
cius Bosporus, the straits of Constanti- 
nople, Strab. 12, 566. Thraciee fauces, 
the straits of the Hellespont, Lucan. 9, 
954. hiemes, severe, ib. 7, 833. Thra- 
cius Boreas, violent, 1,389. but unimcs 
Tlvratice, gentle breezes, Horat. Od. 4, 
12,2. Neu muiti Damalis meri Bassum 
Threicia vincat amystide, in drinking 
large cups, such as the Thracians used, 
Horat. Od. 1, 36, 18. — Thrace was 
celebrated for producing fine horses, 
Firg. JEn. 1, 471, & 752.; 9, 49.; el 
12, 83. 

Thrasimenus LACUS, the lake of Pe- 



rugia, in Etruria, near which Han- 
nibal defeated the Romans, for the third 
time, under Flaminius the consul, 136. 
Cic. Div. 2, 8. ; Liv. 22, 4, &c. 

THROMUM, a town of Locris, 310, 
Homer. II. 2, 533. 

THULE vel Thyle, supposed to be the 
Shetland isles of Scotland, Tacit, 
Agric. 10.; Strab. 2, 114.; Ptolem.8, 

2. Pliny seems to place it farther 
north, 4, 16. s. 30. Strabo speaks 
doubtfully of its situation, ib. et J, 
63. ; et 4, 201. The poets speak of it 
as the most remote part of the world 
towards the north-west. Ultima Thule 
Firg. G. 1, 30.; Juvenal. 15, 112, 
HespericE vada caliganlia Thules, sup- 
posed never to see the sun during winter, 
Stat. Silv. 3, 5, 20. hence called Nigra, 
ib-. 4, 4, 62. 

THURIA, a town of Messenia; Inh, 
Thuriat^, Strab. 8, 360. 

THURII v. -ice, v. ium, a city of Lu» 
cania, 171. Cic. Att..3, 5.; et 9, 19.; 
Liv. 9, 16.; 10, 2.; Inh. Thurini, 
Liv. 2 5, 1.; et 27. 1. Thurinus Orny- 
tus, Horat. Od. 3, 9, 14. Thurinus 
ager, Liv. 34, 53. Thurini sixius, Ovid* 
Met. 15, 52. 

THUSCI, the inhabitants of Etruria, 
Firg. JEn. 12, 551. Tuscus Tiberis, 
G. 1, 499. Tusco de sanguine vires, sc. 
Mantua?, i.e. Mantua was founded by 
a body of Tuscans, Id. JEn. 10, 203. 

THYAMIS, Calama, a river of Epire, 
Cic. Att. 7, 2. 

THYATIRA, Akhisar, a city of Lydia, 
588. Liv. 37, 8, & 44. 

THYNI, a people of Bithynia, Plin. 5, 
32. whence Thyna Merx, merchandise 
from that country, Horat. Od. 3, 7, 3, 
They came originally from Thrace, 
Plin. 4, 11. 

THYMBRA, a plain near Troy, watered 
by the river Thymbrius, which ran into 
the Scamander, where stood a temple 
of Apollo, in which Achilles was slain 
by Paris, Strab. 13, 59S. whence 
Apollo was called ThymbrjEUS, Firg. 
JEn. 3, 85. or Rector Thymbrce, Stat. 
Silv. 4, 7, 22. Thymbrcea Pergama, ib. 

3. 2, 97. 

THYREA vel Thyra, a town on the 
confines of Laconica and Argolis, He- 
rodot. 1. 12.; Tkucydid. 5, 41. A dis- 
pute having arisen about this place be- 
tween the Lacedemonians and Argives. 
it was agreed, that the matter should 
be decided by 300 combatants on both 
sides, who all fell except QthrVades 



846 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



the Lacedemonian ; and he, having 
erected a trophy, and written on it an 
inscription with his own blood, slew 
himself, that he might not survive h ; s 
companions, Hcrodot. ib.; Stat. Theb. 
4, 48. hence Terra Thyrealis, -idis, 
Ovid. Fast. 2, 66;*. ; Stephan. de Urb. 
THYREUM v. -ium, v. Thurium Thy- 
rium, v. -eum, a town of Acarnania, 
near Leucas, Liv. 36, 11. ; et 38, 9. ; 
Cic. Fam. 16, 5. Inh. Thyrienses, Liv. 
•36, 12. 

Thy rides, three small islands at the 
point of the promontory of Taenarus, 
Plin. 4, 12. 

THYRSUS, Oristagni, a river of 
Sardinia. 

TIBARANI v. eni, a people of Cilicia, 
Cic.Fam.15, 4. — Also a people of 
Pontus, who are said to have delighted 
in jesting and laughter, Mel. l, 20. 

TIBERIAS, -adis, f. a town of Galilee, 
on the south side of the lake of Tibe- 
rias or Genesareth, bui-lt by Herod, and 
named after the Emperor Tiberius, Jo- 
seph. Ant. 18, 3.; Plin. 5, 16. 

TIBERIS, Tibris, vel Thybris, -is, v. 
-uliSf m. the Tevere or Tiber, the 
river which runs past Rome, and sepa- 
rated Latium from Etruria, 143. ter- 
med Jlavus, from the colour of its wa- 
ter, Horat. Od. 1 ; 2, 13. flavens, Sil. 
16. 680. Multd Jlavus arena, Virg. 
Mu. 7, 31. coeruleus, ib. 8, 64. Jam- 
pridemSyrusm Tiberim dejluxil Orontes, 
i. e. a multitude of Syrians have mi- 
grated to Rome, and brought with 
them their depravity of morals, Juve- 
nal. 3, 61. Merx ableganda Tiberim 
ultra, Commodities made beyond the 
Tiber, (in regione Transtiberina,) as 
hides, sulphur, &c. which it was not 
allowed to manufacture in the city, on 
account of their noisome smell, Juve- 
nal. 14, 202 ; Martial. 6, 93, 4. hence 
one who sold matches (sulphurata,) is 
called Transtiberinus ambulator, ib. 1 , 

42, 3. Vinum Tiberi devectum, 

wine of small value brought down the 
Tiber, Juvenal. 7, 121. Quce imperii 
fines Tiberinum virgo natavit, i. e. 
Claelia, who swam over the Tiber, then 
the limit of the Roman territory, ib, 8, 
264. — Tiberinum ostium, the mouth 
of the Tiber, Cic. Manil. 12. Tiberim 
ostia, Virg. ^En. 1, 13.; Ovid. Met. 
15, 728.— —Tiberin'a insula y nn island 
in the Tiber at Rome, Liv. 2, 5. Nyryi- 
phce Tibertmdes, Ovid. Fast. 2, 597. 
TIBISCUS, Tf.isse, a river of Daclu, 



which runs into the Danube, to the 
north west of Belgrade. — Also a town 
or Dacia, now Temeswar. 
TIBULA, Lango-Saroo, a town of 

Sardinia. 

TIBUR, TiVoli, a town of Latium, on 
the Anio, 144, founded by Tiburtus 
or Tiburnus, Virg. Mn. 7 , 670. ac- 
cording to Horace, by Catillus or Ca- 
tilus, Od. 1, 18, 2. the brother of Ti- 
burnus, Virg. ib. and a colony from 
Argos, (Tibur Argceo positum colono,) 
Horat. Od. 2, 6, 5, Inh. Tirurtes, 
sing. Tiburs, Liv. 7, g, &c. Regione 
Tibur li, Suet. Cal. 21. Villa in Tibur te, 
sc.rure, Cic. Orat. 2, 65. Tiburs via, 
v. Tiburlina, the way to Tibur, Horat. 
Sat. 1, 6, 108. Tibur tia poma, ib. 2, 
4, 70. Tiburtina frigora, Martial. 4, 
57, 10. Tibur tinum Scipionis, sc. presi- 
dium, Cic. Phil. 5, 7. 

TICHIS v. Ticer, Tech, a river of Hi- 
ther Spain, rising in the Pyrenees, and 
running into the Mediterranean, near 
Rhoda or Roses. 
-TICHIUS, -untis, the top of mount 
Oeta, Liv.ZS, 15, & 17. 

TIClNUS, Tesino, a river of the In- 
subres or Milanese which runs into the 
Po, at TICINUM, vel Pabia, Pavi a, 
135. Liv. 5, 34.; 21, 39, & 45. 
Plin. 3, 16, & 17- with a slow and 
clear stream, Sil. 4, 82. 

Tifata, -orum, Tifata, a mountain 
of Campania, near Capua, 148. 

TIFERNUM, a town of Samnium, Liv. 
9, 44.; et 10, 14, near the source of 
the river TIFERN OS, Tiferno, Mel. 
2, 4, Plin. 3, 11. and mount Tifernus, 
Liv. 10, 30. — Also a town of Umbria, 
called TIFERNUM, Tiberinum, Citta 
di Castello, on the Tiber, Plin. 3, 

14. Plin. Ep. 4, l. et lo, 24. Inh. 
Tifernates Tiberini. Another town on 
the Metaurus, TIFERNUM Metau- 
rense, Plin. ib. 

TIGRANOCERTA, -orum, Sered, a 
city of Armenia Major, built by Ti- 
granes, 593. Plin. 6, 9. Tacit. Ann. 

15, 4, & 5. 

TIGRIS, Basiunsa or Berema. a 
large river of Asia, rising in Armenia 
Major, and flowing into the Persian 
gulf, by the same mouth with the Eu- 
phrates, 593. named Tigris, (i. e. Sa- 
gitta,) from its rapidity, Plin. 0, 27 s. 
31. 

T1GURINUS pagus, one of the four 
cantons or divisions of the Hclvetii, 
Cat. G. 1, 10. comprehending the 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 847 



' Biodem cantons of Zurick, Switz, 
Schaffhausen, and the abbey of St. 
Gall; named frora Tigurum, Zurick, 
its capital. 

TILIAVEMPTCM, Tagliamento, a 
river of the Feneti, in Italy, running 
into the Hadriauc, between Aquileja 
to the east, and Concordia to the west, 
Piui. 3, 18 s. 22. 

TlLIUM v.Tillium, Argentera, a town 
of Sardinia. 

TILOX, Punta Martelia, a promontory 
on the north-west side of Corsica. 

Tileossius mons, inBoeotia ; and Tilfossa, 
a fountain at the sepulchre of Tiresias, 
fifty stadia from Haliartus, Pausan. 
Boeot. c. 33. 

TIMACUS, Timor, a river of Moesia, 
running into the Danube ; Timachi, 
the people who lived near it, Plin. 3, 
26. 

TIMAVUS, Tim ao, or Timavo, a river 
of the Veneti, or Carni, (in regione Fo- 
rqjuliensi, the district of Friuli,) which 
issues from several fountains, (novem 
capitibus, Mel. 2, 4.) at the foot of the 
Alps, and after a course of but a few 
miles, runs into the Hadriatic by one 
mouth, between Aquileia and Tergeste, 
ifc, Plin. 3, 18 s. 22.; Stral. 5, 214. 
Livy calls it Lacus Timavi, because its 
fountains quickly uniting form a broad 
stream, 41, 1. Virgil gives it but 
one fountain and seven mouths, JEn. 1, 
144. Statius places it near Padua ; 
hence he calls Livy, Timavi alumnus, 
Silv. 4, 7 y 55. So Lucan ; who calls 
it Antenoreus Timavus, from Antenor, 
who founded Patavium, 7, 194. But 
the poets are not always accurate in 
their geography. Virgil calls it Japis 
Timavus, because the territory of the 
Japides, an Illyrian nation, formerly 
extended to this place, G. 3, 475. 
At the mouth of the Timavus are 
some small islands, containing hot- 
springs, Plin. 2, 103, whicli some think 
Virgil denominates Saxa Timavi^ Eel. 
8, 6. 

TINA, the river Tine at Newcastle. 
TINGE, Tings- vel Tingis, Tangier, 
a port-town of Morocco, Sil. 3, 258. 
• ^which gave name to Mauritania Tingi- 
tana. 

TINIA vel Teneas, Topino, a river of 
Utnbria, which falls into the Clitum- 
nus, Strab. 5, 227, & 235.; Sil. 8, 
454. 

TINOCELLUM, Tinmouth, at the 
mouth of the Tine. 



TIPH A, a small sea-port town of E^oeotia, 
the native place of Tiphys, the pilot 
of the ship Argo, Vvg. Ed. 4, 34.; 
Ouid Ep. 6, 48. 

TIR1DA, a town of Thrace, where were 
the stables of Diomedes, who fed his 
horses with human flesh, Plin. 4, 11, 
s. 18. 

TIRYNS, -this, f. Vathia, a town of 
Argblis, the birth-place of Hercules ; 
whence he was called Tirynlhius, 
286. 

TISDRA, s town of Africa Propria; Inh. 

Tisdritani, Hirt. B. Af. 76, & 97. 
TISOBIS vel TasoDis, the Conway, a 

river of Wales. 
TISSA, Randazzo, a small town of 

Sicily, near mount /Etaa ; Inh. Tis- 

senses,' Cic. Vert. 3, 38. 
TITARESUS v. -ius, vel Eurotas, a 

river of Thessaly, of curious qualities^ 

319. 

TITHOREA, one of the summits of 
mount Parnassus, Herodot. 8, 32, 
where was the town Neon, Pausan. 
Phoc. 33. 

TITYHUS, a lofty mountain of Crete, 

in the territory of Cydonia. 
TIUM, Fiokos, a town of Bithynia; 

Inh. Tiani vel Tianenses. 
TMOLUS, Bouz-dag, a mountain of 

Lydia, 388. abounding in saffron and 

planted with vines, Plin. 5, 29. ; Virg. 

G. 1, 56.; Ovid. Mel. 11, 151.; Sil. 

7, 210. which gave name to a river 

where the finest whet-stones were found, 

Plin. 33, 8.; Inh. Timolitee, sing. Ti- 

motiles, Cic. Flacc. 3, St ] 9- 
TQBIUS, Tovy, a river of Wales, 

running into the Irish sea, near Caer- 

mar then. 

TOLBIACUM, Zulpich or Zulch, a 
town of Belgica, to the south of Ju- 
liet's . 

TOLENUS v. Telonius, Salto, a rivet 
of Latium, rising near the lacus Fu ti- 
mes, and falling into the Vtlinus near 
Reato, Ovid. Fast. 6, 561. 

TOLETUM, Toledo, the capital of 
New Castile in Spain. 

TOLIAPIS, Sheppey, an island at the 
mouth of the Thames. 

T0LIST0B01I vel Tolistotogi, a people 
of Galana in Asia, descended from the 
Boii in Gaul, Liv. 38, 15, 1G, &c. ; 
Plin. 5, 32. 

T0LLENT1NUM, Tolentino, a town 
of Pieenum on the Chiento ; Inh. 
To/entindtes, Plin. S, 13 s, 18. Ager 
Tolentiyus, 



$48 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



TOLQSA vel Tolosatium civitas, Tou- 
louse, the capital of Languedoc, on 
the Garonne, C<es. G. 3, 20. ; Inh. 
Tolosates, ib. 1, 8, vel Tolosani, Plin. 
3, 4. Its temple was enriched with 
many golden offerings ; which Caepio, 
the Roman general, having plundered, 
was on that account thought to have 
been ever after unsuccessful, and to 
have died in misery, Strab. 4, 188. 
whence- Aurum Tolosanum became 
proverbial, ib. Gell. 3,9.; Cic. Nat. 
D. 3, 30.; Oral. 2, 47. See also 
Justin. 32, 3. who relates the story dif- 
ferently. — — Literature was so much 
cultivated at Toulouse, that Martial 
calls it Palladia Tholosa, sacred to Pal- 
las, 9, 101, 3. So Ausonius, Paren- 
tal. 3, & in Profess. 17. Its cheese 

(caseus Tolosas, -atis,) was veiy ill 
tasted, Marital. 12, 32, 18. 

TOMARUS v. Tmarus, a mountain of 
Thesprotia in Epire, above Dodona,. 
Strab. 7, 321. 

TOMOS, plur. Tomi v. Tomis, -Ms, f. 
Tomes war or Baba, a maritime town 
of Msesia, in that part called Pont us, 
on the Euxine sea, about thirty- six 
miles from the most southern mouth of 
the Danube; rendered illustrious by its 
being the place of Ovid's banishment ; 
said to have been so called from Me- 
dea's mangling in that place the body 
of her brother Absyrtue, see p. 353. ; 
Ovid. Trist. 3, 9, 33. ; Cic. Manil. 9. 
founded by a colony from Miletus ; 
hence called Urbs Milelis, -zdis, Ovid. 
Trist. 1, 9, 41.; Inh. Tomltce, ib. l, 
2, 85. whence Tomitanus ager, Ovid. 
Pont. 3, 8,2. humus, 3, 1, 6. urbs, 
Pont. 3, 4, 2. 

TORONE v. -a, Toron, a town of Ma- 
cedonia, which gave name to Toronceus 
Sinus, vel Toronaicus, the gulf of Cas- 
sandra, 326. Tor once -prom. Liv. 31, 
45. Toronaicum mare, 44, 11. 

TOXANDRI, the people of CaxMpine, 
in Gallia Belgica ; their town, Ibxan- 

' dria, supposed to be Tessenderleo, in 
the west extremity of the bishoprick of 
Liege, Plin. 4, 17. 

TRACHIS vel Trachin, -Inis, a city of 
Thessaly, called also Heradea, 320. 
whence Trachinia tellus, the circumja- 
cent part of Thessaly, Ovid. Met. 1 1 , 
269. puppis, the ship of Ceyx, ib. 502. 
Trachinius miles, the troops of Heraclea, 
Lucan. 3, 178. 

TRAGURIUM, Trau, a port-lown of 
Dal mat ia. 



Trachonitis, a district of Palestine? 
on the other side of Jordan, named 
from its roughness, P/m. 5, 18. ; Inh. 
Trachomtrt,' Joseph. Ant. 16, 8. see 
p. 596. 

Trajanopolis, Trajanopou, a town 

of Thrace. Another of Mysia, called 

Tranopolis, in later writers. 
TRAJECTUS Rheni v. -um, Utrecht, 

contracted for Oud trecht, the Old 

Passage; the capital of the province of 

Utrecht in Holland. 
TRALLES,-u<7tc,, v. Trallis,-is, Sultan- 

his ar, a strong town of Lydia,_now 

inconsiderable, 588.; Liv. 37, 45. ; 

Cic. Rull. 2, 15. Fam. 3, 5. All. 14. 

1 . Q. Fr. 1, 6. ; Juvenal. 3, 70. ; Inh. 

Tballiani, Cic.Flacc. 22. Trallianus 

testis, il). 

TRALLES v. Tralli, a people of Illy ri- 
cum, Liv. 31, 35. ei33, 4. 

Trasimenus lacus. See Thrasimenus. 

TRAPEZUS, -vntis, f. Trebisond, 
a city of Pontus, on the confines of 
Colchis, 591. ; Plin. 6,4.; Tacit. Hist. 
3,47.; Inh. Trepezuntii. 

TREBA, a town of the iEqui, near the 
source of the Anio ; Inh. Trebani, 
Plin. 3, 12* 

TREBIA, Trebia, a river of -Gallia Cis- 
padana, rising in the Apennines, and 
running past Piacentia into the Po; 
near which river Hannibal defeated the 
Romans a second time under Sempro- 
nius the consul, Liv. 21, 54, & 56. 

TREBIA, Trevi, a town of Umbria ; 
Inh. Trebiates, Plin. 3, 14 s. 3 9. — 
Another of Latium, Liv. 2, 39. — A 
third of Campania ; whence Trebiamis 
ager, Liv. 23, 14. 

TREBULA Mutusca, a town of the 
Sabines ; simply called by its surname 
Mutusca, Virg. Mn. 7, 7H. Inh. 
Trebulani Mutusccei, Plin. 3, 12. ov 
Trebulani, Liv. 10, l. Trebulanus 

ager, Cic. Rull. 2, 25. Another of 

Campania, Liv. 23, 39. Inh. Trebulani 
Balinienses, Plin. 3, 5. Trebula- 
num, sc. pr tedium, a villa of Pontius, 
Cic. Att. 6, 2. Some make the Tre- 
licla and Trebia in Campania the 
same. 

TRERUS, Tbero, a river of Latium, 
falling into the Liris. 

TRES TABERN^E, The Three Taverns, 
a place on the Via Appia, where tra- 
vellers took refreshment, Cic. Att. 1, 
13. ib. 2, 10, & 11. ; Acts, 28, 15. 

TREVlRI, sing. Trevir, a powerful peo* 
pie of Gallia Belgica, between the 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



849 



Maese and the Rhiae, Cxs. B. G. l, 
37. ; Lucan. 1 , 441. their capital, Tre- 
virorum civitas, v. Augusta, on the 
Moselle, was, as usual in the lower 
ages, called after the people; now 
Triers or Treves. 

TRIBALLI, a people of Msesla, Phn. 3, 
26 s. 29. . , 

TRIBOCCI, v Trihochi, the people of 

Alsace, Plin. 4, 17- 

TRIBULIUM, Trkbigne, a town or 
Dalmatia. , 

TRICALA v. Triocitla, a citadel in the 
south of Sicily, SiL 14, 271. h *nh. 
Triocalim, Phn. 3, 8. 

TRICASSES v. -i, the people of Cham- 
pagne in France ; their capital, Tri- 
cascium civilas, Troyes. 

Tricastini, a people of Gaul, through 
whose ttrritory Hannibal passed, after 
■crossing the Rhone, Liv. 21, 31. ; SiL 
3, 466. 

TR1CCA, a town of Thessaly, on the 
north banlc of the Oeneus, to the south 
Of Gotnphi, Liv. 32, 13.; 36, 13.; 
89, 25. 

TRICHONIUM v. Tnchone, a town of 
iEtolia. 

TRTCORII, the people of the valley 
Gresivaudan, in the north-east of 
Dauphine, Liv. 21, 31. 

TRICORN1UM, Krosca, a town of 

TRIGORlftrHUS, a town of Atfica, be- 
tween Marathon and Rhamnus. 

TRIDENTUM, Trent, a city of the 
Rhceti, on the Athesis, Phn. 3, 1$. 
on the confines of the Euganei ; Inh. 
Tridentini. 

TRIFANUM, a place in Latium, be- 
tween Sinuessa and Minturnae, Liv. 

e, r*. . _, , 

TRIFOLIN'US, a mountain near Naples; 
whence Trifoliniis ager, fertile in wine, 
Juvenal. 9, 56. Trifolina vina, Phn. 
14, 7., -Martial. 13, 114. 
Trigemina porta, a port of Rome, 
through which the Via Ostiensu passed ; 
so called, from the three Horatn who 
went out at this gate to fight the Cu- 
riatn, Liv. 4, 16.; 35, 41. ; 40, 51. 
now called San Paolo, from a church 
near it, dedicated to the apostle Paul. 
TRINACRIA, vel Trinacris, a name 
given to Sicily from its three capes, 
see p. 256. 
TRINIUM, Trigno, a river running 
from the Apennines through 5amnm/tt, 
and ihe territory of the Frentam, into 
die Hadriatic. 



TRINOBANTES, the people of Mid- 
dlesex and Essex, Cass. 5", 20. ; Tacit, 
Annul. 14, 33. 
TR10PIUM, a town and promontory of 
Carta. 

TRIPHYLIA, a district of Peloponnesus^ 

Liv. 21, 8.; 32, 5.; 33, 34. 
Tripous, a district of Arcadia, consist- 
ing of three towns, Pausan. Arc. 28. 

— of Laconica, Liv. 35, 27. of 

Thessaiy, ifr. 42, 53. where there seems 
to have b-en a single town of this name, 
(Tripolis Scea,) ib. 42, 55. whence 
ager TripoWanus, ib. 36, 10.— A towu 
of Lydiaon the Meander ; Inh. Trip** 
litani* Plin. 5, 29 s. 30. which some 

place in Caria. Another city of 

Phoenicia, in fact composed o^ three 
towns, at the distance of a furlong from 
each other, Diodor. 16, 41. built by 
people from three different cities, Sirah. - 
16, 754. Plin. 5, 20. ; Mel. l, 12.— 
The country between the two Syrtes in 
Africa (regio Syrtica) was in later times 
from its three principal cities, (Oec, 
Sahrata, and Leptis Magna, Solin. 27 •) 
called Tripolitana, sc. provincia. At 
what time its present principal town (an- 
ciently Oea,) and the country after it, 
began first to be called TRIPOLI, is 
uncertain. ., 
TRIQUETRAL name given to biciiy 
from its three capes, equivalent to the 
Greek Triaacria, 256. 
TRITON a river of the Regio Syrhca or 
Lybia, which falls into the lake Tbi- 
tonis, Herodot. 4, 178, & 180.; Sd. 
4 535. whence Pallas was called Tri- 
ton 1 a, see p. 361.; SiL 3, 32-2.; et 
9, 297. 

TRITONON, atown of Doris, Ltv.28, 7 • 
Triumvirorum Insula, an island in the 
Rhenus or Rheno, a river which runs 
into the Po on the south, where Au- 
gustus, Anthony, and Lepidus met, 
after the battle of Mutina, and divided 
theprovinees of theRoman empire, Dio. 
46, 55 ; Appian. de Civ. B. 4. pr. 
TRIVItE Ulcus, the lake of Diana, near 
Aricia in Latium, Virg. Mn. 7, 516. 
called also Stagmim Diane, Ovid. Fast. 
3,261. and Lacus Nemorensis, Suet. 
Cal. 35 . now the Lake of Nemi. 
Trivicum, Trevico, a town of the 

Hirpini, HoraL Sat, 1, 5, 79. 
TROCMI Galli, a people of Galatia in 

Asia Minor, Lw. 38, 16. 
TROEZEN v. Troezene, Damala, a city 
of Argolis, 286. the residence of. 
Pitlheus, the grandfather of Theseus,- 
3l 



850 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



hence called Pittheia Trazen, Ovid. 
Met. 6, 418.; et 15, 296. the birth- 
place of Theseus ; hence called Troe- 
zenius heros. 
TROGlLIiE, three small islands near 
Satnos. 

TROGIUUM, a part of Mount Mycale, 
projecting- into the sea between Ephe- 
sus and the mouth of the Meander, op- 
posite to Samos, Slrah. 14,636. 

TROGILUS v. -os, a village at the 
mouth of the river Pantacius, near Sy- 
racuse ; Inh. Trogilii ; whence Trogili- 
orum partus, Liv. 25, 23. 

Troglodytve, (composed of rpayXn, 
cuverna, andByvw, suleo/i.e. those who 
lived in caverns,) a people of Egypt on 
the Arabian gulf. Troglodytice, 
their country; whence Troglodyticus 
sinus, a bay on their coast, Herodot. 4, 
183.; Cic. Div. 2,44.; Strab. 16, 
775. ; Plin. 2, 7 6 ; et 6, 29.; Ptolem. 
4, 8. — i — Also a people of Ethiopia, 
Mel. 1, 8. 

TROJA, Troy, a celebrated ancient 
city of TROAS in Asia Minor, at no 
great distance from the Hellespont ; 
Inh. TROJAN I ; and in the poets, 
Tboes, sing. Tros, Trois; fern. Troas, 
-adis v. -ados ; also Teucri and Tro- 
jugente; which last name was ap- 
plied to the most ancient Roman no- 
bility, as being descended from the 
Trojans, Juvenal. 1,100.; 8,181.; 
II, 95. So Tro'iades, Pers. 1, 4. but 
Trojugenee simply denotes the Romans, 
Sil. 14, 117-; adj. Trojanus, Troius, et 
Troicus, Trojugenee grates, Luc. 1, 466. 

TROP^A, Trope a, a town of the 
Bruttii, 174. 

TROPiEA, stone monuments erected by 
Pompey on the Eastern Pyrenees, near 
Bellegarde. 

TROSSULUM, a town of Etrnria, nine 
miles from Vblsinii, which a body of 
Roman horsemen having taken without 
the assistance of foot-soldiers, the Ro- 
man Equites were thence called Tros- 
suli, Plin. 32, 2. ; Senec. Ep. 86, & 
87.; Pers. l, 81. 

TRUENTUS, Thonto, a river of Pice- 
irara ; TRUENTUM, a town at its 
mouth, Plin. 3, 13 s. 18. whence 
Truenlince turres> Sil. 8, 435. 

TUBANTES, a people of Germany, 

' Tacit. Ann. 1, 51.; et 13, 55. 

TUBURBO Majus, Tubernok, a town 
of Africa, south of Tunis; TUBUR- 
BO Minus, still called Tuburro, on 
ihe river Bagradas. 



TUCCA, TUGGA, a town of Mauri- 
tania, at the mouth ef th« river Amsaga. 

TUDUR, & Tuder v. Tudertum, Tadi, 
a town of Umbria, Sil. 6, 645.; Inh. 
Tudertes; sing. Tuder s, ib. 4, 222. 

Tuerobis, Tovy, a river of Wales, 
running below Cardigan into the Irish 
sea. 

TUESIS, the river Tweed. 
TUSICUM, a town of Umbria; Inh. 

Tusicani. 

TUGENUS Pagus one of the four can- 
tons of the Helvetii ; supposed to be 
named from Tusum v. Tugiian, now 

Zug. 

TUGIA, Toia, a town of Spain; whence 
Saltus Tugiensis, where the Beetis rises, 
Plin. 3, 1. 

TULCIS, Francoli, a river of Spain, run- 
ningbyTavraco into the Mediterranean. 

TULINGI, a people of Belgica, contigu- 
ous to the Helvetii, now Stu lingen, 
Cces. 1, 5. 

TUNES, -etis, m. a place fifteen miles 
from Carthage, Liv. 30, 9. now sup- 
posed to be Tunis. 

TUNGRI v. Tongri, a people of Gallia 
Belgica living on both sides of the 
Maese ; their chief city was called Atu- 
atuca ; now Tongeren, a small village 

to the north-west of Liege. TUN- 

GRORUM Jons, the Spaw, north- 
east from Liege, towards Treves. 

TONOCELLUM, Tinmouth, at the 
mouth of the Tine. 

TUOLA, Gola, a river of Corsica. 

TURBA, Tarbes, a town of Gascony, 
on the river Adour. 

TURDETANI, a powerful people of 
Spain, inhabiting both sides of the 
Bsetis from its mouth ; whence the 
country was called Turditania, Liv. 21, 
6.; 28, 39.; 34, 17, &C. 

TURDULI, the people of Algarva in 
Portugal ; some think them the same 
with the Turditani, Liv. 28, 39. ; et 
34, 17- 

TURIAS v. Turin, Guadalaviar, a river 
of Spain, which runs past Valencia 
into the Mediterranean. 

TURIOSA, Tarazona, a city of Arra- 
gon on the confines of Old Castile. 

TURONES, the people of Tourain in 
France, on the east side of the Loire ; 
their capital Ccesarndimum, in later 
times as usual, was called after the peo- 
ple Turones v. -z, now Tours. 

TURRUS, Torre, a river of the Carni, 
which falls into the Hadriatic, east of 
Aquileia. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. mi 



TURICUM, Zurich, in Switzerland. 
TURNACUM, Tournay, in Flanders. 
TURUNTUS, a river of Sarmatia, 

supposed to be the Duna or Dwina at 

Riga. 

TUSCI, the inhabitants of Etruria, in 
later writers, called Tuscia, Liv. 1, 

•2; 2,51.; 5, 33, &c. TuscUM 

mare. Liv. 5, 33.; et 26, 1 9. Tus- 

cus vicus, the name of a street in Rome, 
Liv. 2, 14.; 27, 39.; 33, 26.; Horat. 
Sat. 2, 3, 228. inhabited by the Tusci 
who remained after the retreat of Por- 

senna, Festus. Tuscus amnis, the 

Tiber, Ovid. Art. Am. 3, 386, Jlumen, 

Met. 14, 615. Tuscadisciplina, the 

art of augury, or divination by prodi- 
gies, which the Romans borrowed from 
the Tuscans, Cic. Fam. 6, 6. Tuscis 
libellis digna res, a miraculous thing, 
such as were recorded in the books of 

the Tuscans, Juvenal. 13, 62. ■ 

Tuscana columna, Vitruv. 4, 6. Opera 
Tuscanica, ib. 4, 7- 

TUSCI, the villa of the younger Pliny in 
Etruria, near the source of the Tiber, 
which he describes, Ep. 5 , 6. 

TUSCULUM, Frescati, a city of La- 
tium, 145. said to have been founded by 
Telegonus, the son of Ulysses by Circe ; 
hence Mcenia Laertes quondam regnata 
nepoti, i. e. Tusculum, SiL 7, 693. 
Tusculi Circcea Meenia, Horat. Epod. 

2, 22.; Inh. TUSCULANI; Liv. 3, 
18.; 6,25.; 8,37. hence Tusculana 
arx, the citadel of Tusculum, ib. 3, 
23.; et6, 33. Tusculani colles, ib. 3, 
7, & 8. Tuscula lellus, Tibul. l, 7, 
57. TUSCULANUM, sc. pr<edium, 
a villa of Cicero's near Tusculum, 
which he often mentions, Att. 1, 6. 
Tusculanee disputatfones v. qucestiones, 
discourses of Cicero concerning the 
contempt of death, and other impor- 
tant subjects, which he composed in the 
colloquial style, in that villa, Tusc. 1, 
4; Div. 2, 1.: Alt. 15, 2. in five 
books, each book containing the mat- 
ter of one day's discourse, [dierum quin- 
que scholce, ib.) Tusculanenses dies, the 

days thus employed, Fam. 9, 6. 

Tusculanum Julii Ccesaris, Cic. Or. 2, 

3, Pompeii, Phil. 13, 5. Crassi, Att. 4, 
16. Luculli, Fin. 3, 2. ; Acad. 4, 48, 
&c. villas of these illustrious men near 
Tusculum. 

TYANA, a town of Cappadocia, the 
birth-place of Apollonius ; Inh. Ty- 
anenses v. Tyaneis ; Tyanitis vel Euse~ 
bia ad Taurum, its territory. 



TYLOS v. Oetylos, Bahrain, a town 
to the north-west of the promontory 
T&nurus, on the Messenian Gulf. 

Tyndaris, Tyndari, a town in the north- 
east part of Sicily, on the river Helicon, 
271. 

TYRA vel Tyras, Ni ester or Dnie- 
ster, contracted from the Donaster of 
Jornandes, a river of Scythia, to the 
north of the mouth of the Danube, 
Herodot. 4, 51.; Plin. 4, 12 s. 26. 
{Nullo tardior amne Tyras, Ovid. Pont, 
4. 10, 50.) TyrItje vel Tyragetcs, 
those who lived along its banks, Plin. 
ib. Strab. 2, 107. ; 7, 305. 

TYRUS, Sour, or Tyre, a famous 
city of Phoenicia, 628. Phamissa Tyros,, 
Ovid. Met. 15, 288. illustrious for its 
commerce and power at sea, (see p, 
127) and for its numerous colonies, 
Leptis, Utica, Gades, and Carthage, 
Plin. 5, 19. not mentioned by Homer, 
Strab. 16, 756. Its ancient name was 
SARRA. See Sarr anus. It is called 
instabilis by Lucan. 3, 217. either from 
the deceitfulness of its inhabitants, 
therefore termed bilingues TYRII, 
Virg. JEn. 1,661. or from its being 
frequently shaken by earthquakes, 
Strab. 16, 757 - ; Curt. 4, 4, 20. Af- 
ter the destruction of Tyre by Alex- 
ander, it never recovered its former 
splendor ; and, in the time of Pliny s 
was only remarkable for the manufac- 
ture of purple, 5, 19. which was es- 
teemed the best in the world, Strab. 16. 
757. whence Tyrium ostrum, Virg. G. 
3, 17. Vellera Milesia Tyrios incocta 
rubores, ib. 307- Tyriofuco cocta, Lu- 
can. 10, 123. Tyrius dnctor, Hamilcajr, 
Sil. 1, 143. 

TYRRHENI, a name given by the 
Greeks to the inhabitants of Etruria ; 
whence Tyrrhena gens, the Tuscan na- 
tion, Cic. Div. 1, 17 ; Ovid. Met. 15, 
577. Mare Tyrrhenum, the Tuscan sea, 
Virg. Mn. 1, 67. Tyrrhenus rex, Me- 
zentius, Ovid. Fast. 4, 893. Mon- 
stra Tyrrhena, Tuscan mariners me- 
tamorphosed into dolphins, ib. 3, '723, 
Met. 3, 607. Tyrrhena pedum vbicula, 
Tuscan sandals, Vi?g t , JEn. 8, 458. 
Tyrrhenusque tubes clangor, the sound of 
the trumpet, of which the Tuscans 
were said to have been the inventors, 
ib. 526. Athenee, 4. 

U& V 

VACCA, a town of Africa Propria, HirU 
B. Afr. 74 ; Inh. Faccenses. 

3 I 2 



$52 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



VACCA, Vouga, a river of Lusitania, 
between the Durius and Munda. 

VACCZEI, a people in the north of Spain 
towards the source of the Durius, Liv. 
21, 5. ; 35, 7-; 46, 47- 

VADICASSES, the people of Valois in 
Gallia Belgica. 

VADIMONIS, a lake of Etruria, near 
Castellum Amerinum and the Tiber, re- 
markable for its floating islands, Liv. 
9,39.; Plin. 2, 95.; Senec. Qucest. 
Nat. 3, 25. ; Plin. Ep. 8, 20. 

VAGA, a town of Numidia; Inh. Va- 
genses, Sallust. Jug. 47, & 69. Va- 
gense oppidum, Plin. 5, 4. 

Vagedrusa, a river of Sicily, between 
the towns Cair.ahna and Gela, Sic. 14, 
229. 

VAGIENNf, a branch of the Ligures, 
near the source of the Po; now Sa- 
luzzo, called also Vagenni, Sil. 8, 60/. 

VAHALIS, the Waal, a branch of the 
Rhine in Holland, Cass. 4, 10, 

VALENTIA, Valence, a town of 
France in Dauphine — Also a town in 
Spain, still calied by the same name — - 
aAIso a town of the Bruttii, called Vibo 
Valentia; Inh. Valentini, Cic. Var. 
5, 16. 

"VALERIA, Valera, a town of th* 
Celtiberi in Spain, Plin. 3, 3. 

Vangiones, a people of Gallia Belgica, 
on the west side of the Rhine; their 
chief town Borbetomagus, Worms, 
Cces. B. G. 1,51.; Lucan. l, 431. 

VANNIA, CrviTA, or Cividad, a town 
of Italy, north of the Po, on the Olius 
orOglio; Inh. Fannienses. 

VAPINCUM, Gap, a town of Dauphine. 

VARAR, thought to be the Murray 
frith, PtoL 

VARDjEI, a people of Daimatia, Cic. 
Fam. 5, 9. 

VARIA, Varo, a town of Latium, on the 
right or east side of the Anio, 140. 

VARINI, a people of Germany situate 
beyond the Cimbri in Scandinavia, Ta- 
cit. Germ. 40. 

Varronis villa, Vicovaro, in the country 
of the Sabines, on the Anio, Cic. Phil. 
2, 41. 

VARUS, the Var or Varo, the boundary 
of Italy and Gaul, falling into the Me- 
diterranean to the west of N ice, Lucan. 
1, 404. 

VASATES v. -tee, a people of Aquitania, 
to the south of the Garonne ; their ca- 
pital was called by the same name, now 
Bazas. 

Vascpnes, a nation of Spain, on tUc wes- 



tern Pyrenees, now Navarre; who 
having passed the mountains, seized on 
Gascony in France. They were reduced 
to such famine by Metellus, the Re- 
man general, as to be obliged to eat 
human flesh, Plin. 3, 3.; Juvenal. 
15, 93. Vasconia, their country, 
Auson. Ep. 2, 100. Vasconica; ores, ib. 
218. 

VASIO, v. Vocontiorum Forum, Vaison, 
a small town in Provence, Plin. 3, 4. ; 
Mel. 2, 5.; Cic. Fam. 10, 34.; Va- 
sio7iense oppidum. 

VATICAN US mom vel collis, the Va- 
tican mount at Rome, {ita dictus, 
quod eo potitus sit populus Romanus 
VATUM responso, expulsis Etruscis, 
Festus, vel a Vaticano deo infantium, 
Gell. 16, 17. Augustin. Civ. D. 4, «.) 
not far from it was the theatre of Pom- 
pey, Horat. Od. 1, 20, 7. Vaticanus 
ager, Cic. Rull. 2, 35. campus, a plain 
beyond the Tiber, whhherCoesar wished 
to transfer the comitia, till the build- 
ings he proposed to erect in the Campus 
Martins were finished, Alt. 13, 33. 
Vallis Vaticana, Tacit Ann. 14, 14. 

VATRENUS, Saterno, a river of Gattia 
Cispadana, rising in the Apennines 
and failing into the Po, Plin. 3, 16. re- 
markable for its slowness, Martial. 3, 67 . 

UBII, a people of Germany, on the east 
side of the Rhine, C&s. 4, 30, & 1 6. ad- 
joining to the Sicambri, Dio. 39, 48. 
in favour of whom Caesar crossed the 
Rhine, at the extremity of the terri- 
tory of Treves, ib. but were transported 
by Agrippa to the other side, and 
called Agrippinenses, from Agrippina 
his daughter, who was born anjong 
them, Tacit. Ann. 12, 17. G. 28. or 
Colonia Agrippikensis, Hist. 1, 57-, 
Plin. 4, 17. 

UBIORUM oppidum, Cologne, on the 
Rhine, Tacit. Ann. 1,36, et 12, 27. 
where the Ubii are supposed to have 
«rected an altar to Augustus, called 
Ubiorum ara, Tacit. Ann. 1, 39. 

UCETIA vel Castrum Ucense, Uzes, « 
town of Languedoc, near Nismes. 

UCUBIS, Lucubi, a small town of 
Granada in Spain ; Inh. Ucubenses; near 
Ategua, Hirt. Bell. Hisp. 7-&. 20. 

UDINA vel Fedinum, Uiuno, a town of 
the Car/a in Italy ; Inh. supposed to be 
the Nedindles of Pliny, 3, 19 s. 23. 

VECTIS vel kecta, the i*le of Wight, 
Suet. CI. 4. 

Vectonks vel fettvnes, a people of 
Spain, adjoining to the Celtiberi, fflfrft 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 853 



3, 3. ; Lucan. 4, 9. ; Sil. 3, 378.; Nep. 
21, 4. 

Vecturiones, the people of Breadal- 
bane in Scotland, as it is thought. 

Vediantii, the people of the country of 
Nice in Gaul. 

VEDRA, the Were or Tees dividing 
Durham from Yorkshire. 

VEGIA vel Vegium, Veglia, an island 
on the coast of Dal mafia. 

VJEII, a city of Etruria, on a high and 
steep rock, about twelve miles to the 
north-west of Rome, taken by Camil- 
lus, after a siege of ten years, Liv. 5, 
21, & 22; Inh. Veientes, ib. 1, 15, 
27,30. & 42.; 2, 6, &c. Vegens ager, 
Cic. Ruse. Am. 16; Fam. 9, 17- hel- 
ium, Div. 1, 44. Arvum Vejens, 
Horat . Ep . 2 j 2 , 1 6 7 • Vejen la?ms ager, 
5, 30. pTteda, 5, 21, & 28. Vejentina 
tribus, Cic. Plane. 16. Vinurri Vejexi- 
tanum, Horat. Sat. 2, 3, 143. 

VELABRUM, a plain between the Capi- 
toline, Palatine, and Aventine mounts, 
Cic. Brut. 15.; Liv. 27, 37. said to have 
been so named, (a vehendo, Varr. L. 
L. 4, 7.) because being marshy and 
overflowed by the Tiber, people were 
carried over it in boats, (lintribus ve- 
hebantur, ib. 32.) till Augustus ren- 
dered it dry by confining the Tiber 
within its banks, Horat. Art. P. 67.; 
Tibull. 2,5, 33. After which it be- 
came a crowded street, where various 
commodities were sold, Horat. Sat. 2, 
3, 229. Martial especially extols the 
cheese of Velabrum, (caseus Velabrensis, 
13, 32. dried in a particular manner, 
{Velabrensi massa re coctafoco) ib. 1 1 , 

52, 10 Others say it was named 

from oils, and the like being there sold 
under tents or coverings (sub velis). It 
is certain oilmen used to frequent 
that place, Plant. Capt. 3, 1, 29. 
• VELAUNI vel Fellavi, the people of 
Vellai, the north-east division of Lan- 
guedoc, Css. 7,75. 

VELDIDENA, Wilten, a village of Ty- 
ro! on the Inn. 

VELIA, a town of Lucania, whence Ve~ 
linus portus, 172. Cic. Phil. 10, 4.; 
Inh. Velienses, Id. Balb. 24. Lacus 
Velinvs, a lake near Velia, Cic. At. 4, 

16. VELIA, an elevated part in 

Rome near the Palatine mount, Cic. 
Att.7, 15.; Liv. 2, 7- 

VELiNUS lacus, Tacit. Ann. l, 79. vel 
lacus VeYmi, plur. a lake, one or more 
in the country of the Sabines, near 
Reate fed by the springs of the river 



Veunus, now Velino, (fontes Vettni, 
Virg. Mu. 7,517.) which runs into the 
Nar, ib. 

VELlTRiE, Veletri, a town of the 
Volsci, beyond the mons Albanus, about 
twenty miles to the east of Rome, Liv. 
2, 30. Inh. VeliTerni, ib. 6, 13. et 
8, 14. Ager Veliternus, ib. 2. 31. Veli- 
ternus populus, 8, 12. whence was the 
Gens Octavia, the family of Augustus, 
Suet. 1 & 94. 

VELLAUNODUNUM, Beaune, a town 
of the Senones, Cces. 7, 11. 

VELOCASSES, the people of Vexin in 
Normandy, (7<cs^2 r 4. 

VENAFRUM, Venafro, a town of 
Campania, 149. Agri Venafrani, Horat, 
Od. 3, 5, 55. producing the best olives, 
Oliva Fenqfrana, Id. Sat. 2, 4, 69. 
Venafranum % sc. oleum, the best oil, 
Juvenal. 5, 86. 

VENEDI, a people of Germany near 
the mouth of the Vistula, whence Ve~ 
nedicus sinus, the Gulf of Dantzic, 
Plin. 4, 13. 

Veneti a people of Brittany in France, 
powerful by sea, C<ss. 3, 8. their chief 
town in the lower ages was called Feneti, 
Vannes, hence Feneticum bellum, ib. 
1 8. — Also a people of Italy, near the 
head of the Hadriatic, 135. Liv. 1, 1. 
whose country was called Venetia, ib. 
39, <22.;Plin. 2, 72.; 17, 23.;eJ35, 4. 
Vemtes genies, Sil. J 2, 217. — The 
city of Venice did not exist in ancient 
times, seep. 251. 

VENETUS lacus, the Boden-sea, or 
lake of Constance, through which the 
Rhme passes, Mel. 3,2. 

VENNONES, a people of the Rhsetian 
Alps, to the north of the lake Larius. 

VENTA Belgarum, Winchester in 
Hampshire. — lcenorum, Norwich in 
Norfolk. — Silurum, Caerwent In 
Monmouthshire. 

VENUSIA, Venosa, a town of Apulia, 
on the confines of Lucania, the birth- 
place of Horace, 161. Inh. Venusini, 
Liv. 22, 54. et 27, 10. Colonus Venusi- 
nus, Horat. Sat. 2, 1, 35, Silvee Venu- 
sin<s, Od. 1, 28, 26. 

VERAGRI, an Alpine nation, between 
the Allobroges, and the Alps, Cues. 3, 
1.; Liv. 21, 38. 

VERBANUS lacus, Lago Majora, a 
lake in the west of the duchy of Milan, 
fifty miles in length, from north to 
south, and between five and six ia 
breadth ; whence the river Ticinus flows > 
Strab. 4. fin. 

3 I *3 



f 



854. GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



VERBINUM, Vervins, a small town in 
the east of Picardy. 

VERCELLiE, Vercelli, a town of 
the Libiciy in Gallia Transpadana, Cic. 
Fam. 11, 19. on the Sessrtes or Sessia, 
a river of Piedmont, where Marias de- 
feated the Cimbri, PHn. 3, 17. Fercel- 
leusis azer, ib. 23, f. 

VERESIS, Osa, a small river of Latium, 
running through the territory of Prae- 
neste into the Anio. 

VERGiE, Ragiano, a town of theBruttii, 
Liv. 30, 19. 

VERGELLUS, a torrent or brook run- 
ning into the Aufidus near Cannse, 
161. 

VERGILIA, supposed to be Murcia in 
Spain, Inh. Fergilienses. 

VERG1NIUM vel Fergivium mare, the 
Irish sea, or St. George's Channel, cal- 
led by the Welsh, Feridhmore. 

VEROLAMIUM, vel Ferulamium, Ve- 
rui.am, near St. Albans, 495. 

VERODUNUM, Verdun, a town of 
Gallia Belgica. 

VEROMANDUI, the people of Ver- 
Mandois, one of the divisions of Pi- 
cardy; their capital, Augusta Fero- 
mandorum, St. Quintin, Cces. B. G. 
2,4. 

VERONA, Verona, a town of the Ce- 
nomanni, on the Athesis, 135. Liv. 5, 
35. the birth-place of Catullus, Ovid. 
Amor. 3, 15, 7. Inh. Veronenses; ager 
Ve ronensiSy PI i n . 9 , 2 2 . Flos Feronen- 
siumjuvenum, Catull. 92, 2. 

VERRUGO, a town of the Volsci in La- 
tium, Liv. 4, 1, et 5, 28. 

VERULiE, Veroli, a town of the Hernici 
in Latium; Inh. Ferulani; popuhis Fe- 
rulanus, Liv. 9, 42, & 43. 

VESCIA, a town of ihe Ausones in Cam- 
pania, Liv. 8, fl.j 9, 25. Inh. Ves- 
cini, 10, 20. Fescinus ager, ib. 10, 21, 
& 31. saltus, ib. 21. Fescianum, a 
villa of Cicero's near it, Cic. Alt. 15. 2. 

VESENTIUM, a town of Tuscany, on 
the south-west side of the lacusFolscini- 
ensis. Inh. Vesentini. 

VESER1S, a place or river, it is un- 
certain which, near mount Vesuvius, 
Liv. 8, 8. et 10, 28. ; Cic. Fin. 1, 7.; 
0#3.31. 

VESIDIA, Versigua, a river of Tuscany, 
fUnning by Forum Clodii. 

VESONTIO vel Civitas Fesontiemium, 
Besancon, the capital of the Sequani, 
on ihe Dubis, or Doux in Tranche 
Compte, Cces. 1, 38, 



VESONNA vel Fesunna, Perigueux, the 

capital of Perigord in Guienne. 

VESPACI^E, a village of Umbria, on the 
confines of the Sabines, six miles from 
Nursia in the way to Spoletum ; 
whence Vespasian derived his sirname, 
Suet. Fesp. 1. 

VESTINI, a people of Picenum, 138. 
Ft stinus popuhis , Liv. 8, 29. et 10, 3. 
Their cheese is celebrated by Martial, 
13, 31. Aquce Festince, the rivers of 
the Festini, which join the Liris, Lu- 
can. 2, 425. Festina Juventus, Sil. 8, 
517. 

VESULUS, Viso, a mountain of the 
Alpes CottiiB, between Gaul and Italy, 
whence the Po runs south, and the Du- 
rance north, Mel. 2, 4.; Plin. 3, 16. 
fertile in pines, (pmifer,) Virg. /En. 
10, 709. 

VESUVIUS vel Fesevus, Fesviusve\ Fes- 
Vius, monte Vesuvio, a celebrated vol- 
cano, about eight miles to the east of 
Naples, 154. Fesuvinus apex, Stat. Silv. 
3, 5, 72. Fesvina juga, Sil. 12. 152. 
Fesvina incendia, ib. 5, 3, 205. Fesvia 
rura, Columell. 10, 135.; 

VETERA, sc. castray an encampment of 
the Romans, for a considerable time, in 
the country of the Gugerni, which 
hence became a town, Tacit. Ann. 
1,45. Hist. 4, 18, & 57. now San- 
ten, a small village near Cleves. 

VETTONA, Bettona, a town of Umbria, 
between Perusia and Tuder ; Inh. Fet- 
tonenses, Plin. 3, 14 s. 19. 

Vettones. See Fectones. 

VETULONIA, an ancient city of Etru- 
ria, to the south of the mouth of the 
river Caecina, where were hot-baths, 
Plin. 2, 103. anciently possessed by a 
colony of Lydians, Sil. 8,485. whence 
Silius says the Romans derived the 
badges of their magistates, the lictors 
with xhe fasces a?id secures, the Sella cu- 
rulis and togaprartexta ; also the use of 
brazen trumpets in war, ib. Fetulonitn~ 
ses populiy Plin. 3, 5. 

UFENS, Aufente, a river of Latium, 
which runs into the Tuscan sea near 
Terracina, 147; Virg. Mn. 7, 802.; 
Sil. 8, 384. Ufeniina trilus, Liv. 9, 
20. 

VIADRUS vel Fieder, the Oder, a river 

of Germany, Ptol. 
VIBO, Bivona, a town of Spain, near 

Toledo. 

VIBO, Monte Leone, a town of the 
Bruttii, Cic. Alt. 3, 3, whence Fil-o- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 855 



nensis Sinus, the gulf of St. Euphemia, 
174. Vibonensis ager, liiv. 21, 51. 

VICENTIA, Vicenza, a town in the 
territory of Venice ; Inh. Vincen- 
tini vel Vicentini. Cic. Fam. 11, 19. 

VICTORLE mons, a place in Spain, 
near the mouth of the Ebro, Liv. 24, 
41. 

VICTUMVLE, a town of Gallia Cispa- 
dana, near Placentia, Liv. 21, 45, & 
47- 

VIDUCASSES, a people of Normandy, 

Plin. 4, 18 s. 32. 
VIENNA, Vienne, the capital of the 

Allobroges, a city of Dauphine, Cuts. 

7, 9,; Cic. Fam. 10, 9.; Martial. 7, 

83. 

VIMINALIS collis, one of the seven hills 
in Rome ; said to have been named 
from thickets of osiers (yimineta) which 
grew on it, Varr. L. L. 4, 8, added to 
the city of Servius, Liv. 1, 44. 

VINDANA, Vannes, a sea-port town 
of Brittany. 

VINDELlCI, a warlike people whose 
country, Vindelicia, extended from 
the Lake of Constance to the Danube. 

VINDILI, a nation of the Germans, 
Plin. 4, 14 s. 28. 

VINDIL1S, an island between Gaul and 
Britain, supposed to be Belleisle. 

VINDOBGNA, Vienna, the capital 
of Austria on the Danube. 

VINDONISSA, Wendish, a town of 
the Helvetii, on the river Aar, in the 
territory of Berne, Tacit. Hist. 4, 61, 
& 70. 

VINTIUM, Vince, a town of Provence. 
VIRIBALLUM, the cape of Calvi or 

Garbo in Corsica. 
VIRODUNUM vel Urhs Virodunensis, 

Verdun, a city of Lorraine on the 

Maese. 

VISCELLvE v. -z, Weltz, a town of 
Noricum, between the Ens and the 
Mure in Austria ; whence riscellinus, 
Cic. Amic. 1 1. 

VISTftLA, Vistula, a river, the 
boundary of ancient Germany on the 
east 555. 

VISURGIS, Weser, a river of Ger- 
many, running between Westphalia and 
Lower Saxony ; near which Varus and 
his legions were cut off by the Ger- 
mans, Tacit. Annal. l, 70. et 2, 9.} 
Veil. 2, 105. 

VITELLIA, a town of the jEqui in 
Latium, Liv. 2, 39. tt 5, 29. 

Vptularia via, a way in the territory 
of Arpinium, Cic, Q.fr. 3,1,2. 



VITERBIUM, Viterbo, a town of 
Tuscany, not mentioned by any classic 
author ; situate where the Fanum Vol- 
tumnce stood, Liv. 4, 23, &6l.; et 
5, 17. 

ULlARUS, Oleron, an island on the 
coast of Poictou in France, 537. 

ULftBRiE, a small town of Latium, 
near the Paludes Pomptince, Cic. Fam. 
7, 18. ; Horat. Ep. 1, 11, 3o. called 
Vacuce, as being thinly inhabited, 
Juvenal. 10, 102. Uluhranus populus, 
Cic. Fam. 7> 12. Ulubrenses, Plin. 
3, 5. 

Ulysseum, v. Olysseum, a promontory of 
Sicily, west of Pachitius, 263. 

ULYSSIPPO, Lisbon, in Portugal. See 
Olysipo. 

Umbilicus Grcecice, the city in the 
heart or middle of Greece, i. e. Del- 
phi, Liv. 35, 18. vel Umbilicus orbis 
terrarum, lb. 38, 48. jEtolia was 
also said to be the middle country of 
Greece, (Umbilicus Grcecice,) Liv. 35, 
18. — Umbilicus Italics, i. e. Rutilice 
lacus in agro Reaiino, Plin. 3, 13 s. 17, 

Sicilice, il»e. Enna, Cic. Verr. 4, 

48. 

UMBRIA, a division of Italy, 336. ; 
Liv. 10, 1.; 22, 9.; 27, 43. Inh. 
Umbri, ib. 5, 35. ; 9, 37, & 39. ; 10, 
21, & 27 ; Cic. Div. 1, 41. sing. 
Umber parens , Catull. 37, 11. Martins 
Umber, Sil. 10, 313. ; Vwidus Umber, 
sc. canis, Virg. J£.n. 12, 753. Aper 
Umber, Horat. Sat. 2, 4, 40. Mariti 
Umbri rubicunda uxor, Ovid. Art. Am. 
3, 303. 

UMBRO, Ombrone, a navigable river 
of Tuscany, Plin. 3, 5. rising to the 
east of Sienna, and flowing into the 
lake Prilis, now Castiglione, and then 
into the Tuscan sea. 

UNELLI, the people of Coutantin, 
in Lower Normandy, Cms. 2, 34. their 
capital, Crociatonum, Valogenes. 

Vocetius mons, a part of mount Jura, 
Tacit. Hist. 1, 68. 

V0C0NII Forum, a town of Gaul, be- 
tween Marseilles and Antibes near the 
river Argenteus, Cic. Fam. lo, 17. 
vel Vocontium, ib. 34. 

V0C0NTII, a people of Gallia Nar- 
bonnensis, Mel. 2,5.; Liv. 21,31. whose 
capital was Forum Voconiiorum, Cic. 
Fam. 10, 34. the same with Vasio ; 
hence Vocontia rura, Sil. 3, 467. 

Vogesus, VADGE, or Voge, a moun- 
tain separating Lorrain from Burgundy 
and Alsace, in the country of the Lin- 



$56 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



gones, where theMaese rises, C<zs. 4, 10. 
'Vogosi curva ripa, Lucan. 1, 397. 
VOL/E, a city of the JEqui, Liv. 4, 

49. the same with Bo/^, ib, 6, 2.; 

Inh. Volani ; Volanus ager, ib. 4, 51. 
VOLATERILE, Volterra, a town 

of Etruria, on the river Caeclna, Plin. 

0, 5. near which were hot-baths 

(aqucE Volaternes vel Volaterrance) >• 

Inh. Volaterrani, Cic. Fam. 13, 

4. — — - About fifteen miles below Vo- 
lalerrte, at the mouth of the Caecina, 
was a place called Vada polaterrana, 
Ib. & Cic. Quinct. 6. 

VOLCiE, a people of Gaul, between 
the Garonne and the Rhone, and ex- 
tending to the Pyrenees, Liv. 21, 26. ; 
Sil. 3, 445. divided into the Arecomici, 
Cces. 7> 64. and Tectosages, 4, 23. 
One colony of the latter settled in 
Germany, ib. and another in Asia. 
See Tectosages. 

VOLCI vel Ulciy Lauria, an inland 
town of Lucania; Inh. Volceiani vel 
Volscentes, Liv. 27, 15.— —-Also a 
town of Etruria, nearCossa ; Inh. Pbl~ 
centini or Volcientes, Plin. 3, 5, 

VGLIBA, Falmouth in Cornwall. 

VOLSCI, a people of Latium, who long- 
carried on war against the Romans, 
Liv. 1, 51. ; 2, 9, &c. See p. 203. ; 
hence Poised de genie Camilla, Virg. 
JEa. 7, 803. 

VOLSCINII vel Vulscinii v. -turn, Bol- 
sina, a town of Etruria, on the north 
end of the lacus Volsciniensis, Liv. 27, 
23.; Juvenal. 3, 191. ; Inh. Volsi- 
nienses vel Volscinii, Liv. 5, 31, 1. who 
used to fix nails in the temple of 
Nortia, a Tuscan goddess, to mark 
the number of years, ib. 7,3. Vulsi- 
niensis Sejanus, a native of that place, 
Tacit. Ann. 6, 8. 

VOLTUMNiE Fanum, a place near the 
spot where Viterbo now stands, in 
which the Assembly of the states of 
Etruria used to meet, Liv. 4, 23. ; 5, 
17. ; 6, 2, &c. 

VOLUBILIS, v. -e, supposed to be 
Fez, the capital of Morocco, Plin. 

5, 1. 

VOMANUS, Vomano, a river of Pi- 
cenum, Plin. 3, 13. ; Sil. 8, 438. 

UnANoroLis, a city on the top of mount 
Athos, 327. 

URBA, Orbe, a town of the Helvetii, 
on the river of the same name, in the 
Pais de Vaudi whence Pagus Urbi- 
genus vel Verbigtnus, one of the four 
cantons of the Helvetii. 



URBINUM, Urbino, a town of Um- 
brio ; Inh. Urbvnates, Plin. 3, 14. 

URCINIUM, Ajazzo, a port-town or* 
the south-west of Corsica. 

URGO, Gorgona, an island in the 
Bay of Pisa, about twenty-five miles- 
west of Leghorn, famous for its an- 
chovies, Plin. 3. 6. 

URIA, Oria, a town of Calabria, 169. 

Also a town of Apulia, on the 

Sinus URIUS, the bay of Manfre- 
donia, 159. 

URSENTUM vel Ursa;, Orso, a town 
of the Bruttii ; Inh. Ursentini, Plin. 3, 
11. 

USCANA, a town of Macedonia ; Inh. 

Uscanenses, Liv. 43, 12. 
USCETA, a town of Africa Propria, 

south-west of Thapsus, Hirt. Afr. B. 

89- 

USCUDAMA, Statimaka, a city of 
the Bessi in Thrace, Eulrop. 6, 8. 

USELLIS vel Osellis, Ussel, a town of 
Sardinia. 

USIPII vel Usipetes, a people of Ger- 
many, Ccbs. 4, l. ; Tacit. Ann. 1,51.; 
13, 55. Hist. 4, 37. G. 32. Agr. 28, 
&32. 

Ustica, a hill in the country of the 
Sabines, near the villa of Horace, 

139. 

UTENS vel litis, Ulentis, Montone, 
a river of Gallia Transpadana, running 
into the Hadriatic by Ravenna, Liv, 
5, 35. 

UTICA, Satcor, a city of Africa 
Propria, at the mouth of the river Ba- 
grada, Liv. 25, 31. the next, in point 
of magnitude, to Carthage, and, after 
its destruction, the capital of the coun- 
try ; built before Carthage, Sil. 3, 
242. ; Inh. Uticenses, Cas. B. 
Civ. 2, 36. ; Hirt. B. Ajr. 86. whence 
Cato was called Uticensis, because he 
slew himself in that place, Plin. 5,4.; 
et 7, 14, & 30. ; Mel. l, 7. Ager Uti- 
censis, Plin. 27, 5. 

Vulcanise insula, the Lipari islands, 
275. 

VULTUR, a mountain on the confines 
of Apulia and Lucania, 162.. 

VULTURNUS, Volturno, the chief 

river of Campania, 148. VUL- 

TURNUM, Castello del Volturno, a 
fort and town at the mouth of the 
river, Liv. 25, 20. a colony, 34, 45. 

Also the ancient name of the 

place, Liv, 4, 37. Vulturnus, 

the south-east wind, Gell. 2, 22. which 
very much incommoded the Romans at 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



85? 



the battle of Cuimoe, Liv. 22, 43, & 
46. 

Uxama, Borgo de Osme, a town of Hi- 
ther Spain, on the Iberus, Sit. 3, 384. 

UXANTIS, Ushakt, a small island on 
the coast of Bi ittanv. 

UXELLODUN UTvi , F uech dTssolu, a 
town of the Cadurci, not far from the 
river Dordogne, secured on all sides 
with steep rocks, C<ss. 8, 32. 

UXENTUM, Ugento, a town of the 
Salentini in Calabria. 



X 

'XANTHUS vel Scamander, a river of 
Troas, Virg.Mn. 1, 473.; Horat. Od. 
4, 6, 26. Homer says it was called 
Xanthus by the gods, and Scamander, 
by men, It. 23, 7-i. — —Also a town 
of Lycia, now Eskenjde, on a river 
of the same name, Ovid. Met. 9, 646. ; 
Inh. Xanthii. 

XERA, Xerex, a town of Andalusia, 
near which the Moors defeated Ro- 
drigo or Roderic, the last king of the 
Goths, which rendered them masters 
of Spain, 485. 

XEROLIBYA, the part of Africa be- 
tween Egypt and Cyrenaica, Serv. ad 
Virg. JEn.4, 42. & 196. 

XERXEN A, a district of Armenia, named 
from Xerxes, Strab. 11, 528. 

X1LINE, a town of Colchis. 

XIPHONIA, k Cruce, a promontory 
of Sicily, between Catanaand Syracuse, 

Strab. 6, 267. Also a town to the 

north of Syracuse, now Augusta. 

XOIS, an island formed by the mouths of 
the Nile, Strab. 17, 802. 

XUTHIA, the ancient name of the Leon- 
tine plains in Sicily, Diodor. 5, 8. 

Xylenofolis, i. e. the city of Wood, 
a town built by Alexander near the 
mouth of the Indus, Plin. 6, 23. sup- 
posed to be now the port of Laheri. 

XYLINE come, a town of Famphylia, 
Liv. 38, 15. 

XYLOPOLIS, a town of Macedonia; 
Inh. Xylopolitte, Plin. 4, 10. 

XYNIJE, a town of Thessaly, Liv. 32, 
13, et 33, 3. 



Z 

ZABATUS, a river of Mesopotamia, 

falling into the Tigris. 
ZABUS, Zabatus vel Zelrris, Zab, or 



Zarb, a river of Assyria, which falls 
into the Tigris ; called Lycus, or the 
Wolf, by the Greeks. 

ZACYNTHUS, Zant, an island of 
Greece opposite to the bottom of ihe 
Corinthian gulf, with & town of the 
same name, 332.; Liv. 26, 24.; Plin. 
4, 12. Nemorosa Zacynthus, woody. 
Virg. JEn. 3, 17 0. alia, Ovid. Ep. 1, 
87, ; Inh. Zacynihii v. ini, Nep. Dion. 
9. ; Flaut. Merc. 5, 2, 104. 

ZADRIS, a town of Colchis, to the east 
of Surium. 

ZAGRUS, a mountain separating Media 
from Assyria on the east ; ZAGPJ 
Pyl<e, a narrow passage through the 
mountains between these two countries. 

ZAMA, a town of Numidia near which 
Hannibal was vanquished by 3cipio ; 
five days journey from Carthage, Liv. 
30, 29. about iiOO miles, Nep. 32, 6. ; 
Sallust. Jug. 57. the royal residence. 
Hirt. Apr. B. 91. Zanmise oppidum^ 
Plin. 5, 4. ; Inh. Zamenses. — —Also 
the name of a town in Cappadocia, and 
in Mesopotamia. 

Z AN CLE, an ancient name of Messina, 
in Sicily, 257.; Plin. 3, 8., Sil. 
48. ; Ovid. Met. 296. Zanclcea arena, 
Ovid. Met. 12, 729. Chary bdis, Id, 
Fast. 4, 499. ZancUasaxa, Met. 14, 
47. 

ZARIASPES vel -is, Dehash, a river 
of Bactriana, on which Bactra the ca- 
pital of that country stood ; hence 
called Zariaspav. -e, Plin. 6, 15, & 
16. Curtius calls this river Bactr«8 } 
7, 4. 

ZAUECES, a people of Libya, HerodcL 
,4, 193. 

ZELA vel Ziela, Zeleh, a town of 
Pontus, near which Caesar defeated 
Phamaces, the son of Mithridates, 
Hirt. B. Alex. 72. — - 78. and finished 
that war with such dispatch, that he 
marked it in his triumph by an inscripe 
tion of these three words, Veni, vim, 
vici, Suet. Cces. 37. The. country 
round Zcla was called Zelitis^ Strab. 10, 
359. 

ZELASIUM, a promontory of Thessaly, 

near Demetrias, Liv. 31, 46. 
■ .ZELEIA vel Zelca, a town of Troas, at 

the foot of the mount Ida, Homer. II. 

2, 824. ; Inh. Zalitie, sing. Zelites. 
ZENOBIA, Zelebi, a town of Syria, 

on the Euphrates. 
ZFNOBII insulce, seven small islands 

without the mouth of the Arabian Gu!f : 

in the Mare Erythrczttm, 



858 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



ZENODOTIA v. -ium, a town of' Me- 
sopotamia, near Nicephorium, Plu- 
tarch, in Crassi vita. 

ZEPHYR1UM, prom, a promontory of 
the Bruttii., near Locri ; hence called 

Epizephyrii Locri, 176. Also a 

cape in Crete, now called San Zuane; 
in Pontus, now Zafra ; and in other 

places. A town in Cilicia, Liv. 33, 

20. 

ZERYNTHUS, a town in Thrace, and 
a cave sacred to Hecate, near the mouth 
of the Hebrus ; where was a temple of 
Apollo, Liv. 38, 41. whence Zerynthia 
littora, which some suppose to have 
been the island of Samothracia, Ovid. 
Trist. 1, 9, 19. 

ZETTA vel Zella, Zerbi, a town of 
Africa ' Propria, near Thapsus, Hirt. 
Afr. C. 68. ; Strab. 17, 831. 

ZEUGIS vel Regio Zeugitana, one of 
the two divisions of Africa Propria, 
that in which Carthage stood, Plin. 5, 
4. the other division being called By- 
zacium, Isidor. 14, 5. 

ZEUGMA, -atis, n. Zegme, a town 
of Syria on the Euphrates, where was 
a celebrated passage over that river, 
593.; Plin. 5, 24 s. 21. where Alex- 
ander built a bridge, Id. 34, 15.; 
Strab. 16, 746. ; Dio. 40. 17. Curt. 3, 
7.; Tacit. Ann. 12, 12. whence Zeugma 
is called Pellcsum by Lucan. 8, 23. the 
boundary of the Roman empire towards 
the east; therefore called Romance pads 
iter, Stat. Silv. 3, 2, 137- Pliny men- 
tions an iron chain, which was said to 
be extant in his time, across the river, 
ib. — — Also a town of Dacia, Ptolem. 
3, 8. 

Zilia, Zelis vel Zilis, Arzilla, a port 
town of Mauritania, at the mouth of 



a river of the same name, Plin. 5, 1.; 
Ptol. 4, l. 

Z IMARA, a town of Armenia Minor, 
about twelve miles from the source of 
the Euphrates, Plin. '.>, 24. 

ZING IS, Cape Orfui, a promontory 
of Ethiopia, to the south of Guardafui, 
near the entrance to the Red Sea. 

ZIOBERIS, a river of Parthia, which 
is said to sink several times below 
ground, and to rise again, Curt. 6, 4. 
called Stibcetcs by Diodorus Siculus, 
17, 75. 

ZIRAS, -ce, a river of lower Mcesia or 
Thrace, which flows into the Euxine 
sea, Plin. 4, 11 s. 18. 

ZITHA, a town of Mesopotamia on the 
Euphrates. 

ZIZA, a town of Ar?A>ia Petrsea. 

ZONA, v. -e, a town and promontory of 
the Cicones in Thrace, Herodot. 7, 6Q, 
whither the woods are said to have fal- 
lowed the musical Orpheus, Mel. 2, 2. 

ZOROANDA, a part of mount Taurus, 
between Armenia and Mesopotamia, at 
the south side of which the Tigris, after 
having run below ground, rises again, 
Plin. 6, 27 s. 31. 

ZOSTER, a promontory and sea-port 
town of Attica, Cic. Att. 5,12. 

ZOTALE, a place near Antiochia in 
Margiana, where the river Margus was 
divided into small streams to water the 
fields, Plin. 6, 16 s. 18. 

ZUCHIS, a lake to the east of the Syrtis 
Minor, with a town of the same name, 
noted for its purple dye and salted fish, 
Strait. 17, 835. 

ZYGII, a savage people to the north of 
Colchis, Strab. ll, 496. 

Zygopolis, a town of Colchis, Strab. 
12, 548. 



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